University of Management and Administration in Zamość, Poland. Regional Barometer. Analyses & Prognoses

Transcription

1 Barometr Regionalny

2 University of Management and Administration in Zamość, Poland Regional Barometer Analyses & Prognoses Vol. 13 No. 3

3 Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Administracji w Zamościu Barometr Regionalny Analizy i Prognozy Tom 13 Nr 3 Zamość 2015

4 Rada Naukowa [Editorial Advisory Board] prof. Elżbieta Adamowicz (Poland) Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie prof. Neil Adams (England) London South Bank University prof. Zora Arsovski (Serbia) University of Kragujevac prof. Zinoviy Blikharskyy (Ukraine) Lviv Polytechnic National University prof. Ulrich Brecht (Germany) Hochschule Heilbronn prof. Peter Dorčák (Slovakia) University of Prešov prof. Maria Drozdowicz-Bieć (Poland) Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie prof. Józef Dziechciarz (Poland) Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wrocławiu prof. Józef Garczarczyk (Poland) Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu prof. Grzegorz Gorzelak (Poland) Uniwersytet Warszawski prof. Heiko Hansjosten (Germany) Hochschule Heilbronn prof. Robert Ištok (Slovakia) University of Prešov prof. Nuno Carlos Leitão (Portugal) Polytechnic Institute of Santarém; University of Évora prof. Semen Matkowski (Ukraine) Ivan Franko National University of L viv prof. Tomasz Mickiewicz (England) Aston University prof. Nadiya Mikula (Ukraine) National Academy of Science of Ukraine prof. Anatolij Mokij (Ukraine) Zaporizhzhya Institute of Economics and IT prof. Edward Nowak (Poland) Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wrocławiu prof. Mieczysław Owoc (Poland) Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wrocławiu prof. Tadeusz Pomianek (Poland) Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania w Rzeszowie prof. Jan Sulmicki (Poland) Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula prof. Jacek Szlachta (Poland) Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie prof. Ali Turkyilmaz (Turkey) Fatih University prof. Tuomo Uotila (Finland) Lappeenranta University of Technology prof. Stanisław Wydymus (Poland) Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Krakowie Kolegium Redakcyjne [Editorial Board] Redaktor Naczelny [Editor-in-chief]: dr hab. Mieczysław Kowerski (WSIiZ w Rzeszowie) Redaktorzy tematyczni [Co-editors]: dr inż. Jan Andreasik (WSIiZ w Rzeszowie), dr inż. Andrzej Burda (WSZiA w Zamościu), dr hab. Waldemar Gorzym-Wilkowski (Uniwersytet Marii-Curie Skło dowskiej w Lublinie), prof. dr hab. Andrzej Miszczuk (Uniwersytet Warszawski), prof. dr hab. Ryszard Orłowski (WSZiA w Zamościu), dr Robert Pater (WSIiZ w Rzeszowie), dr Henryk Ponikowski (Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II), dr Janusz Skwarek (WSZiA w Zamościu), dr hab. Elżbieta Wojnicka-Sycz (Uniwersytet Gdański) Redaktor statystyczny [Statistics editor]: dr Marek Cierpiał-Wolan (Urząd Statystyczny w Rzeszowie) Redaktor językowy [Language editor]: Piotr Linek (j. polski), Catherine Lockhead-Strzępka (j. angielski) Sekretarz Redakcji [Secretary of the Editorial Board]: Jarosław Bielak Copyright by Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Administracji w Zamościu, Zamość 2015 Streszczenia opublikowanych prac są dostępne on-line w międzynarodowej bazie danych The Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities ( Niniejsze wydanie papierowe jest główną wersją kwartalnika. Zgodnie z Komunikatem Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 17 grudnia 2013 roku, za umieszczoną w kwartalniku Barometr Regionalny. Analizy i Prognozy publikację naukową, jest przyznawanych 8 punktów. ISSN Wydawca: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Administracji w Zamościu, ul. Akademicka 4, Zamość, Polska tel. (84) , fax (84) , Wydawnictwo współfinansowane przez Komisję Europejską Skład i łamanie oraz opracowanie graficzne: Jarosław Bielak Druk i oprawa: Drukarnia Attyla SJ., ul. Partyzantów 61, Zamość Nakład 200 egz.

5 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Spis treści / Table of Contents Joanna Rakowska Exploratory Study on Absorption and Investment of European Union Structural Funds by NUTS 2 Level Self-Governments in Poland Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk European Integration of Ukraine: the Perspective of Ukrainians and Poles Piotr Zawrotniak The Cross-Border Transfer of Cultural Assets in the European Union Izabela Dąbrowska Migration Flows form New Member States and the Prospect of Britain s Withdrawal from European Union Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel European Union Funds in the Financial Framework in the Process of Building Competitive Capacity among the Communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship Andrzej Miszczuk Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian Cross-Border Area in the New European Union Programming Period ( ) in the Context of Regional Planning Documents Stanislaw W. Ceran Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland in Assessment of the Analytic Hierarchy Process Method Tomasz Szul Comparison of Methods in the Definition of Home Energy Characteristics in the Context of the European Union Directives Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska The European Landscape Convention as a Tool for the Protection, Management and Planning of Landscapes Marcin Połom European Union Funds as a Growth Stimulant of Electromobility on the Example of Electric Public Transport in Poland Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański The Effect of Nature Conservation Legal Instruments on Spatial Management in a Commune Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz A Proposition for a Methodology to Assess the Influence of European Union Funds on Living Conditions among Citizens of a Commune Jarosław Bielak Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland (specifically in Lubelskie Voivodship) in the Years

6 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki The Influence of Occupational Activity on Leisure Time of the Disabled People Who Live in the Rural Areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek Analysis of Differences in the Area of Forest Land Disclosed in the Local Data Bank and the Register of Land and Buildings Barbara Gradziuk, Piotr Gradziuk Foreign Trade of Biomass for Energy Purposes in Poland in the Years Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko, Bogdan Kościk Assessment of the Ecological and Energy Awareness of the Citizens in Rural Communes Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa The Balanced Scorecard for Higher Education the Case of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Jan Andreasik Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy Streszczenia artykułów Table of Contents / Spis treści

7 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Exploratory Study on Absorption and Investment of European Union Structural Funds by NUTS 2 Level Self-Governments in Poland Joanna Rakowska Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland Abstract The article provides information on geographical distribution of European Union structural funds among Polish regions (voivodships) analyzing it from various points of view: various kinds of funds, their purposes, amount per inhabitant, as well as the value, structure and types of investments co-financed from EU structural funds obtained by regional authorities i.e., Voivodship Self-governments under Operational Programmes , as of 31 December Keywords: operational programmes in Poland, NUTS 2 self-governments Introduction Structural disparities between European Union regions were the reason for establishing regional and cohesion policies aimed at evening the levels of socio-economic development at NUTS 2 level. This objective of economic and social cohesion introduced in 1986 with the adoption of the Single European Act, was significantly strengthened by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and recently by Lisbon Treaty, declaring that the European Union shall promote economic, social and territorial cohesion, and solidarity among Member States 1 EU structural funds are the main measures of implementing these policies. They are allocated in eligible regions 2 of Member States (Rakowska 2014) in subsequent programming periods under agreed operational programmes (OP). Through co-financing activities aimed at harmonious, balanced and sustainable development of economic activities, the development of employment and human resources, the protection and improvement of the environment, and the elimination of inequalities, and the promotion of equality between men and women 3 structural funds are to reduce economic, social and territorial imbalances between EU regions. EU structural funds are of vital importance for Poland, which in the programming period obtained nearly EUR 67,9 billion 4 from this source (Przedsiębiorczość w Polsce 2013). It has been highlighted in reports that EU structural funds are a considerable assistance for the Polish 1. See: Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community, signed at Lisbon, 13 December Official Journal of the European Union, C 306/01, 17 December By the general rule governing Objective 1 of EU cohesion policy they are allocated in NUTS 2 regions where GDP per capita is lower than 75% of EU average GDP per capita. Polish NUTS 2 met this criterion both in and See: Council Regulation (EC) No 1260/99 of 21 June 1999 laying down general provisions on the Structural Funds; Council Regulation (EC) No 1083/2006 of 11 July 2006 laying down general provisions on the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund and the Cohesion Fund and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1260/1999. OJ L 210, , p ; Regions and Cities for Growth and Jobs: An overview of Regulations on Cohesion and Regional Policy. Inforegio Factsheet 2006; Cohesion Policy Investing in Growth and Jobs. Luxembourg [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

8 8 Joanna Rakowska economy in the times of regional and global crises, and enterprises and territorial self-governments make up the group of beneficiaries who carry out projects of the biggest total and EU funding values. Since Poland s accession in 2004 till the end of 2013 all its regions had GDP per capita below 75% of average EU GDP per capita, which made them eligible for implementation of OP co-financed by EU structural funds. OPs implemented in Poland can be divided into three types. The first includes OPs which covered the whole country. The second comprises one multiregional OP and the third 16 Regional OPs (ROPs). The multiregional programme Development of Eastern Poland covers five voivodships (NUTS 2 regions) which are warminsko-mazurskie, podlaskie, lubelskie, świętokrzyskie and podkarpackie. They are situated in the north-eastern and eastern parts of Poland. Based on GDP 5 per capita value, all these voivodships were classified as the poorest regions of EU-25, 6 constituting the most economically lagging EU macro region (Rakowska 2014) until the next EU enlargement in The economic condition of Eastern Poland resulted in developing an OP especially for this macro region. Regional Operational Programmes were another new solution implemented in Each of these programmes was adjusted to the particular development needs and bottlenecks of one individual voivodship and addressed only to potential beneficiaries from one particular NUTS 2. Consequently, EU structural funds were allocated in Poland under four nationwide OPs 7 i.e., Infrastructure and Environment Operational Programme (IEaOP), Human Capital Operational Programme (HCOP), Innovative Economy Operational Programme (IEOP), Technical Assistance Operational Programme (TAOP), under one multiregional Development of Eastern Poland OP (DEPOP), 8 Programmes of European Territorial Cooperation and 16 Regional Operational Programmes, 9 (i.e., Dolnośląskie ROP, Kujawsko-Pomorskie ROP, Lubelskie ROP, Lubuskie ROP, Łódzkie ROP, Małopolskie ROP, Mazowieckie ROP, Opolskie ROP, Podkarpackie ROP, Podlaskie ROP, Pomorskie ROP, Śląskie ROP, Świętokrzyskie ROP, Warmińsko-mazurskie ROP, Wielkopolskie ROP and Zachodniopomorskie ROP). Different EU funding opportunities offered by each of the above mentioned OPs were addressed to a wide range of potential beneficiaries. Spatial and thematic differentiation of absorption of EU funds by different groups of beneficiaries, including local and regional self-governments, is one of the main subjects of economic research on supporting local and regional development by EU structural funds (Drejerska and Kołyska 2009; Milewska 2007; Pomianek 2006; Powęska 2008; Rakowska 2010, 2011, 2013b; Wojewódzka-Wiewiórska 2012, 2013; Zając, Wojewódzka, and Stawicki 2009). Regions in Poland play an active administrative and economic role in regional development policy. 10 They are responsible for making an effective use of both endogenous development potential and exogenous factors supporting economic development (Heller and Bogdański 2013). As EU structural funds have been one of the most important exogenous sources of financing local and regional development, there is a question on regional self-governments participation in their allocation. Thus the aim of this elaboration is to define the participation regional 11 self-governments in the absorption of EU structural funds allocated in Poland under Operational Programmes , considering both the value and number of projects carried out by them as well as the kinds of investments carried out by regional self-governments and co-financed from EU structural funds. 5. The role of GDP as an indicator of development has been recently discussed in Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, GDP and beyond. Measuring progress in a changing world, COM/2009/0433 final, Commission of the European Communities 6. See: Eurostat data at 7. Programming documents are available from the website of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Development at 8. Programming documents are available from the website of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Development at 9. Programming documents for All ROPs are available from the website of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Development at See: Ustawa z dnia 5 czerwca 1998 r. o samorządzie województwa. DzU z 1998 r. nr 91 poz In this paper the term region and regional is used as a synonym of voivodship and NUTS 2, in accordance with the EU classification of territorial units for statistical purposes (Rakowska 2013a, 49).

9 Exploratory Study on Absorption and Investment of EU Structural Funds 9 1 Methodology The analysis is based on the quantitative secondary data from the Central Statistical Office of Poland and qualitative and quantitative secondary data from the National Information System SIMIK, run by the Ministry of Infrastructure and Development, which is the Polish implementing agency for operational programmes As of 31 December 2014, the SIMIK system registered contracts for co-financing projects from EU structural funds allocated in Poland under all OPs The SIMIK entry for each contract (project) includes both qualitative and quantitative data. The first type of data includes the number and title of the contract (project), name of the OP and of the priority axis, the address and profile of the beneficiary, including (e.g., the type of legal entity). The latter data includes the total value and EU funding for each project. The database enabled extraction of all projects carried out by beneficiaries defined as voivodship selfgovernments and marshal offices 12, upon which basis the following could be determined: the share that regional authorities have had in the total number and value of contracts, value of EU funding total and by individual OP the total EU funding obtained by each regional self-government and under each individual OP the main types of investments co-financed from structural funds carried out by regional self-governments 2 Results Based on KSI SIMIK data (as of 31 December 2014) 13 beneficiaries in Poland signed contracts for projects co-financed by EU structural funds under Operational Programmes Total value of these projects equalled PLN 507,75 billion, of which 56,2% (i.e., PLN 285,5 billion) came from EU structural funds. Regional self-governments were granted EU funds under nationwide, multiregional and regional operational programmes, except for TAOP and European Territorial Cooperation. Consequently, they signed contracts of total value 20,5 billion PLN, of which 74,3% (PLN 15,1 billion) from EU structural funds. Contracts signed by regional selfgovernments made up 1,5% of all contracts, while the total value of self-governments contracts amount to 4% of the total value of all projects and for 5,3% of total EU co-financing obtained by all beneficiaries in Poland in (tab. 1). Regional self-governments absorbed very different amounts of EU funding from nationwide OPs (tab. 2). Most contracts were signed by these beneficiaries under HCOP (432) and much fewer under IaEOP (9) and IEOP (4). And under HCOP regional authorities invested mostly in training, courses and postgraduate studies increasing participants chances in the labour market and improving competences of regional self-government clerks. Many projects aimed at implementation of IT and management systems, as well as at establishing and supporting Regional Territorial Observatories, Observatories of Labour Market, Observatories of Social Policy and Regional Policy, etc. Structural funds obtained under IaEOP co-financed purchase of railway trains, modernisation of hospitals and a musical theatre as well as landfill reclamation, while under IEOP projects efforts were funded preventing digital exclusion and actions supporting development of tourism. Voivodship self-governments share in total value of EU funding obtained by all kinds of beneficiaries is rather insignificant in the case of IaEOP (0,4%) and IEOP (0,3%), however they make a considerable amount of transfers, correspondingly PLN thousand and PLN thousand. The share of 5% in total EU funding under HCOP equals PLN thousand, and nearly 24% participation in EU funding under DEPOP equals PLN thousand. 12. Marshal s Office, although listed in KSI SIMIK separately, is a budget unit of regional self-government and as such is treated herein as self-government. 13. According to the n + 2 or n + 3 rule, the co-financing from the EU Structural Funds under Operational Programmes can be paid to beneficiaries up to two or in certain circumstances even up to three years after the end of the programming period, i.e. till the end of 2015 or Thus the analysed data for the OPs is as of December 31, 2014.

10 10 Joanna Rakowska Tab. 1. The number, total value and EU funding of projects carried out by regional self-governments under Operational Programmes Self-government of Number of projects Total value (PLN thousand) EU co-financing (PLN thousand) EU co-financing in total value (%) Dolnośląskie ,0 Kujawsko-pomorskie ,9 Lubelskie ,7 Lubuskie ,1 Łódzkie ,5 Małopolskie ,6 Mazowieckie ,3 Opolskie ,8 Podkarpackie ,1 podlaskie ,5 Pomorskie ,7 Śląskie ,4 Świętokrzyskie ,9 Warmińsko-mazurskie ,3 Wielkopolskie ,5 Zachodniopomorskie ,3 Total ,3 Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR data Tab. 2. Regional authorities share in the number of contracts, in the total value of projects and in EU funding under nationwide OPs and Development of Eastern Poland OP Operational Programme Number of all contracts Total value (PLN thousand) = 100% a EU funding (PLN thousand) Voivodship Self-governments share (%) in: b Number of all contracts Total value of projects Total EU funding Infrastructure and Environment ,3 0,4 0,4 Innovative Economy ,0 0,2 0,3 Human Capital ,9 4,9 5,0 Development of Eastern Poland (multiregional) ,3 23,8 25,7 Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR data a based on the number of contracts signed by all beneficiaries b based on the number of contracts signed by all beneficiaries defined in SIMIK as voivodship self-governments and Marshal Offices The Development of Eastern Poland OP covered five voivodships and was a source of cofinancing only for beneficiaries from these NUTS 2. They carried out 29 projects of total value PLN thousand, of which 71% amounting to PLN thousand came from EU structural funds. Within these investments regional self-governments carried out 7 projects aiming at modernisation and construction of roads, 5 projects titled broadband network of Eastern Poland, 6 projects called bike routes in Eastern Poland, 3 projects of liquidation of development barriers a bridge on the Vistula river connected with a voivodship road, one regional bridge, construction of four scientific and technological as well as conference and congress centres. Regional Operation Programmes are another source of EU co-financing. Comparison of the regional self-governments participation in the total number of contracts and in EU funding obtained under regional operational programs indicates no relationship between these values (tab. 3).

11 Exploratory Study on Absorption and Investment of EU Structural Funds 11 Tab. 3. Regional self-governments share in the total number of contracts and in EU funding obtained from Regional Operational Programs Regional Operational Programme of Number of contracts Total a (= 100%) EU funding (PLN thousand) Voivodship self-governments share (%) in: b Number of contracts EU funding Dolnośląskie Kujawsko-Pomorskie Lubelskie Lubuskie Łódzkie Małopolskie Mazowieckie Opolskie Podkarpackie Podlaskie Pomorskie Śląskie Świętokrzyskie Warmińsko-mazurskie Wielkopolskie Zachodniopomorskie Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR data a based on the number of contracts signed by all beneficiaries b based on the number of contracts signed by all beneficiaries defined in SIMIK as voivodship self-government and Marshal Office The value of EU co-financing absorbed by regional self-governments per inhabitant and its structure according to the operational programs varies considerably in different NUTS 2 (fig. 1, 2 and 3). The smallest share of the total EU funding came from IEOP, which was used by only 5 self-governments, who obtained from this source from 1,2% to 4,9% of their total EU funding. Also OPIaE was a source of EU funding for only six regions, however in quite varying degrees. Half of them acquired from this source only from 0,1% to 2,4%, while the remaining three from 17% to 24% of their total co-funding from Structural Funds (tab. 4). It is observed in most analysed voivodships that regardless of the total value of absorbed EU funding regional operational programs are its main source: 4 regions obtained from this source between 80% and 90% of their total UE structural funding, other 5 regions from 72% to 75%, and 4 from 51% to 67%. Only in three voivodships the self-governments obtained from this source less than 50% (i.e., 43%, 36% and 19%). The share of EU funds obtained by regional self-governments from other POs is very diverse in all voivodships and shows no identifiable trends. HCOP was a source of between 3,3% and 5,7% total EU structural co-financing, while ROPs from 18,6% to 87,5%. DEPOP was the source of more than 50% of the EU co-financing absorbed by świętokrzyskie and lubelskie and from 22% to 44% by the other three regions. At the same time all regions supported by DEPOP have acquired the highest value of EU funding per inhabitant (fig. 2) and which are above the median among units for which obtained EU funding accounted for more than 100% of their total budget revenues in 2013 (fig. 3). Four out of five regions of Eastern Poland (fig. 5) took the biggest share in total EU funding absorbed by self-governments under OPs , which can be connected with the fact that they could benefit from the multiregional programmes implemented only for these regions and giving them an extra source of funding. Analysis of EU co-financed investments carried out by regional authorities indicates that most projects were related to transport infrastructure (51% of total EU funding obtained by self-

12 12 Joanna Rakowska Tab. 4. Structure of EU funding obtained by regional authorities from each Operational Programme Share of funding from Operational Programme (in %) Self-government of HC IaE IE ROP DEP Dolnośląskie 33,2 2,5 64,3 n/a Kujawsko-pomorskie 8,8 2,4 2,8 86,0 n/a Lubelskie 8,1 1,2 1,2 35,7 53,8 Lubuskie 14,1 85,9 n/a Łódzkie 10,8 1,6 87,5 n/a Małopolskie 57,1 42,9 n/a Mazowieckie 26,4 0,1 73,5 n/a Opolskie 28,4 71,6 n/a Podkarpackie 4,7 51,4 43,8 Podlaskie 7,1 67,0 25,9 Pomorskie 17,7 17,0 4,9 60,3 n/a Śląskie 25,2 74,8 n/a Świętokrzyskie 5,8 20,2 18,6 55,4 Warmińsko-mazurskie 5,9 72,2 21,9 Wielkopolskie 15,2 84,8 n/a Zachodniopomorskie 3,3 24,0 72,6 n/a Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR data pomorskie warmińsko-mazurskie Kartodiagram zachodniopomorskie lubuskie wielkopolskie kujawsko-pomorskie mazowieckie podlaskie poreg porpw poig poiś pokl łódzkie dolnośląskie opolskie śląskie lubelskie świętokrzyskie podkarpackie małopolskie Map legend (4) (2) (0) (5) (5) Fig. 1. The average value of EU funding obtained by regional self-governments per inhabitant (in PLN) and the structure of EU funding by OPs Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR and Central Statistical Office data governments), then projects aimed at the development of information technology (18%), and projects connected directly with implementation of OPs (15%). Other categories of projects, connected with e.g., labour market (5%), tourism and cultural services (4%), supporting enterprises and entrepreneurship (3%), social infrastructure and environmental protection (2.5 each), had a smaller share in obtained EU funding.

13 relations of EU funding to budget revenues (left axis) EU funding per capita (right axis) 200% % % 1000 PLN 50% 500 0% 0 dolnośląskie kujawsko-pomorskie lubelskie lubuskie łódzkie małopolskie mazowieckie opolskie podkarpackie podlaskie pomorskie śląskie świętokrzyskie warmińsko-mazurskie wielkopolskie zachodniopomorskie Fig. 2. EU funding obtained by regional authorities from OPs , per inhabitant and in relation to regional total budget revenues in 2013 Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR and Central Statistical Office data 200% 100% 0% małopolskie dolnośląskie mazowieckie śląskie lubuskie zachodnio-pomorskie wielkopolskie łódzkie pomorskie świętokrzyskie kujawsko-pomorskie podkarpackie opolskie warmińsko-mazurskie lubelskie podlaskie Fig. 3. Ranking of voivodships by EU funding obtained by regional authorities from OPs , as a share of regional total budget revenues in 2013 Source: author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR and Central Statistical Office data 2000 PLN małopolskie śląskie mazowieckie dolnośląskie łódzkie pomorskie wielkopolskie zachodnio-pomorskie lubuskie kujawsko-pomorskie opolskie świętokrzyskie podlaskie warmińsko-mazurskie lubelskie podkarpackie Fig. 4. Ranking of voivodships by EU funding obtained by regional authorities from OPs , per inhabitant Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR and Central Statistical Office data

14 14 Joanna Rakowska 10% 5% 0% małopolskie lubuskie opolskie zachodnio-pomorskie łódzkie dolnośląskie świętokrzyskie pomorskie śląskie kujawsko-pomorskie podlaskie wielkopolskie mazowieckie warmińsko-mazurskie podkarpackie lubelskie Fig. 5. Fig. 5. Ranking of voivodships by their share in total EU funding obtained by all regional authorities from OPs Source: Author s elaboration based on SIMIK MIiR and Central Statistical Office data Conclusions Under all Operational Programmes Polish regional self-governments signed 1576 contracts of total value PLN 20,5 billion, of which 74,3% (PLN 15,1 billion) came from EU structural funds. It made up respectively 1,5% of contracts signed by all kinds of beneficiaries, 4% of total value of all projects and for 5,3% of total EU co-financing absorbed in Poland in , as of December 31, In the case of individual Operational Programmes both the share and the value of EU funding obtained by regional self-governments varies significantly. Human Capital OP is the only programme, beside ROPs, which was used by self-governments of all regions, however, the funding obtained from this source made a differentiated share in their structural funding total ranging from the the lowest (3,3%) in zachodniopomorskie to the highest (57,1%) in małopolskie. Innovative Economy OP and Infrastruture and Environment OP were less popular with regional self-governments, as correspondingly only 6 and 5 of them used it as source of EU funding. However, just like in other cases, here also the value of obtained funding and its share in absorbed funding total differed considerably. The only strong tendency relates to Regional Operational Programmes, which have been a source of more than 50% of EU funding for 13 voivodships. Two regions stand out in the group of analysed beneficiaries. These are Małopolskie and Lubelskie voivodships. The first is always ranked the last in all three rankings of regions (fig. 3, 4 and 5) due to its relatively lowest absorption of EU funding. The latter one differs as the first (fig. 5) or the second (fig. 3 and 4) in rankings, due to comparatively highest absorption of EU funding by its self-government. Investments carried out by regional self-governments and co-financed from EU structural funds fully reflect regional self-governments duties defined by the Law on Voivodship Self-Government. References Drejerska, N., and J. Kołyska Doświadczenia samorządów w pozyskiwaniu środków z funduszy unijnych na rozwój obsza-rów wiejskich. Roczniki Naukowe Stowarzyszenia Ekonomistów Rolnictwa i Agrobiznesu no. 11 (4): Heller, J., and M. Bogdański Skuteczność polityki spójności ekonomicznej Unii Europejskiej. Studia Europejskie (4): Milewska, A Fundusze strukturalne jako instrument wsparcia inwestycji gminnych i ich znaczenie dla rozwoju lokalnego. Roczniki Naukowe Stowarzyszenia Ekonomistów Rolnictwa i Agrobiznesu no. 9 (2): Use of the EU Funds in Financing of Public Services Performed by Local Self-Government Units. In Development Prospects of Rural Areas Lagging behind in the CEE Region. Conference Proceeding, edited by L. Villâanyi, J. Kâaposzta and H. Nagy, Gèodèollîo: SZIU.

15 Exploratory Study on Absorption and Investment of EU Structural Funds 15 Pomianek, I.M Szanse rozwoju sektora MŚP w świetle realizacji sektorowego programu operacyjnego Wzrost Konkurencyjności Przedsiębiorstw na lata In Szanse rozwoju polskiego sektora MŚP na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim. T. 2. Wspieranie rozwoju MŚP na Jednolitym Rynku Europejskim, edited by J. Otto and R.P. Stanisławski, Łódź: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Łódzkiej. Powęska, H Sposoby wykorzystania dóbr kultury dla potrzeb rozwoju funkcji turystycznej na Mazowszu przy wsparciu z funduszy strukturalnych. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo SGGW. Przedsiębiorczość w Polsce edited by Departament Strategii i Analiz. Warszawa: Ministerstwo Gospodarki. Rakowska, J Udział sektora MSP w realizacji projektów w ramach wybranych działań SPO Wzrost Konkurencyjności Przedsiębiorstw w latach na obszarach wiejskich. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Oeconomia no. 9 (2): Support for Innovations in Higher Education in Poland under Selected Operational Programmes since In Proceedings of TIIM2011 Conference June, 2011 Oulu Finland, edited by M. Savolainen, H. Kropsu-Vehkaperä, A. Aapaoja, T. Kinnunen and P. Kess, Oulu, Finland a. Klasyfikacje obszarów. Kryteria, definicje, metody delimitacji. Studium metodyczno-statystyczne. Warszawa: Wieś Jutra b. Przestrzenne zróżnicowanie absorpcji środków unijnych z programów operacyjnych (2015) w województwie lubelskim. Analiza na poziomie gminnym. Studia Ekonomiczne i Regionalne no. 6 (4): Pozyskanie funduszy unijnych z programów operacyjnych przez małe i średnie przedsiębiorstwa w Polsce w ujęciu regionalnym Zeszyty Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Bankowej w Poznaniu no. 52 (1): Szlachta, J Strategiczne programowanie rozwoju regionalnego, w kierunku krajowego systemu myśli strategicznej w sferze polityki regionalnej. In Nowy paradygmat rozwoju najnowsze trendy i perspektywy rozwoju polityki regionalnej, edited by M. Kolczyński and P. Żuber, Warszawa: Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego. Wojewódzka-Wiewiórska, A Obtaining Funds from the EU Budget by Rural Communes of the Masovian Voivodship. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development no. 2 (24): Typologia gmin województwa mazowieckiego ze względu na absorpcję środków z budżetu Unii Europejskiej i poziom rozwoju społeczno-ekonomicznego. Roczniki Ekonomii Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Obszarów Wiejskich no. 100 (2): Zając, J., A. Wojewódzka, and M. Stawicki Uwarunkowania absorpcji funduszy strukturalnych na poziomie powiatów. Analiza i rekomendacje. Warszawa: Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego.

16 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

17 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 European Integration of Ukraine: the Perspective of Ukrainians and Poles Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk University of Information Technology and Management, Poland Abstract Despite the fact that discussions have focused on the Association Agreement and resolving the armed conflict in eastern Ukraine as a turning point in EU-Ukraine relations, we look at the European integration of Ukraine from the perspective of public opinion. This is important because public opinion is one of the most important EU factors that may affect European integration and Europeanization processes in the EU countries. This article provides among other aspects the answer to the question: What are the positive and negative effects of the integration of Ukraine into the EU, in the opinion of Polish entrepreneurs? Keywords: Ukraine, European Union, European integration, entrepreneurship Introduction European integration has become one of the most important topics in the public debate not only in Ukraine, but also in Europe. The importance of foreign policy priorities and the issue of European integration, especially in terms of the Association Agreement and military action in eastern Ukraine, is becoming increasingly important not only in Europe but also worldwide. The future of European integration increasingly depends on the views and opinions of its citizens (Ilonszki 2009). Despite the fact that all discussions have focused on the Association Agreement and resolving the armed conflict in eastern Ukraine as a turning point in EU-Ukraine relations, we look at the European integration of Ukraine from the perspective of public opinion. Particularly important are the main findings as to the opinion of Polish entrepreneurs on the European integration of Ukraine with the EU, and the specific features and trends in the beliefs and attitudes of Polish entrepreneurs in this field. Among the EU countries, Poland is the closest neighbor of Ukraine. Therefore, it is important to survey Polish entrepreneurs who cooperate with Ukrainian partners or are active on the Ukrainian market. This is extremely important at present, because public opinion is one of the most important EU factors that may affect European integration and Europeanization processes in the EU countries (Muller 2011). Today it is more important than ever that European integration is carried out not only at the level of the political elite, but to an equal degree at the level of direct relations between communities and within them. Underestimating the role of social attitudes to the course of that process both in the period before accession and after achieving membership can cause (and in fact causes) fluctuating ratings on integration, with a tendency to increase Eurosceptic attitudes. The issue of awareness is particularly important in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, where the European integration processes are related to closing the civilization gap that arises both from the differences in the history of the individual communities and different experiences of living in political systems that promote fundamentally different attitudes and behavior. The destiny of EU-Ukraine relations and Ukraine s European integration will largely depend on social attitudes and the perceptions of what is happening in the field of Europeanization processes in Ukraine.

18 18 Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk So far, mainly due to the dynamic nature of the changes taking place in Ukraine, there are no comprehensive studies examining the issue of European integration of Ukraine. The published studies cover only a narrow view of selected socio-economic or political issues. Hence it seems the more reasonable to focus on analyzing the process of Ukraine s European integration from the perspective of public opinion and the opinion of entrepreneurs, especially in Poland, representing in a way the point of view of entrepreneurs from other EU countries. Thus having defined the main research objective, this article provides answers to the following questions: What do Ukrainians and Poles think about the European integration of Ukraine? What stands in the way of progress towards European integration of Ukraine? What do Polish entrepreneurs think about the possibility of European integration, and do they support that direction of integration? What are the positive and negative effects of Ukraine s integration into the EU, in the opinion of Polish entrepreneurs? In search of answers to those questions, the authors present the results of public opinion surveys conducted in Ukraine 1 and Poland 2 and the results of research conducted among Polish entrepreneurs who cooperate with Ukrainian partners (authors own research at the University of Information Technology and Management). 1 Methodology A survey was conducted among Polish companies cooperating with Ukrainian partners or operating on the Ukrainian market. This group is particularly interested in regulation of relations with Ukraine. Sampling was purposive and random. 246 interviews (CATI) were conducted, including 196 with exporters to the Ukrainian market in the period from 12 November to 20 December In statistical terms, the sample is not representative for companies in Poland (or for all companies cooperating with Ukraine), but equal geographical distribution and diversification by branch and size of the enterprise have been ensured. 2 European integration of Ukraine: what is the public opinion? The prospect of extending EU borders is always a stimulus to conduct public opinion surveys both in countries that aspire to the association and in countries already associated. Such activities were common before Polish accession to the EU, when studies concerned either the sentiments among Poles or their closest EU neighbors, the Germans (Dolińska and Fałkowski 2001). At present analogous projects can be observed presenting opinions on the relations of Ukraine and the EU (including Poland) and Poland and Ukraine. 2.1 The opinion of the residents of Ukraine Ukraine is extremely diversified in regionals terms. This applies in particular: relations with Russia, feelings about the state of the country, orientation toward political and economic reform, support for more local autonomy or centralization, and finally integration with the EU. The source of regional differences (especially between East and West) is historical experience, economic structure, ethnic composition, ties to bordering states and language (Kubicek 2000). The attitude of Ukrainians to Ukraine s integration with the European Union is shown, among others, in the report European Integration of Ukraine: Experience of Yesterday for Development of Tomorrow (Zolkina 2013). More on this topic can be found in the study Public Opinion Survey Residents of Ukraine, of March The studies in Ukraine show that: What Ukrainians think about the association with the European Union depends on the region in which the respondents live. The diversity of opinion stems from ethnic differences (Barrington 2001), which translate into the territorial system, and with the age of the respondents. 1. See: Public Opinion Survey Residents of Ukraine. March 14 26, [@:] /2014%20April%205%20IRI%20Public%20Opinion%20Survey%20of%20Ukraine,%20March% ,% pdf. 2. See: Public Opinion Research Center. Available from:

19 European integration of Ukraine: the perspective of Ukrainians and Poles 19 In March 2014, 52% of respondents were for Ukraine s accession to the EU (in March 2012, the number reached 36%). An alternative for association with the EU is a Customs Union with Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. In March 2014, 27% of respondents were for Ukraine s accession to the Customs Union (in March 2012, the number was 43%). According to Ukrainians, the main benefits of the association are: free movement of people abroad (34,7%), raising living standards of people (28%), easier access for youth to study at European universities (24,3%), improving the provision of goods (16,1%), facilitating movement of the country towards modern European civilization (16,1%). 27,7% of respondents thought that the association was of no benefit to Ukraine. 3 Negative effects of association with the EU according to Ukrainians are: emigration of Ukrainians (31,1%), deterioration of relations with member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States (22,5%), inflow of foreigners, selling out the country (22%), unemployment (17,5%). The main barriers for EU-Ukraine association are: insufficient level of Ukraine s economic development (34,5%), low level of living standards in Ukraine (32,4%), problems with democracy (Cameron 2007) and human rights in Ukraine (22,6%). Zolkina (2013) said that public opinion is one of the most crucial domestic factors which can influence European integration and Europeanization processes from inside the country. She sees the development of future relations between Ukraine and the EU as depending heavily on public attitudes and perceptions of what has been going on in the field of Europeanization processes in Ukraine. 2.2 The opinion of the residents of Poland Research on the perspective of Ukraine s accession to EU structures is an important subject of theoretical and empirical study in Poland. The Eastern Partnership (EaP) determines the eastern dimension of EU policies and provides a basis for strengthening the relations between the EU and former Soviet Union countries. The program was supported by Poles from the beginning. In Poland, opinions on that are presented mainly by the Public Opinion Research Center (PORC). According to a study before the Eastern Partnership Summit in Vilnius, which took place on November 2013, the expansion of cooperation was accepted by about two-thirds of Poles (64%), and nearly one quarter (24%) were against. In comparison with the results of 2008 and 2009, a decline can be seen in support for strengthening cooperation with the countries of the former Soviet Union. In 2009, acceptance for developing cooperation was expressed by 77%, while 9% of respondents were against it. The decline was explained by lower support for the development of European integration in Poland and higher skepticism about further improvement of Polish- Ukrainian relations (due to previous historical events). 4 According to the presented opinions of Poles, Ukraine should become a member of the EU in the future. But it is a distant perspective. Only every fifth respondent (20%) stated that the accession process should take place as soon as possible. More than half (54%) said that there was no hurry. 9% of respondents were opposed, while 17% were unable to give an opinion. The fact that the Association Agreement with the EU was not signed by Ukraine at the summit in Vilnius has not changed the opinion of Poles much. In a study conducted in January 2014, a greater part of respondents still declared that Ukraine should in the future become a member of the EU, but in the opinion of 47% of the respondents there is no hurry. The percentage of those who said Ukraine should associate with the EU immediately slightly rose (from 20% to 26%) and those who opposed the association (from 9% to 11%). That was likely impacted by news of social protests in Ukraine. It can therefore be concluded that the opinions of Poles expressed in relation to the EU-Ukraine association are constant. According to a PORC survey, the majority of Poles say that close cooperation of Ukraine with the EU is in the interest of Poland. In January 2014, that opinion was supported by 65% of 3. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.] 4. Before the summit of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) in Vilnius, CBOS, BS/158/2013, Warsaw, November 2013.

20 20 Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk respondents (in 2004 by 67%). In contrast, 14% of respondents believed that cooperation between Ukraine and Russia would be more beneficial for Poland. More than half (52%) said that close cooperation with the EU was in the interests of Ukraine, while for 22% of the respondents cooperation with Russia would be more advantageous for Ukraine. According to almost every fifth Pole (19%), Ukraine should look for another way to resolve the situation, because a choice between the EU and Russia is not beneficial for the country. Although Ukraine s association with the EU would be beneficial for Poland, according to the respondents it should be postponed. But Poles agree to other measures that would liberalize trade with Ukraine and facilitate border crossing. 68% of respondents expressed support for the gradual reduction of tariffs on trade between Ukraine and Poland and the EU (10% opposed), and 57% agreed to the abolition of visas for Ukrainians (29% were opposed to that). The lowest support was given to the postulate to make it easier for Ukrainians to work in Poland. 49% of respondents agreed with it, while 41% opposed. At the time when PORC conducted surveys on EU-Ukraine association among Poles, the research team at the University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszow conducted studies on trade relations between Poland and Ukraine (Lewandowska, Inglot-Brzęk, and Harasym 2014). The main objective of the research conducted among entrepreneurs was to determine the barriers to trade relations with Ukraine. The survey on entrepreneurs opinions on the association of Ukraine with EU countries was complementary to the main part of the study devoted to economic cooperation between Poland and Ukraine. 2.3 The opinion of Polish entrepreneurs The study assumed that Polish entrepreneurs who cooperate with partners from Ukraine would naturally be interested in issues concerning the association of Ukraine with the EU. Based on the obtained results it can be said that every fourth respondent (25,1%) was not interested in those issues. Only a third of entrepreneurs (33,9%) declared they followed closely what was happening regarding the association with the EU. Interest in the association of Ukraine is closely associated with better knowledge about integration (statistically significant correlation, V Cramera 0,521, approximate significance < 0,001). An entrepreneur was more interested in the issues of association, the better informed he felt he was. The relationship between interest and knowledge allowed us to construct an index of attitudes (Cronbach s alpha = 0,803) 5. Polish entrepreneurs can be divided into: uninterested and uninformed 23%; moderately interested and informed 44,6%; interested and well-informed 32,4%. The impact of interest and knowledge on opinions on the benefits of Ukraine s association with the EU for Polish entrepreneurs was diagnosed (statistically significant correlation, V Cramera 0,219; approximate significance < 0,001). 5,7% of respondents said that the association would be bad for Polish entrepreneurs. Such statements were characteristic for uninterested and uninformed entrepreneurs. An opposite opinion was expressed by 76,5% of the respondents. Businesses were asked to identify their perceptions of the benefits and barriers resulting from Ukraine s association with the EU. 40 entrepreneurs from a group of 246 respondents (16,2%) were unable to give any answer. 17 respondents (6,9%) expressed negative opinions. Other respondents pointed to various benefits. Polish entrepreneurs see mainly the benefits of easier cooperation and expanding the market. Significant is also the elimination of customs duties, customs clearance, abolition of visas, easier procedures and abolition of bureaucracy. 5. Cronbach s alpha is a measure specifying the consistency of the items making up the scale which is a number from 0 to 1. At the level of 0,803 it means that the respondents gave similar answers to individual questions, which in this case means that the persons concerned feel well informed. By assigning responses from 1 to 5 the results for the two questions were added up. On this basis a new scale was created, which adopted the values from 2 to 10. The scale was recoded to new values: (2 4) uninterested and uninformed; (5 7) moderately interested and informed, (8 10) interested and well-informed.

21 European integration of Ukraine: the perspective of Ukrainians and Poles 21 Tab. 1. Benefits resulting from Ukraine s association with the EU (multiple answers possible) Theme Percentage of answers Easier trade cooperation ,2 Market expansion, a large new market ,4 Profits, benefits ,5 Easier procedures, reducing bureaucracy ,2 Abolition of customs barriers ,8 Easier customs clearance ,9 Development of companies in Poland, increase in production 4,4 Elimination of barriers ,4 New opportunities ,4 Faster journey, lack of visas ,9 Open and accessible market ,9 Competition ,4 Secure trade without risk ,9 Clear legislation ,0 Market proximity ,0 Tab. 2. Barriers resulting from the association of Ukraine with the EU Negative effects corruption unfavorable, other standards less competitive with Russia not a euro-enthusiast low competitiveness outflow of Polish business to Ukraine, but also receptive market loss of livelihoods loss of market outlets the West will skip Poland and collaborate more with Ukraine too strong impact of the Ukrainian market Ambiguous answers refused to answer need to look from the perspective of Ukrainian businessmen does not matter to me good for some and bad for others lack of a clear statement from Ukraine EU or Russia? level of development in Ukraine too low to develop cooperation with the EU cooperation in the past had no problems Polish entrepreneurs are mainly concerned that Ukraine s association with the EU will reduce the competitiveness of Polish exports. The Ukrainian market will be awash with goods from the West. Just associating with the EU will not change much. Corruption and different standards of business functioning will not disappear in Ukraine. Some entrepreneurs also gave ambiguous answers. Entrepreneurs also consistently agreed on the benefits and risks that EU Ukraine association would bring for Polish trade and investments in the Ukrainian market. Only 2,4% of respondents expressed negative opinions in that regard. The relationship between evaluation of the impact of EU-Ukraine association on Polish exports, imports and investments forms the assessment index. 6 When entrepreneurs were asked whether they personally supported Ukraine s association with the EU or if they were against it, 78,4% of respondents said they supported the association, and 4,5% indicated opposition. 6. Cronbach s alpha 0,934 (calculated to evaluate the benefits associated with export, import, investment) means that if the respondent pointed out that the association of Ukraine with the EU will bring Poland benefits associated with exports, they probably also pointed to the benefits of imports and investment. By assigning responses from 1 to 5 the results for the three questions were calculated. On this basis, a new scale was created, which adopted the values from 3 to 15. The scale was recoded to new values: (3 5) definitely unfavorable; (6 7) rather unfavorable, (8 10) neither favorable or unfavorable, (11 12) rather favorable, (13 15) very favorable.

22 22 Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk Tab. 3. The impact of EU-Ukraine association for Polish exports, imports and investments. V Cramera values between answers for question: What impact do you think will the association of Ukraine with the EU have: Exports of goods from Poland to Ukraine Import of goods from Ukraine to Poland Investments of Polish companies in Ukraine Exports of goods from Poland to Ukraine Import of goods from Ukraine to Poland Investments of Polish companies in Ukraine 1,000 0,802*** 0,764*** 1,000 0,874*** 1,000 Note: Evaluation statements on a five-point scale, where 1 means definitely unfavorable; 5 definitely favorable preferred; N = 246. *** p < 0,001 very favorable rather favorable neither favorable nor unfavorable rather unfavorable definitely unfavorable 2% 30% 40% Fig. 1. What impact do you think the association of Ukraine with the EU will have on export, import and investment? Index of interest and knowledge Generally speaking, do you think Ukraine's association with the EU is good for Polish entrepreneurs? Tab. 4. The impact of EU-Ukraine association on Polish entrepreneurs Index of interest and knowledge Generally speaking, do you think Ukraine's association with the EU is good for Polish entrepreneurs? The assessment index Do you personally support the association of Ukraine with the EU or are you against it? 1,000 0,219*** 0,213*** 0,213*** 1,000 0,495*** 0,548*** The assessment index 1,000 0,413*** IDo you personally support the association of Ukraine with the EU or are you against it? Note: N = 246 *** p < 0,001 1,000 The responses showed a consistent opinion on the impact of the EU-Ukraine association on Polish entrepreneurs. Answers to the five questions were indexed to obtain a generalized opinion about the impact of Ukraine s association with the EU on the functioning of Polish entrepreneurs operating on the Ukrainian market. It should be emphasized that among Polish entrepreneurs cooperating with Ukrainian partners, or operating on the Ukrainian market, only 3,7% believe that EU-Ukraine association will bring negative consequences for them, and so they do not support the process. 8,1% of the respondents consider that if Ukraine did not sign the Association Agreement, it would bring benefits to Poland,

23 European integration of Ukraine: the perspective of Ukrainians and Poles 23 Tab. 5. Generalized opinion on the impact of EU-Ukraine association on Polish entrepreneurs Theme a The incidence Percentage Definitely unfavorable 1 0,4 Rather unfavorable 8 3,3 Neither favorable or unfavorable 42 17,1 Rather favorable 93 37,8 Definitely favorable ,5 Total ,0 Note: By assigning responses from 1 to 5 the results for the five questions were calculated. On this basis, a new scale was set to values between 5 and 25. The scale was recoded to new values:(5-8) definitely unfavorable, (9-13) rather unfavorable, (14-17) neither favorable nor unfavorable (18-21) rather favorable, (22-25) definitely favorable. a Questions: (1) assessing the impact of the association on Polish entrepreneurs; (2) assessing the impact on exports of goods from Poland to Ukraine; (3) assessing the impact on the import of goods from Ukraine to Poland; (4) assessing the impact on Polish investments in Ukraine; (5) personal support for Ukraine's EU association reliability of the index of opinion; Cronbach's alpha = 0,892. Nearly half (47,6%) of the surveyed entrepreneurs are not able to make such an assessment. In contrast, 45,3% of respondents expressed the belief that not signing the Association Agreement would be disadvantageous for Poland. Evaluating the current relations between Ukraine and the EU, Polish entrepreneurs said that they brought the same benefits to both sides (58,4%). Every fourth respondent (27,2%) said the relations were more favorable for Ukraine. The opinion that the main beneficiaries were the EU countries was indicated by 14,5%. Polish entrepreneurs believe that Ukraine should integrate with the EU, but only in a scope and at a pace which will be in its favor (58,4%), 36% of respondents say that the integration should take place as soon as possible. In contrast, 5,6% of respondents believe that Ukraine should not integrate with the EU. Conclusions The Association Agreement can be a chance for Ukraine to make significant modernization changes. Furthermore, the agreement on free trade zone, which although in the short and medium term may lead to increased imports of Ukraine from the EU, including Poland, may in the long run result in growth of Ukrainian exports to EU markets. Ukraine signing the Association Agreement may be a chance for other Polish companies. Yet that will concern mostly large companies which already have experience in EU markets. In the short term, it is they that can take over the Ukrainian market, together with other EU corporations, mainly due to cheaper products and their good quality. Only in the long run will Ukrainian entrepreneurs benefit those who survive the competition from the EU market, joined by foreign investors. One of the perspectives in the discourse on EU enlargement to other countries is given by public opinion research. These studies are one of the main sources used for understanding social attitudes, opinions and sentiments towards important political, economic and social problems and issues. They are therefore an important stage in the development of social processes, including the integration processes in Europe. Studies carried out among Ukrainians show that most of the country s residents support integration with the European Union. The number of supporters of integration increases. However, it is a greatly simplified proposal. Ukraine is highly diversified in territorial terms. While integration with the EU is supported by 90% of people in the west of the country and 70% in its center, there are only 29% euro-enthusiasts in the south and 20% in the east. In the East there is strong support (59%) for a customs union with Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan. Another feature that varies the opinions of Ukrainian people is age. The majority of young people (up to 29 years of age) support integration with the EU. The older the age of the respondents, the less support for integration with the EU. Although support for the enlargement of the EU is consistently high in Poland (three quarters of Poles support it), it is falling. In a recent study, almost half of Poles said that when it came to the integration of Ukraine with the EU, there was no need to hurry. At the same time two

24 24 Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk thirds of Poles believe that close co-operation with Ukraine is in the interest of Poland. Therefore respondents indicated the need for a gradual reduction of tariffs and abolition of visas. Polish entrepreneurs thus agree with the principles of free movement of goods, services and people. Free movement of workers is so far out of the question. Polish entrepreneurs who cooperate with partners from Ukraine showed a higher level of support for Ukraine's European integration than average Poles. According to Polish entrepreneurs, Ukraine s integration will primarily facilitate cooperation and expand the market, which will in turn bring benefits and profits. Therefore, more than a third of the entrepreneurs (36%) noted that the integration of Ukraine into the EU should take place as soon as possible (the opinion was expressed by every fourth Pole). Only about 5% of the surveyed companies considered Ukraine's integration with the EU unfavorable for Polish entrepreneurs. About 80% of the respondents expressed an opposite opinion. Opinion on the interest of Poland was slightly different. Only 45% of businesses see the benefits for Poland resulting from EU enlargement to encompass Ukraine. 8,1% of the respondents indicated lack of any benefits. It is significant that almost half of the surveyed entrepreneurs could not assess the implications for Poland resulting from further EU enlargement. This may be due to the fact that respondents indicated low degree of interest and knowledge in matters concerning the association of Ukraine with the EU. Their opinions result rather from their experiences than from their commercial cooperation and from the ability to assess their own benefits and losses than from thorough knowledge of the enlargement of EU structures. References Anderson, C.J When in Doubt, Use Proxies Attitudes toward Domestic Politics and Support for European Integration. Comparative Political Studies no. 31 (5): doi: / Barrington, L Russian-Speakers in Ukraine and Kazakhstan: Nationality, Population, or Neither? Post-Soviet Affairs no. 17 (2): Cameron, D.R Post-Communist Democracy: The Impact of the European Union. Post- Soviet Affairs no. 23 (3): doi: / x Dolińska, X., and M. Fałkowski Polska-Niemcy. Wzajemny wizerunek w okresie rozszerzania Unii Europejskiej. Warszawa: Instytut Spraw Publicznych. Ilonszki, G National Discontent and EU Support in Central and Eastern Europe. Europe-Asia Studies no. 61 (6): doi: / Kubicek, P Regional Polarisation in Ukraine: Public Opinion, Voting and Legislative Behaviour. Europe-Asia Studies no. 52 (2): Lengyel, G., and B. Goncz Elites Pragmatic and Symbolic Views about European Integration. Europe-Asia Studies no. 61 (6): doi: / Lewandowska, A., E. Inglot-Brzęk, and R. Harasym Determinants of Polish Exports to the Ukrainian Market. Barometr Regionalny. Analizy i Prognozy no. 12 (3):7 15. Muller, M Public Opinion Toward the European Union in Georgia. Post-Soviet Affairs no. 27 (1): doi: / x Petrov, R The Balkans and the NIS. In Handbook on European Enlargement. A Commentary on the Enlargement Process, edited by A. Ott and K. Inglis, The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. Wolczuk, K Implementation without Coordination: The Impact of EU Conditionality on Ukraine under the European Neighbourhood Policy. Europe-Asia Studies no. 61 (2): doi: / Zolkina, M European Integration of Ukraine: Experience of Yesterday for Development of Tomorrow. Informational & Analytical Bulletin. Public Opinion (13):1 13.

25 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 The Cross-Border Transfer of Cultural Assets in the European Union Piotr Zawrotniak The University College of Enterprise and Administration in Lublin, Poland Abstract Monuments and mementoes of cultural assets are taken very special care of by descendant heirs, as a form of national heritage. The Hague Convention of 1954 introduced regulations concerning the definition of a cultural asset. The Convention drawn up in Paris, in 1970, extended the scope of international legal protection in case of conflicts and armaments. It also extended notions which regulate the status of e.g., rare collections. In 1976, the Convention signed in Paris clarified identification and definition of any kind of assets belonging to the countries which are the parties of the agreement, and determined their borders. The member states of the EU act pursuant to the regulations of the EU law and domestic law. After the accession to the Community, Poland adopted the EU law, which has to be direct and superior to domestic regulations. The EU and domestic legal regulations concerning the issue of the transfer of cultural assets monuments within the Community and with third countries, are applicable to their export to other member states of the EU and within not regulated areas on the Community level, as well as to third countries. Keywords: cultural assets, Hague Convention of 1954, national cultural heritage, monuments, Paris Convention of 1970, rare collections, Paris Convention of 1976, the European Union law, the office of Monument Conservator, turnover of cultural assets, the trade of works of art in the EU, Minister of Culture and National Heritage, Community Customs Code The notion and classification of a cultural asset The history of a human being, nation or country is connected with the creation of its own and often unique oeuvre, which is handed down to further generations. This oeuvre constitutes tangible proof of social activity. It often consists of objects used to achieve noble goals which are a part of the symbolism of nations and countries. We should remember that they are also everyday objects which show the conditions of everyday life of our ancestors. As a result, these consumable goods are a kind of message about the era of generations of our progenitors, forefathers and fathers. Their possession and maintenance in an appropriate state is the obligation of nations and countries. Taking that into consideration, a legal order, which indicates the possibilities of international transfer of valuable objects connected with national history and identity, is being created. The problem of the protection of national heritage meets significant difficulties caused by problems with determining which objects are part of this heritage. Such issues are commonly described in legal acts as cultural assets. According to the rules of law-governed state, one should expect that the legislator will determine the scope of applicable legal regulations in a rational and precise way.... In my opinion, the lack of terminological discipline in a prescriptive regulation in the scope of a particular field causes negative results, such as weaker legal protection and the appearance of legal loopholes (Bernatek-Zaguła 2012). The first legal regulations attempting to define this notion can be noticed in the Hague Convention of 14 May The convention uses a notion of cultural asset which, after taking into 1. See: Konwencja o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego wraz z regulaminem wykonawczym

26 26 Piotr Zawrotniak consideration its literal and functional interpretation, should be considered identical with cultural achievement (Zeidler 2007). According to this convention, movable and immovable goods which have great significance to national cultural heritage e.g., monuments of architecture, art or history, either religious or secular, archaeological excavation sites, building complexes with historic or artistic significance, works of art, manuscripts, books and other objects with artistic, historical or archaeological significance, academic collections and collections of books, archive records or reproductions of the above mentioned objects, 2 buildings created to keep or exhibit movable cultural goods e.g., museums, huge libraries, archive storehouses, shelters to keep movable cultural goods in the case of military conflict 3 and centres, keeping the substantial part of the above mentioned goods, called historic centres, are considered to be cultural assets regardless of their origin or owner. 4 One of the main regulations of the international law concerning the turnover of cultural assets is the Convention on measures attempting to forbid and protect illegal import, export and transfer of title to cultural assets, drawn up in Paris on 17 November The notion of cultural asset is one of the basic notions defined on its basis. It is an asset which is considered significant for archaeology, prehistory, literature, art or education, because of religious or secular reasons. In this sense, assets have been classified as rare collections or specimens in the field of zoology, botany, mineralogy and anatomy, objects having paleontological value; objects connected with history (e.g., the history of science and technology, history of military science and social history); objects connected with the life of leaders, thinkers, scientists, national artists and events which are important for the nation; objects obtained from excavations (both legally and illegally) and archaeological findings; elements obtained from demolished artistic or historical monuments; antiques that are more than 100 years old, such as inscriptions, coins and engraved seals; ethnological materials and objects having artistic value. 6 What is more, the Convention rates the following objects: rare manuscripts and incunabulum, ancient books, documents and publications having special significance (e.g., historical, artistic, scientific or literary, such as single copies or collections); postage stamps, duty stamps and similar objects as single copies or collections and archives (e.g., record, photographic and film archives); furniture which is older than 100 years and ancient musical instruments, among cultural assets. 7 Cultural assets as a material and tangible sign of the nation s history create national heritage. The notion of cultural heritage, which is crucial for the construction of legal regulations determining rules and manner of transfer of cultural assets in international turnover, was specified in the Convention signed in Paris on 16 November 1976 concerning protection of world cultural and natural heritage. 8 By this notion, the Convention understands objects made by humans, both ancient and modern, in the form of monuments: works of architecture; works of monumental sculpture and painting; elements and buildings having archaeological character; inscriptions, caves and groups of such elements having special common value for historical, artistic or scientific reasons; groups of separate or connected buildings having unique common historical, artistic or scientific value because of their do tej Konwencji oraz Protokół o ochronie dóbr kulturalnych w razie konfliktu zbrojnego, podpisane w Hadze dnia 14 maja 1954 r. DzU z 1957 r. nr 46 poz See: Konwencja o ochronie dóbr... Art. 1 pkt a. 3. Ibidem, Art. 1 pkt b. 4. Ibifdem, Art. 1 pkt c. 5. See: Konwencja dotycząca środków zmierzających do zakazu i zapobieganiu nielegalnemu przywozowi, wywozowi i przenoszeniu własności dóbr kultury, sporządzona w Paryżu dnia 17 listopada 1970 r. DzU z 1974 r. nr 20 poz Assets having artistic value are pictures, paintings and drawings, which are entirely hand-made, on any undercoat and with any material (except for industrial drawings and industrial goods with hand-made decorations), original statues and sculptures made of any material; originals of etchings, prints and lithographs; originals of artistic sets and installations made of any material. 7. See: Konwencja dotycząca środków See: Konwencja w sprawie ochrony światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i naturalnego, przyjęta w Paryżu dnia 16 listopada 1972 r. przez Konferencję Generalną Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych dla Wychowania, Nauki i Kultury na jej siedemnastej sesji. DzU z 1976 r. nr 32 poz. 190.

27 The Cross-Border Transfer of Cultural Assets in the European Union 27 architecture, uniformity and combining with landscape and historical places: works of human or joint works of human and nature; zones and archaeological excavation sites having unique common value for historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological reasons. The Convention indicated that the states of Convention, where the abovementioned objects are located, are responsible for identifying, defining and determining the borders of any of these objects (Bernatek-Zaguła 2012). International regulations, creating the number of states which are their parties, have general form and provide a minimal level of the legal regulations on a particular issue. According to the Roman rule pacta sunt servanda, countries which are the parties of the rule can be obliged to introduce proper regulations, considering provisions of international agreements, to the domestic legal order. The rules of legislation in the European Union have lead to the establishment, according to adopted principles, of two legal systems European Union law and domestic law. 9 These systems are created according to the rules of primacy and proportion of the European Union law applicable in all the member states. These rules cause the necessity of legal regulation on the EU level in the case where the given issue concerns the interest of the European Union as a whole, and the interest of particular member states. Proper regulations of the European Union law in the scope of transfer of cultural assets, in which they have been precisely defined, have been adopted according to this imperative. 10 The abovementioned precision is not a persiflage according to the definition of cultural asset from the EU directive, because it is not included there. One quotes only functional interpretation, indicating that cultural assets are the objects which serve specific purpose. They include archaeological objects which are older than 100 years old, obtained from excavations and land or underwater discoveries, archaeological areas, archaeological collections; elements which are older than 100 years old which were the integral part of artistic, historical or religious monuments and then became divided; hand-made pictures and paintings, created with any materials or techniques; hand-made watercolours, gouaches and pastels created with any materials; hand-made mosaic created with any materials; hand-made drawings created with any materials or techniques; original figures, prints, serigraphs, lithographs with proper boards and original posters. 11 In Polish regulations the notion of cultural asset has been defined in the act adopted at the beginning of the 1960s, which is no longer legally binding. According to that act, a cultural asset is a movable or immovable object, ancient or modern, which is significant to heritage and cultural development for historical, scientific or artistic reasons. 12 In the present legal regulations the notion of cultural asset has been narrowed to a monument. According to a view adopted in a doctrine, there are cultural assets which are not monuments (e.g., recent work of a living and acknowledged artist). The relation between a cultural asset and a monument is the following: not every cultural asset is a monument but every monument is a cultural asset (Pruszyński 2002). According to the present legal regulation the act on the protection and care of monuments, 13 cultural assets have not been defined, whereas the legal definition of monuments, which may be immovable or movable, their parts or groups, created by humans, connected with their activity or being an evidence of a past era or event and their preservation is important to the public interest for historical, artistic or scientific reasons. The monuments have been divided into immovable monuments, movable monuments and archaeological monuments The rule of autonomy means that the European Union law is independent of the internal law of member states. Despite the fact that it becomes its part, it still has an independence and identity (Wójtowicz 2003). 10. See: Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 of 18 December 2008 on the export of cultural goods, p See: Annex I to Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 Categories of cultural objects covered by Article 1 (it consists of fifteen groups of objects, which after meeting specific requirements are considered to be cultural assets) 12. See: Ustawa z dnia 15 lutego 1962 r. o ochronie dóbr kultury, Art. 2. DzU z 1962 r. nr 10 poz. 48 as amended. 13. See: Ustawa z dnia 23 lipca 2003 r. o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami. DzU z 2003 r. nr 162 poz as amended. 14. An immovable monument is a real property, its part or a complex of real properties. A movable monument is a movable thing, its part or a complex of movable things. An archeological monument is an immovable monument, which is a surface, underground or underwater remains of the existence or activity of human being. It consists of

28 28 Piotr Zawrotniak In the main legal act the constitution; legislator uses a notion of cultural asset and indicates the obligations of public authorities to provide common and equal access to them and the protection of natural heritage, including their turnover with other countries. It has been explicitly stated in the first chapter of the Constitution by indicating that the Republic of Poland creates conditions to provide common and equal access to cultural assets, which is the source of identity of the Polish nation, its existence and development Legal basis regulating the turnover of cultural assets with third countries In Polish regulations concerning trade with foreign countries, the ban on transport of monuments to foreign countries was introduced shortly after World War II, by the decree of 1 March 1946 on registration and ban on transport of works of fine arts and objects having artistic, historical or cultural value. Its purpose was to save objects which originated in the national collection of cultural heritage. Rationing of cultural asset turnover with foreign countries, which actually was a ban, was established in 1962 by the act on the protection of cultural assets. Similar solutions are included in the present act on the protection of monuments of Rationing with the possibility of permanent export of monuments to foreign countries is kept in the act. Cultural assets monuments can be transported to foreign countries permanently (they can be transported to the member states of EU or third countries) when their transport will not cause damage to the cultural heritage of the Polish nation. Permission for temporary transport of monuments has the form of open rationing. The notion of open rationing is adopted by the author because of the small range of possibilities to decline permission by the proper state body Provincial Monument Conservator or the Director General of the National Library of Poland. Permission for temporary transport is granted after considering the condition of a monument, which is the only factor taken into account. Obviously, the permission for temporary transport of a monument to foreign countries should be denied if the conditions of its cross-border transfer affect its form. 16 Polish accession to the European Union caused the adoption of joint legal regulations with their directness and primacy over domestic regulations. Acquis communautaire in the field of protection of cultural assets included legally binding international agreements, in which European Communities the European Union were a party. It concerns the abovementioned Convention on measures aiming to ban and prevent illegal import, transport and transfer of title to cultural assets, signed in 1970 in Paris; 17 regulations of the European Union law; the directive of the Council Regulation (EEC) No 3911/92 of 9 December 1992 on the export of cultural goods 18 and the directive of the Council Directive 93/7/EEC of 15 March 1993 on the return of cultural objects unlawfully removed from the territory of a Member State 19 and the Commission Regulation (EEC) No 752/93 of 30 March 1993 laying down provisions for the implementation of Council Regulation (EEC) No 3911/92 on the export of cultural goods. 20 Domestic regulations e.g., quoted act on the protection and care of monuments and the directive of the Minister of Culture of 19 April 2004 on the export of monuments and object having features of monuments to foreign countries, conferred viability to the regulations of the European Union law. 21 cultural accumulations and their products or remains. It may also be a movable monument which is such a product. 15. See: Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 2 kwietnia 1997 r. uchwalona przez Zgromadzenie Narodowe w dniu 2 kwietnia 1997 r., przyjęta przez Naród w referendum konstytucyjnym w dniu 25 maja 1997 r., podpisana przez Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w dniu 16 lipca 1997 r. Art. 6 pkt. 1. DzU z 1997 nr 78 poz. 483 as amended. 16. The decision to allow for transport of monuments (for permanent or temporary transport) is an administrative decision. It means that, according to the rules of procedure before the bodies of public administration, a person who is the subject of the decision has the right to appeal to a higher authority. See: Ustawa z dnia 14 czerwca 1960 r. Kodeks postępowania administracyjnego. DzU z 1960 r. nr 30 poz. 168 as amended. 17. See: Konwencja dotycząca środków DzU z 1974 r. nr 20 poz Dz.U. L 395 z , as amended. 19. Dz.U. L 74 z as amended. 20. Dz.U. L 77 z as amended. 21. See: Rozporządzenie Ministra Kultury z dnia 19 kwietnia 2004 r. w sprawie wywozu zabytków i przedmiotów

29 The Cross-Border Transfer of Cultural Assets in the European Union 29 Regulations of this domestic act and directive are applicable to the export of monuments from Poland to other member states of the EU and, within the scope which is not determined by the EU regulations, to the third countries. 22 In the light of applicable legal regulations which create conditions for the turnover of cultural assets monuments, it is true that their turnover is fully licensed. 23 In the case of export of movable objects having features of a monument from Poland to third countries, one has to obtain permission. It is granted by the Minister of Culture and National Heritage or by the Provincial Monument Conservator, depending on the purpose of export. In the adopted system of export permissions within the European Union, permissions have been divided into three groups: standard permissions, special open permissions and general open permissions. 24 Permission may be granted for permanent or temporary export of a cultural asset from the European Union. It consists of three copies: form no. 1 which is a motion for permission, form no. 2 for the owner of a cultural asset and form no. 3 which is returned to the issuing body. The first copy is kept by the issuing body while the other are returned to the owner of export permission or his authorized representative. In Poland, standard permissions are called single permissions to export a monument to foreign countries. They are issued by the Minister of Culture and National Heritage on forms, which are made according to the pattern of the EU directive. Permission for library materials is issued by the Director of the National Library of Poland (Paczuski 2005). In the case of transport of a cultural asset across the border, where customs control takes place, the proper Customs Bureau for given declaration provides that entries in export application or, where applicable, in ATA ticket 25 correspond to entries in export permission and that reference to export permission in point 44 (code E012) of export application or the stub of an ATA ticket are signed. After filling in point 23 in copies 2 and 3 of the permission, the Customs Bureau authorized to accept export application (the Bureau where export transactions are carried out and export permissions are presented) returns the form for the owner of permission to a declaring person or his authorized representative. The permission form, which is returned to the issuing body, has to be sent to the Customs Bureau in the point of departure from the Community (the last bureau before leaving the Community) with shipment. The Customs Bureau of export stamps a seal in point 26 of the permission form (copies 2 and 3) and returns it to the issuing body (Tymińska 2008). In the case of failure to bring cultural assets exported on the basis of standard permission for temporary export, the body of customs administration is obliged to immediately notify the Provincial Monument Conservator. General open permission is the form of multiple permission issued for temporary export of cultural assets which are a part of a permanent collection of museums or other institutions. They can be issued for museums or other institutions, in order to provide temporary export of any objects, which are part of their permanent collection and can be temporarily exported from the Community to third countries for exhibition purposes. The permission is presented to the customs bodies with written export application. It is also available in other cases, in order to present it on demand with cultural assets during an inspection. The expiry date of permission is 5 years from the day of issue. In Poland, the permission is defined as multiple general permission for temporary export of a monument to foreign countries and it is issued by the Provincial Monument Conservator. The permission for library materials is issued by the Director of the National Library of Poland (Witkowski 2008). o cechach zabytków za granicę. DzU z 2004 r. nr 84 poz. 789 as amended. 22. Third countries are the countries who are not members of the European Union 23. In the case of export it is a system of permission. In the case of import it is an obligation to have a proper export permission issued by competent authorities of the country of export. 24. The permission form is presented in printed or electronic form, in one of more official languages of the European Union. Printed permission forms are issued on blue prints, which are specially secured. 25. It is a shipping and guarantee document, which is at the same time a customs declaration of goods exported to fairs or exhibitions. The holder of this document is not obliged to present financial security. Competent authorities in a member state, where the permission is presented, may require a translation to an official language or one of the official languages of the member state. The costs of translation are paid by the owner of permission.

30 30 Piotr Zawrotniak In the case of the transport of a monument granted the abovementioned permission, the proper Customs Bureau to accept export applications provides compliance of the declared objects with a register of the cultural assets specified in the customs export application. The register of exported cultural assets has to be drawn up on paper with the name of the institution. Each site of the register has to be signed by one of the members of the institutions listed by name in permission. Each page of the register is stamped by the seal of the institution, which is identical to the seal on the permission. Reference to the permission has to be placed in point 44 of the SAD document 26 (code E012). The original permission is added to the SAD card no. 3 and it is included in shipment when it leaves the joint customs area. It is the permission for multiple export, thus the original permission has to be kept by the owner to be used when the next opportunity occurs. The photocopy of the permission, with confirmed conformity to the original, has to be added to SAD card no. 1. Special open permission is a form of multiple permission and can be issued for temporary export of some cultural assets. It can be issued for a specific person or organization for practical or exhibition purposes. The cultural asset, specified in the permission, has to be owned or legally possessed by a specific person or organization which uses or exhibits the asset. The expiry date of the permission is 5 years from the date of issue. The permission for temporary export of a monument outside the European Union is a multiple individual permission issued by the Provincial Monument Conservator. The permission for library materials is issued by the Director of the National Library of Poland. The proper Customs Bureau to accept export application provides that the presented objects have been determined in the permission for export. Reference to the permission has to be placed in point 44 of JDA SAD (code E012). The original permission is added to JDA SAD Card no. 3 and is included in the shipment when it leaves the customs area of the Community. It is a permission for multiple export, thus the original permission has to be kept by the owner to be used when the next opportunity occurs. The photocopy of permission, with confirmed conformity to the original, has to be added to 1 SAD card (Tymińska 2008). 2 Rules concerning the export of movable monuments from Poland to other member states of the European Union Union and domestic legal regulations concerning the transfer of cultural assets monuments in turnover within the Community and with third countries are applicable to their export to other member states of the European Union and in the unregulated area on the community level, as well as to third countries. In the case of the export of a cultural asset monument to other member states of the European Union the permission is issued, depending on the purpose of the export, by the Minister of Culture and National Heritage or by the Provincial Monument Conservator. The permission for library collections is issued by the Director of the National Library of Poland. Rules and procedures concerning the transfer of monuments on the territory of the European Union have been introduced on the level of domestic regulations. Proper bodies of public administration issue proper permissions for their export to other member states. Permission can be issued only when it does not cause damage of cultural heritage. The act on the protection and care of monuments introduced four types of permissions which allow for the export of monuments from Poland to other member states of the European Union. Permissions are issued on the basis of a properly filled out application which includes personal data of the applicant, precise and professional features of the exported object with accurate description and justified realization of the planned export (e.g., exhibition, museum presentation). Granting a permission depends on fulfilment of statutory requirements by the potential exported object. Monuments can be temporarily exported from Poland if their conditions are satisfied and the person who possesses the monument guarantees that it will not be damaged and it will be brought back to Poland before the expiry date of permission. After the examination of such circumstances, export from Poland to other member state may occur on the basis of: 26. Formalized document, which enables one to file a customs declaration in written form, used in the case of transfer of goods in trade quantities.

31 The Cross-Border Transfer of Cultural Assets in the European Union 31 single permission for permanent export of a monument to foreign countries, single permission for temporary export of a monument to foreign countries, multiple individual permission for temporary export of a monument to foreign countries, multiple general permission for temporary export of a monument to foreign countries. Single permissions for permanent export to foreign countries are issued by the Minister of Culture and National Heritage. Before the issue, he consults a commission composed of specialists in the particular field of monuments protection. The export based on such permission can be realized within 12 months from the date of issue. 27 Single permissions for temporary export to foreign countries, multiple general permissions for temporary export to foreign countries and multiple individual permissions for temporary export to foreign countries are issued upon the request of a natural person, administrative unit or museum by proper body of public administration the Provincial Monument Conservator. Within fourteen days from return of a monument to Poland, the owner of the permission is obliged to notify the issuing body. Domestic regulations specify not only conditions and procedures of granting permissions for export of monuments, but also determine objects which are not liable for this obligation. It concerns the export to member states of the European Union but also outside the EU. The following objects are mentioned in the regulations: monuments which are not entered into register and are not older than 55 years old monuments, which are technology objects, not entered into register and not older than 25 years old monuments brought from foreign countries, which are covered by temporary clearance according to the regulations of the Community Customs Code monuments brought from foreign countries by the people who enjoy diplomatic privileges or immunities, including monuments brought in order to furnish diplomatic missions or consular offices works of living artists library materials created after 31 December 1948 (Witkowski 2011) Domestic regulations specify not only conditions and procedures of granting permissions for the export of cultural assets, but also determine objects which are not liable for this obligation. It concerns the export within the European Union but also outside the EU. The following objects are mentioned in the regulations: monuments which are not entered into register and are not older than 55 years old; monuments, which are technology objects, not entered into register and not older than 25 years old; monuments brought from foreign countries, which are covered by economic temporary clearance according to the regulations of the Community Customs Code; monuments brought from foreign countries by the people who enjoy diplomatic privileges or immunities, including monuments brought in order to furnish diplomatic missions or consular offices; works of living artists and library materials created after 31 December It is necessary to point out that crime against monuments works of art, has become a leading field of transnational (international) organized crime in many countries and in the international space, apart from drug crime, weapons trade and slave trade (Witkowski 2008). At the end of the 1960s, the term art-drain (on the pattern of brain-drain) was created. It describes drainage of works of art which is a more and more common phenomenon. In other words, it describes international trade of works of art which have been stolen and smuggled abroad. It results in robbing financially weaker countries of works of art by richer countries. As a result, it is necessary to focus on restitution of monuments exported illegally from a member state to other member state, while presenting regulations concerning the protection of cultural assets in turnover with third countries. The steps which lead to finding, securing and enabling a country to regain this monument are taken upon the request of a member state. Illegal export of a monument is the export which has 27. It is worth mentioning that people interested in obtaining a permission for permanent export of monuments, which were created before 1949, to foreign countries, either on a common customs area or outside this area, are obliged to obtain a valuation of the expert and pay 25% of its value for the benefit of the State Treasury. The possibility of permanent export is provided only for people having ownership title to exported objects.

32 32 Piotr Zawrotniak violated applicable regulations in the scope of the protection of monuments in a particular member state. Restitution proceedings can be conducted in the case of monuments which belong to the following categories: archaeological monuments which are older than 100 years old original paintings, made with any technique and on any material, which are older than 50 years, their value is higher than EUR and are created by late artists original watercolours, gouaches and pastels made on any material, which are older than 50 years, their value is higher than EUR and are created by late artists single books or books which are the part of collection, which are older than 100 years and their value is higher than EUR The issue of supervision over the transfer of national cultural assets having artistic, historical or archaeological value in the international turnover of goods, concerns only conditions and realization of procedures of their export. The character of objects is not relevant; they can be monuments, works of art or cultural assets. Regulations concerning turnover of cultural assets monuments are not applicable to import of goods from third countries to a common customs area. By analogy, the obligation to present export permission from an export country with customs import application is applicable. It is the requirement which enables legal export (with customs procedure) of a cultural asset monument (Kuś 2008). References Bernatek-Zaguła, I Prawna ochrona dóbr kultury. Problemy terminologiczne. Przegląd Prawa Konstytucyjnego (4): Kuś, A Ograniczenia w obrocie towarowym z zagranicą. In Zasady i ograniczenia w przepływie osób i towarów w Unii Europejskiej, edited by S. Dubaj, A. Kuś and P. Witkowski, Zamość: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Administracji w Zamościu. Paczuski, W Handel dziełami sztuki w Unii Europejskiej. Stan prawny na 1 czerwca 2005 r., Monografie Zakamycza. Kraków: Zakamycze. Pruszyński, J.P Dziedzictwo kultury w świetle Konstytucji Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej z 2 kwietnia 1997 roku. In Konstytucja i władza we współczesnym świecie. Doktryna, prawo, praktyka. Prace dedykowane profesorowi Wojciechowi Sokolewiczowi na siedemdziesięciolecie urodzin, edited by J. Wawrzyniak, J. Trzciński and M. Kruk. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe. Tymińska, I Jednolity dokument administracyjny krok po kroku. Procedura celna, dopuszczenie do obrotu. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Cła i Logistyki. Witkowski, P Instytucje wspólnotowego prawa celnego w międzynarodowym obrocie towarowym. Chełm: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Stosunków Międzynarodowych i Komunikacji Społecznej Pozataryfowe środki techniczno-pozaekonomiczne w międzynarodowym obrocie towarowym w regulacjach celnych Wspólnot Europejskich ograniczenia sensu largo. In Środki polityki handlowej w wymianie międzynarodowej. Na przykładzie Unii Europejskiej, edited by A. Milczarczyk-Woźniak, P. Hanclich and P. Witkowski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Cła i Logistyki. Wójtowicz, K Zasady stosowania prawa wspólnotowego w państwach członkowskich Unii Europejskiej, Zeszyt/Centrum Europejskie Natolin. Warszawa: CEN. Zeidler, K Prawo ochrony dziedzictwa kultury. Stan prawny na 1 czerwca 2007 r., Monografie. Warszawa: Wolters Kluwer Polska.

33 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Migration Flows form New Member States and the Prospect of Britain s Withdrawal from the European Union Izabela Dąbrowska Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biała Podlaska, Poland Abstract Ever since the European Union expanded to admit first eights Central and Eastern European countries in 2004, and then two more in 2007, internal migration has become a major social and political matter especially in Britain, which is one of the main destinations for thousands of migrants. This article builds on the body of data provided by British national institutions to examine the kingdom s economic interests in revising its own deal in European migration policy. It presents the contemporary concerns with migrants flows from new member states in the wider perspective of Britain s complex relationship with Europe and its own contested integration with the Union. The paper s main objective though is to argue whether questioning the existing integration principles, including the principle of free movement, is justified or whether it has just become a convenient matter in the discussion on Britain s likely withdrawal from the organization in Keywords: the European Union, European principles, migration to Britain, British withdrawal Introduction To understand why the issue of migrants is used in the present-day discussions on Britain s future in the UE, the article provides a historical perspective on the kingdom s membership with the Union. It then goes to consider the most contentious matters in the present-day Britain, including free migration from new member states. To critically assess the effects of the Union enlargement in 2004 and 2007 in the light of migration, the article bases on the body of data provided by British institutions like the Centre for Europe Reform (an independent British think-tank), Institute of Economic Affairs, Statistical Office or the Migratory Observatory. The statistical figures help to assess popular assumptions on migration and examine the kingdom s economic interests in revising its own deal in European migration policy. Finally, the article discusses whether the challenges caused by new migrants influx can be regarded as a vital reason for Britain s dissatisfaction with their EU membership and its likely withdrawal from the organization. 1 Britain s EU entry and its consequences The United Kingdom effectively entered the European Community (the then European Economic Community) in 1973, after signing the Treaty of accession a year earlier. The move had some major constitutional consequences; the first was undermining the British traditional and fundamental principle of parliamentary sovereignty i.e., which meant accepting the EU provisions as binding in the kingdom, and the other one eroding the doctrine of legal sovereignty, which enforced the rule of so-called direct effect, enabling British nationals to enjoy the legal provision of international law (Oliver 2013, 84). In the post-legislative referendum held two years later in order to measure support for the kingdom s continued membership, an overwhelming majority of Britons i.e., 67,2%, at a comparably high turnout (64,5%), were in favour of their staying in Europe (Meyer 2013, 2).

34 34 Izabela Dąbrowska Membership in the European Community added a new dimension not only to the British constitutional arrangements. Since 1973 the European members have undergone further shifts submitting their power and imposing directives. The 1987 Single European Act, the 1993 Maastricht Treaty and the 1999 Amsterdam Treaty strengthened European ministers and its parliament s law-making decisions (Norton 2007, 263). For years, despite Eurosceptic attitudes towards supranational integration on the part of many British politicians and citizens, the subsequent governments did not question the idea of European integration too eagerly. Being in the Union with many other wealthier member states, Britain enhanced its economic growth and strengthened its position in the world (Norton 2007, 242). With increased trading, the kingdom became a more significant partner and its decision making powers in Europe more significant (Bulmer 2007, 791). Despite obvious gains of the EU membership, the Eurosceptic sentiments have never died out in Britain or its mainstream parties and institutions. This is due, among other things, to the EU basic principles which guarantee the so called four freedoms, i.e., the free movement of people, goods, capital, services and labor within the EU s member states. The fundamental aim of the EU s single market principle is to increase competition and specialization as well as improve the efficiency of allocating funds and labor. The EFTA countries (European Free Trade Association) Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Lichtenstein, also enjoy almost unlimited access to the EU s internal market through European Economic Agreement (EEA) agreement, although they do not have powers to vote on EU s rules and provisions. 1 2 The present contentious matters and the prospect of Brexit The British dissatisfaction with Brussels s policies has always been highlighted especially during partisan economic or political debates. The latest complaints include, among others, too heavily regulated economy, which results in unnecessary regulatory costs. The authors of the Open Europe report estimate, for instance, that the most important EU regulations, the so called top 100, cost the UK economy GBP 27,4 billion 2 a year, sometimes outweighing benefits (Murray and Broomfield 2014, 13). The same concerns other areas in the UK, although businesses and institutions have adapted to bear the costs. Britain s contribution to the EU budget remains an equally disputed case. The country is one of the largest overall payer and the present reports estimate Britain s contribution in 2014 as the fourth largest in the Union (European Union Finances 2014: Statement on the 2014 EU Budget and Measures to Counter Fraud and Financial Mismanagement. Presented to Parliament by the Financial Secretary to the Treasury by Command of Her Majesty 2014, 12 15). The net figures provided by the National Statistics, which already include rebate, show that since 2008 the UK s payments have quadrupled (Whittard 2012). The second major British concern is that the laws governing the decision-making bodies are increasingly taken over by the clique in Brussels. In August 2013 Cameron lost battle over the appointment of Jean-Claude Juncker, the former prime minister of Luxemburg, elected president of the European Commission. The objection of this contested nomination was that Juncker had been nominated not by the European Council of heads of governments but by the European parliament. For Cameron and many other leaders, it represented a shift in the balance of power among powerful executive branches of European Institutions (Flamini 2014, 11). The most controversial and thorny concern though in recent discussions on Europe s future has been the influx of EU migrants, especially from Central and Eastern Europe due to the EU s enlargement process in 2004 and then in 2007, which the UK Independence Party has made the prime political issue. Many Britons feel that one of the four European freedoms has been excessively overused. The free movement is no longer perceived as an advantage that works for mutual benefit of both Britons and other member states (Parker 2014; Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 67). What is interesting however is that even an independent anti-union report does not share this opinion. It sees several opportunities of British withdrawal from the Union but does not 1. See: EEA Agreement. [@:] 2. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

35 Migration Flows form New Member States and the Prospect of Britain s Withdrawal 35 point to immigration and air transport. Restrictions in these sectors would significantly increase the costs of Britain s prospective growth in the future (Murray and Broomfield 2014, 62 63). The above mentioned developments in the UK led to a situation where David Cameron already in 2013 committed the Conservative party to holding a referendum on Britain s withdrawal from the EU or negotiating its relationship with the Union on condition the party won the parliamentary elections in This second chance in which Britons could express their opinions on EU membership is expected to be held around The decision was sparked by most recent survey findings showing that a majority of Britons would like to leave the EU (Springford and Tilford 2014, 1). These sentiments were shown in the support for the right-wing UIKP and its leader Nigel Farage, who beside the UK s exit advocates limitation of intra-eu immigration. In the last European elections (in May 2014), Farage s party gained 27,49% of the public support, netting 24 British seats out of 73 and beating both mainstream parties Conservatives and Labour ( European Voters 2014). 3 The immigration issue Britain s attractive destination on migrants routes is due to many factors: its colonial past and ties with the Commonwealth, membership in numerous economic organizations or traditional alliance with the United States to mention just a few. Presently, to accommodate incomers, the United Kingdom uses a revised visa system that operates on points-based 5 tiers, phased in the years , It replaced previously issued work permits and entry schemes and has become the main immigration route for migrants from outside the European Economic Area (EEA). In the former Britain s referendum (in 1975) on the country s membership in the then European Economic Community (EEC), free migration regulations barely featured. Anti-immigrant sentiment had been prevalent at that time in Britain, but it centered primarily on non-european migrants from its former colonies. Their influx was regulated already in the 1960s, when the first Immigration Acts were introduced to rationalize entry both for aliens and Commonwealth subjects. Other migrants were not expected to come in search for jobs or settlement as most other European member states were wealthier (Moran 2005, 47 48; Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 68). Free movement has become especially controversial since 2004, when the so called A8 (accession countries, including Poland), and then A2 (Romania and Bulgaria) enlarged the EU structures in New member states were primarily to increase the innovative potential of the EU and give it more economic and political dynamism. Their members were to play and active role in the community and derive all benefits of their EU membership, including open migration (Kok 2003, 14). The enlargement was also supposed to be cheap as the financial costs of admitting new member states were calculated as low. The alarm in some member states concerning an invasion of manpower was not confirmed in expert reports. The first estimates expected the influx of migrants to be modest (Kok 2003, 38 41). Before the 2004 enlargement, Britain along with Ireland and Sweden did not even impose any transitional restrictions on the migrants flows from A8 states (Currie 2008, 68). It turned out however that migration was larger than expected. The year 2005 with its 320,000 estimates marked the peak in net long-term migration statistics ( Migration Statistics 2015). In 2013, there were around 1,1 million people from the A8 countries in the UK, some of whom in work. Altogether, the number of people in England and Wales who were born elsewhere in Europe stood at around 2,7 million at that time. Of these 1.6 million came from the old UE-15, and the European Economic Area i.e., EFTA countries, whose citizens are all free to work in the UK (Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 69). The year 2014 saw another increase in net migration to the UK. It reached thousand, the highest in any calendar year since records began (see fig. 1) ( Migration Statistics Quarterly 2015). Statistics prepared by the Office for National Statistics, indicates a significant jump from the 2013 data that estimated the net-influx of the EU citizens at Although the figures are still regarded as provisional, it seems that an increase in this category (up to ) reveals a new record. However, when specific groups of EU countries are analyzed, it turns out that the sum of arrivals from both the EU8 and EU2 remains lower than the EU15 s one in the total number of

36 36 Izabela Dąbrowska 120 EU15 Citizens EU8 Citizens EU2 Citizens thousand EU migrants (i.e., 30% and 19% respectively). It is the immigration from the EU15 (excluding British) that drives the figures up (up from in 2013) ( Migration Statistics Quarterly 2015). Thus, it may be said that the outcry about excessive estimates from new member states is unjustified. 3.1 Western migrants Fig. 1. EU Immigration to the UK, 2005 to 2014 (year ending December 2014) Source: Migration Statistics Quarterly 2015 Western Europeans stay in the kingdom, despite high figures, has never been a contentious issue (see fig. 2). They tend to work in more highly skilled jobs and many direct their own businesses in such sectors as science, technology, engineering or public services employing professionals (doctors, teachers, nurses). They provide technical expertise in skills which are in short supply in the domestic market (Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 70). Their numbers are also barely noticed as their annual flow used to be steady. Between 1993 and 2013, their annual influx rate stood at around It is only last year that the figures in this category recorded the highest estimates, about increase ( Migration Statistics Quarterly 2015). Besides, westerners contribute to higher productivity and raise outputs, which is seen as complementary to and not a substitute for British workers input (Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 73). EU15 Non EU EU8 British EU2 90 thousand Fig. 2. Immigration to the UK for work-related reasons by citizenship, 2005 to 2014 (year ending December 2014) Source: Migration Statistics Quarterly A8 and A2 migrants A8 emigrants, predominantly Polish, are younger than westerners and the average working Britons and fairly well-educated. Due to language problems though, many find jobs in low-paid work. A high proportion of A8 nationals (and now A2 migrants) work in skilled trades mainly construction and in low-skilled such as manufacturing and service jobs. With prolonging periods of stay many face deskilling, discrimination or exploitation (Johns 2013, 36 39). Similarly, as in the case of westerners, there is little evidence that they have reduced Britons average wages or deprived them of employment as their labor position is again supplementary. Between 2004 and 2011, they added merely 2% to the labor market (Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 70 71). These findings

37 Migration Flows form New Member States and the Prospect of Britain s Withdrawal 37 are in line with other studies that have explored the impact of EU immigrants, including A8 workers on Britain s employment prospects (72). The only noticeable negative aspects of large Central and Eastern European influx seem to have been a slight increase in wage inequality and higher rental cost of flats (73). It is the pay disparities that make the kingdom an attractive destination. However, in contrast to popular beliefs, migrant workers contribute more to the economic revenues than receive in benefits (Dustmann and Frattini 2014, 593). The fact that some European migrants take advantage of the EU s regulation and enjoy access to state benefits and services has been highlighted by the British media and by Eurosceptic politicians more than the benefit of their work. Consequently, many Britons assume that migrants from the EU take their jobs, reduce their pay and unfairly receive financial benefits which are funded by the British taxpayer (Johns 2013, 39 41). Further, contrary to what is the generally assumed to be true about the numbers of migrants from Central and Eastern Europe, the influx of these citizens has remained stable and much lower than the 2007 record figures. The 2014 numbers point to a increase in the EU8 group, 67% of whom came for work-related reasons. The immigration from the EU2 states (i.e., Bulgaria and Romania), has however noted a significant increase estimated at , which could be explained by lifting off transitional work restrictions. As in the former group, most of these citizens; that is 76%, arrived for work-related purposes. Still, as the figure 2 indicates, the EU8 and EU2 increases remain much lower than the ones in the EU15 and non-eu categories, where the numbers of netlong migrants grew by and respectively. Altogether, the latter groups account for newcomers, which contrasts considerably with the from Central and Eastern Europe ( Migration Statistics Quarterly 2015). 3.3 Supplementary rather than competitive Migratory flows let European and British economies expand, as workers are more productively employed if they are free to migrate. Furthermore, it seems that labor influxes have little discernible impact on the incomes of the indigenous British population. Thus, the present day presence of high numbers of incomers, poses dilemmas for the government. On the one hand, it is interested in boosting economic output and helping businesses, but it is also aware of the likely prospects of worsening the nationals working conditions, if migration is not properly controlled or curbed. For the British labor market, both in case of western and eastern migrants, immigration seems largely complementary, not competitive (Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 69). This allows Britons to specialize and not take low-skilled jobs. Furthermore, the present day structure of labor market clearly shows that the claims about disputed presence of foreign nationals should not overused. The British labor market has undergone radical changes recently, which additionally are likely to intensify the present tendencies in the nearest future. Technological advance has eliminated many semi-skilled jobs, and global trends have undermined many manufacturing branches. Additionally, demand for high skills, represented mainly by westerners in such sectors as management, finances or public service, as well as lowskills, supplied by A8 or A2 nationals in construction, basic services and manufacturing, has been on an increase (Springford, Tilford, and Whyte 2014, 74). This trend, as the UK Commission of Employment and Skills (in 2012) predicts, is going to be even more visible in by the by end of the decade. The retiring rate will rise significantly and the market will create around a million and a half jobs in high and low-skilled areas. Thus, demand for migrant workers, both westerners and easterners, in professional, managerial or intermediate sectors as well as non-routine service will remain strong. It is routine administration and manual sectors that will generate greatest losses (Holmes and Mayhew 2012, 6; Wilson and Homenidou 2012, 63). Making immigration one of the central issues in current governmental policies and the incoming parliamentary campaign does not seem economically sound. It is one of those current discussion topics which is driven by partisan debate, sometimes based on very selective or no real evidence. It is convenient as it can rely on simplistic, easily manipulated facts satisfying peoples grudges and finally deflecting public attention from real politicians motifs. Instead of giving solid background and perspective to the European debate, such arguments tend to be obsessive without being illuminating (Lord Simon of Highbury et al. 2013, 5). Furthermore, it should be remembered that

38 38 Izabela Dąbrowska a vast majority of non-native population comes predominantly from non-eu countries. Poland and the Republic of Ireland are the only exceptions. Besides, as emphasized above, in term of nominal GPD, immigrants contribution is a net positive, between GBP 7,3 and 16,3 billion annually (Sirkeci 2013, 24 25). Thus, it may be inferred that the immigration issue from new member states is used instrumentally. 4 Brexit and the likely consequences If the British vote for their country s withdrawal from the EU in 2017, they may do so through Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty procedures or a Parliamentary Act that repeals the 1972 European Communities Act (Oliver 2013, 12 13). According to one of independent reports, the move is likely to free the market from the EU controls and regulations and boost revenues in several areas, for example, fisheries, trade, energy or transport and exceed the cost of withdrawal. The increased economic opportunities will however again demand free movement of labor (Murray and Broomfield 2014, 32). The numerous work places presently taken by the EU as well as non-eu nationals would have to be filled. Another issue would be whether the kingdom should remain within the European Economic Area, either as a member of EFTA or with some special status as is the case with Norway or Switzerland. If it does, it requires adherence to the EU s principle of free movement of labor. This would mean that one of the British prime areas of the present discontent regarding its membership in the EU would remain unsolved (33). Other reports on British exit are less optimistic. Britain s withdrawal would have very significant implications for the rest of Europe although more profound for the kingdom itself. It could open a Pandora s box with other countries and regions wishing to follow and damage the European Union economic and political stability effecting the moods in the region (Oliver 2013, 27). Besides, as Gifford (Gifford 2007, ) emphasizes, in the last decades the UK economy has already developed its European model, which is also globally contextualized. Going back to the nineteenth century free trade arrangement with the kingdom s present chronic trade deficits and reduced manufacturing levels might bring more challenges than expected. For Springford and Tilford (Springford and Tilford 2014, 12), the assumption that Britain would benefit for exiting the EU is based on misconceptions. Free capital would not follow the destination that restricts its labor market but wishes to attract investment and penetrate emerging markets. It appears that there might be some other costs of Britain s exiting the UE or EEA, which are largely difficult to assess. These could include social disruption, losses and closures in businesses or decreased revenues (Kendall 2013, ). There might also appear problems with replacing British retirees and filling the expected expending sectors for high and low-skilled areas of the labor market. To meet the demands, the Home Office s UK Boarder Agency would probably still have to rely on its Tier system or devise new immigration tariffs. Whichever decision will be taken, British withdrawal from the EU or EEA does not seem a proper way of solving its present domestic problems (Murray and Broomfield 2014, 34). Conclusions On the basis of the presented data and research done by British institutions, it might be concluded that the free movement of persons within the EU can be generally assessed as beneficial for the British economy. The present-day discontent over the migration flows seems to cloak several challenges related to the principle of free access to labor markets such as driving down wages or growing claims for benefits. Further, it appears that the issue of excessive migration to the isles from the newly admitted states has just become a convenient political debate point. This is confirmed by recent findings. The figures concerning migration for the year 2014 presented by Office for National Statistics show that net migrants influx to Britain from the EU8 and EU2 countries is lower than from either the EU15 or non-eu group. It may thus be said that calling for a radical U-turn in the existing arrangements, including Britain s membership in the EU, is just part of political game basing more on popular feelings than sound calculations.

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40 40 Izabela Dąbrowska Whittard, D The UK s External Balance Sheet The International Investment Position (IIP). In. ons.gov.uk: Office for National Statistics. _ pdf (accessed ). Wilson, R., and K. Homenidou Working Futures Technical Report on Sources and Methods. In. gov.uk: University of Warwick Covent Garden technical-report.pdf.

41 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 European Union Funds in the Financial Framework in the Process of Building Competitive Capacity among the Communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland Abstract The aim of this article is to present the plans of the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship identified in the course of the survey regarding their use of EU funds for building their competitive capacity and pursuing their strategic development objectives in the period The study helped to identify the expected results of the use of EU funds in the financial framework by the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship as well as the importance of these funds for the implementation of these communes development strategies. The results show that the communes intend to actively seek financial resources made available to Poland for the implementation of the cohesion policy in the period and use them to achieve the objectives set out in their development strategies. Expectations of the communes regarding the outcomes that they expect to achieve as a result of the implementation of the projects co-financed by the EU, however, seem inadequate when compared to the actual opportunities that these operational programmes create in terms of the implementation of investment projects in This raises concerns that these resources will not be utilised as efficiently as expected. Keywords: regional competitiveness, EU funds, the financial framework , communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship Introduction There is a considerable gap between the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship and the country s leading regions in terms of their level of social and economic development. In 2012, GDP per capita in this voivodship accounted for 81,3% 1 of the average GDP per capita for all the voivodships in the country. The growth rate of this parameter was 3,1% (9th in the country) compared to 2011, and the region s share in the generation of national GDP was 4,4%. 2 The region presents itself even less favourably on the international stage. For instance, the region s GDP per capita in purchasing power parity was only 54% of the EU average in In the national rankings of investment attractiveness, the voivodship places itself among the average regions (Godlewska-Majkowska et al. 2014a, 65; Nowicki 2014, 7). There are significant discrepancies in terms of location advantages between the different areas of the region. The biggest cities city counties together with the surrounding land counties are the most attractive to potential investors. Investment attractiveness of the other areas in the region is rather low (Godlewska-Majkowska et al. 2014b, 12), which contributes to the polarisation of the development processes taking place in the region. 1. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.] 2. Data published by Central Statistical Office of Poland at Local Data Bank website in 2015, [@:] 3. Data published by Eurostat in 2015, [@:]

42 42 Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel It is a common view in the literature on the subject that appropriate reinforcing of the region s competitive potential, especially the competitive potential of its weakest links, is a necessary condition for making the development processes in the region more dynamic. Due to the communes limited ability to finance investment projects using their own funds, their implementation is dependent on their access to external sources of funding. Funds from the European Union s budget allocated for the implementation of the cohesion policy, available primarily through regional and national operational programmes, are currently particularly important for the desired development of Polish regions, including in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship. This article will present the plans of the communes in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship regarding their use of EU funds in the process of building their competitiveness and implementing strategic development objectives in the years Sources of a region s competitiveness A region s competitiveness comes down to its ability to gain a competitive advantage over other territorial units other competing participants. The aim of this competition may be attracting capital from other regions of the country and from abroad; creating new jobs in the region; attracting national and international financial help; locating various facilities as well as service, administrative, military, etc. units in the area; and attracting tourists. A region s competitiveness is the sum of the competitive strength of all the organisations operating in the region, both in the real and the regulatory sectors. These organisations are mutually dependent, which ultimately determines the formation of regional competitive advantages (Kosiedowski 2008, 62). Securing a strong competitive position through the use of competitive advantages is the result of the competition process. Being able to compete is preconditioned by having the necessary competitive potential. 4 This potential is created by the region s endogenous resources. Regional authorities in Poland, both at the voivodship and commune level, but to a lesser degree also at the county level, have the ability to shape some of these resources through a skilful investment policy, for the implementation of which EU funds may be used. In the literature on the subject, the process of building competitiveness is presented in the form of different models, the most common of which are: the competitiveness pyramid model, the competitiveness hat and competitiveness tree models as well as Porter s diamond. At the core of the regional competitiveness pyramid model one will find the following sources of competitiveness, in a region s success factors: basic technical, social and institutional infrastructure, territorial availability, qualified workforce, economy structure, decision-making centres, environment and innovative activity. These resources allow research and development projects to be carried out in a region, promote the growth of entrepreneurship and investment and the creation of social capital. These are the factors that help improve labour productivity and employment rate, which is in turn a sign of competitiveness (i.e., disclosed competitiveness or symptoms of competitiveness) that is directly reflected in regional results (mainly in the region s GDP). Growth in GDP per capita results in improved life quality in the region, which is the ultimate goal of being competitive the top of the competitiveness pyramid (Gardiner, Martin, and Tyler 2004, 7). The competitiveness hat model differentiates between several levels of competitiveness: regional results, region s performance, market structure and regional competitiveness determinants (Martin 2003, ). In this model, GDP per capita is a synthetic indicator of regional performance. A region s performance is defined by regional added value, unit labour costs, profitability of companies operating in the region and market shares. Market structure is determined by regional economy sectors, specialisation, ownership structure, the size and number of enterprises. The determinants of regional competitiveness include human resources, basic technical and social infrastructure, knowledge infrastructure, institutions, technology, culture, demographics and the quality of the natural environment. In the competitiveness tree model, the roots (i.e., human resources, 4. A region s competitive potential can be defined by analogy with a company s competitive potential as all the tangible and intangible resources necessary for the region to be able to function on a market s competitive arena (Kola 2007, 107 et seq.).

43 EU Funds in the Financial Framework in the Process of Building 43 innovation, entrepreneurship, infrastructure) are its determinants, the trunk symbolises economic structure and productivity, the branches their direct effects, i.e. employment, profits and taxes, and the fruits the final results of competing, that is prosperity, sustainable development, and social inclusion (Łaźniewska, Chmielewski, and Nowak 2012, 47). Porter s model of economic competitiveness analysis lists four groups of factors that influence the creation of a country s or a region s competitive advantage at the microeconomic level. These are: production factors (human resources, capital resources, technical and scientific infrastructure, natural resources, etc.), the nature of demand, the presence of competitive industries and the strategy the enterprises have adopted, their management style and competitive tools (Porter 2006, 24). Generally speaking, in regional competitiveness models, the effect of competing effectively (known as outcome-based competitiveness) is the improvement in the region s life quality, which is a derivative of economic growth resulting from an increase in labour productivity and higher employment rate. For regions with low levels and low dynamics of growth, increasing productivity while improving the rate of employment is a major challenge as short term improvement of both these factors does not necessarily take place simultaneously. In such regions, any increase in productivity that results from processes of economic restructuring and structural changes is often achieved at the expense of jobs. Maintaining high productivity in the region and the ability to create new sustainable jobs in the long term requires supporting the so-called factor-based competitiveness, which is building such elements of competitive potential as technical, social and institutional infrastructure (Łaźniewska, Chmielewski, and Nowak 2012, 49). The transition to a higher level of competitiveness i.e., from a level of resource-based competitiveness to competitiveness based on an increasing income from investment, and ultimately to one based on innovation (Gardiner, Martin, and Tyler 2004, 39), is not possible without a region s access to the basic high-quality technical, social and economic infrastructure or the involvement of the institutional factor in order to be able to utilise these resources more efficiently (Wosiek 2009, 175). A region s competitive position based on these kinds of resources will have an impact on more and more advanced factors determining its competitive advantage or the ability to compete in the future (Porter 1990, 18 21). These include the development of existing industries and the creation of new, highly efficient sectors of regional economy (Jewtuchowicz 2000, 34). In the process of building factor competitiveness, the regions may use the funds from the EU budget for the implementation of the cohesion policy, whose two main objectives for the period are improved growth and employment rate. 2 The possibilities for utilising EU funds by the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship in In the current financial framework ( ), Poland has EUR 82,5 billion at its disposal from the EU cohesion policy budget. These funds aim to create conditions for further growth in the country mainly by increasing the competitiveness of its economy, promoting social and territorial cohesion and improving the country s efficiency and effectiveness. They will be allocated at the central level through the use of national operational programmes and the European Territorial Cooperation Programmes (implemented with a foreign partner), as well as at the regional level through regional operational programmes. Being able to utilise the majority of national programmes (i.e., Infrastructure and the Environment, Smart Development, Digital Poland, Knowledge-Education- Development, Technical Support) and the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship s dedicated regional programme is crucial for the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship. The purpose of the Infrastructure and Environment Operational Programme is to support a resource-efficient and environmentally friendly economy that promotes social and territorial cohesion. The programme will ensure the implementation of the following priority axes: a reduction in the emissions of the economy, environmental protection (including adaptation to climate change), 5. The data included in this part of the study comes mainly from the Ministry of Infrastructure and Development, available in March 2015, published at

44 44 Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel developing environmentally friendly transport infrastructure which is important for all Europe, increasing the availability of European transport networks and the development of energy security infrastructure. The Smart Growth Operational Programme focuses on the development of innovation in the Polish economy, mainly by stimulating research and development and transferring research results to this economy. The purpose of the Digital Poland Operational Programme is to strengthen the digital foundations that promote the socio-economic development of the country. The programme will support the investments aimed at making broadband internet more accessible, developing products and services based on information and communication technology and increasing the use of ICT in services (e.g., e-government). The Knowledge-Education-Development Operational Programme was established for the purpose of implementing the reforms related to employment, social exclusion, education, higher education, health and good governance. The means earmarked under this programme are also to support social innovation as well as the initiatives related to providing employment for young people. The Technical Support Operational Programme is a tool aimed at improving administration and supporting the implementation of the cohesion policy. It provides funding for building the capacity of a system of institutions involved in the administration of EU funds and supporting the institutions responsible for the implementation of projects. As part of the programme, appropriate measures will also be taken aimed at promoting and providing information about European funds available to the applicants in Poland in In the current financial framework, the implementation of national programmes will use up approximately 60% of the cohesion policy budget earmarked for Poland. The remaining 40% is available to voivodship authorities managing those regional programmes. Of the total EUR 31,3 billion earmarked for regional programmes, the local authorities of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship have EUR 1,903 billion at their disposal. The above amount is to turn the voivodship into a competitive and innovative region of Europe and improve the quality of life for its inhabitants. 6 As part of the Regional Operational Programme for the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship, the following 12 priority axes are to be implemented: improving the level of innovation and competitiveness of the region s economy (engaging EU funds EUR 429,6 million), a digital region (EUR 50,2 million), energy efficiency and low-carbon economy in the region (EUR 282,2 million), an ecofriendly region (EUR 118,7 million), the region s internal cohesion and external accessibility (EUR 206,0 million), social solidarity and competitive workforce (EUR 241,6 million), community-driven local growth (EUR 39,8 million), active in the labour market (EUR 183,6 million), social solidarity (EUR 124,6 million), innovative education (EUR 131,1 million), community-driven local growth (EUR 36,3 million) and technical support (EUR 59,9 million). 7 The major change, compared to the previous financial framework, consists in stressing the importance of innovation and competitiveness of the region s economy using soft factors related in particular to human resources. 3 The activity and expectations of the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship related to the acquisition of EU funds in the financial framework selected survey results 3.1 Methodology The survey was conducted as part of the project called Communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie voivodship in the financial framework opportunities and threats. The research project was carried out by a team from the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management, at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń 8 between May and August The objectives of this 6. See: The Regional Operational Programme of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship for (CCI 2014PL16M2OP002), the Committee s Executive Decision C(2014) of 16 December Adopting certain elements of the Regional Operational Programme of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship for to support the European Regional Development Fund and European Social Fund under the Investment for growth and employment objective for the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship in Poland. 7. See: Ibidem, The team consisted of the following members: Włodzimierz Karaszewski the head, Leszek Czaplewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Marcin Kuzel, Małgorzata Szałucka, Aneta Szóstek, Magdalena Kuczmarska.

45 EU Funds in the Financial Framework in the Process of Building 45 project included identifying these communes intentions as to increasing the intensity of efforts aimed at raising funds in the financial framework ; identifying the programmes that the communes intend to use in this framework; identifying the expected outcomes from the use of the funds raised and determining the importance of this funding for the implementation of the objectives contained in individual commune strategies. In order to achieve these objectives, the local authorities of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship were requested to provide their evaluation and opinion on this subject. All 144 communes of this voivodship were invited to participate in the study. A total of 104 correctly completed questionnaires were returned 63 from rural communes, 13 from urban communes and 28 from urban-rural communes. The return rate and structural compatibility (the study included 72% of all the communes; 68,5% from the rural communes, 76,5% from urban and 80% from urban-rural communes) make the results of the study representative (meaning that they can be generalised to describe all the communes of the Kujawsko- Pomorskie Voivodship). 3.2 Intensification of efforts to raise funds from the European Union in the financial framework and the programmes the communes in the voivodship intend to use The communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship intend to intensify their efforts to raise EU funds in the financial framework Nearly 90% of the communes surveyed were preparing to raise funds through prior preparation of investment proposals that would be eligible for EU funding. Half of the local authorities train their staff in this area, and a third cooperate with other communes. Virtually none of the communes surveyed plan to employ staff experienced in fundraising, and only one in ten communes intends to cooperate with an external fundraising company. Almost all the local authorities in this voivodship expressed the view that the experience they had gained while applying for EU funding in the financial framework will have either significant or very significant importance when applying for the funding that has been allocated in the new framework. The results of the survey show that virtually all the local authorities will be applying for funding as part of the regional programmes (fig. 1). Nearly 60% of the communes are planning to use the Infrastructure and Environment Operational Programme, while more than half will apply for funding for the projects under the Knowledge-Education-Development Operational Programme. One in four communes intends to prepare an application that meets the criteria of the Digital Poland Operational Programme, and nearly one fifth the Smart Development Operational Programme. The least popular were the following pan-european programmes: United Europe, Food for the Poor and the Initiative for Youth Employment. regional programmes Infrastructure and Environment Knowledge-Education-Development Digital Poland Smart Growth pan-european programmes 15% 30% 60% 100% Fig. 1. The programmes that the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie voivodship intend to use in the financial framework Source: own study based on the results of the survey Note: Reported values do not add up to 100% because the respondents were able to choose more than one answer. 3.3 Expected outcomes of the use of funding under the financial framework The most important outcome that the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship expect to get as a result of the use of EU funds in the financial framework is to improve the

46 46 Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel road and transport infrastructure (fig. 2). The importance factor for this outcome was as high as 0,95. The communes also expect to improve their technical infrastructure: their equipment and networks regarding the energy industry, the supply of central heating, water, sewage and waste disposal, etc. This outcome ranked second (importance factor 0,82). These responses indicate that the communes continue to recognise the shortcomings associated with the hard infrastructure in the region and the EU funds are seen as the primary source of funding for this type of investment. Communes expectations regarding their anticipated outcomes of the use of EU support in the framework match the outcomes they expected to achieve by implementing the investment projects undertaken by the communes in the period as part of the 1st Priority Axis of the Regional Operational Programme in the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship in The objective of this axis was to improve the region s technical infrastructure, particularly in terms of (road, rail, air) transport to increase the accessibility of the region as well as improve internal links and transport safety. improved road and transport infrastructure improved technical infrastructure improved educational and cultural infrastructure improved sports infrastructure better environment protection development of entrepreneurship improved IT infrastructure improved health care infrastructure natural heritage protection 0 0,5 1,0 Fig. 2. The potential outcomes of the use of EU funding under the financial framework P k i 1 niwi Note: The importance indicator has been calculated by applying the following formula W = k N, where: W importance indicator; i evaluation index, n i number of indications for a given factor in the i-th place, k the maximum rating on a scale from 1 to k (prioritising factors meant attributing ratings in reverse order), N the number of respondents who answered the question, w i the rating corresponding to the location of the i factor; the indicator corresponds to the method suggested by Karaszewski and Sudoł (1997, 17 18) The communes in this voivodship also expect to improve their educational and cultural infrastructure (understood as a set of facilities and public institutions necessary for the proper functioning of society that directly meet people s cultural needs). This outcome ranked third (0,64). It is very significant because one of the factors of a region s sustainable development is the preservation of its cultural heritage, especially through the active protection of historic sights and a reduction of the civilisation gap through the modernisation and development of cultural infrastructure. Focusing on the role of culture in the region may significantly affect the ability to better utilise the potential of tourism and employment in the tourist services and cultural sectors, and consequently the economic development of the region. It could be argued that the communes of the Kujawsko- Pomorskie Voivodship perceive the financial framework in terms of opportunities for turning the region into a culturally attractive area for tourists on a national scale. The communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship have high hopes of obtaining funding for the improvement of their sports infrastructure. This outcome ranked fourth (0,57). This demonstrates their appreciation of the importance of sport and recreation in improving the quality of life among the local communities. Future investment plans in these communes may therefore include projects resulting in the creation of a number of modern facilities such as sports fields, tennis courts, playgrounds and other sports facilities. It may also be concluded that the communes see tourism, including perhaps active tourism, as one of the most important pillars of development, as evidenced by the expected improvements in the state of the natural environment as a result of the implementation of the investment projects in the current financial framework, (this factor ranked fifth 0,52).

47 EU Funds in the Financial Framework in the Process of Building 47 It is surprising, however, how the communes perceive the development of entrepreneurship to be one of the less important uses of EU funding. This outcome ranked only sixth (0,46). It is a cliché to say that entrepreneurship is an engine of positive change leading to a region s improved competitiveness and quality of life for its inhabitants and the main factor in social and economic development. It seems that the remaining potential outcomes indicated by the respondents should have a secondary role compared to the main outcome, which is developing entrepreneurship. Increasing a region s capacity, for example by improving the wider infrastructure, certainly prerequisites but does not guarantee positive changes in the level and the dynamics of growth in the region. The development of entrepreneurship, however, is essential for such changes to take place. Ranking the development of entrepreneurship this low among the outcomes of the use of EU funding is particularly confusing in the light of the poor performance of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship when compared to the other regions in the country by their level of economic growth, as indicated in the introduction. Local authorities should particularly care about both creating favourable conditions for the development of entrepreneurship and stimulating entrepreneurial initiatives. The results of this study show that this approach to entrepreneurship is evidenced only by urban communes. They ranked the expected outcome of entrepreneurship development second alongside the improvements in technical infrastructure, suggesting that it will be the overriding goal of the majority of projects submitted by the communes for funding under the financial framework It must be emphasised that all the communes participating in the survey intend to use the EU funding available to them under the financial framework for attaining the objectives formulated in their development strategies. The majority of communes (60,6%) believe that the funds will be important for achieving these objectives, while 37,5% expressed the view that their importance will be very significant. Only 1,9% of the communes are more cautious in their assessment, claiming that the funding will play a small role in achieving the goals set out in their strategy (fig. 3). very significant significant not very significant 2% 40% 60% Fig. 3. The perceived importance of European Union funds for achieving the objectives set out in a commune s strategy in the financial framework The results of the study show that, when estimating the potential outcomes of their use of EU funding in , the communes referred to their intentions outlined in their strategic documents. They did not necessarily match their expectations with the actual opportunities that these operational programs provide in terms of the implementation of investment projects. Conclusions The financial framework brings enormous opportunities for Polish regions in terms of scaling up their development processes and will be extremely important for the country s longterm social and economic development. This will enable the communes to continue the efforts initiated in aiming at improving the competitiveness of regional economies. Maximizing these benefits depends on the one hand on ensuring full absorption of the allocated funding and on the other on utilising it in the most efficient way. The above paper has presented selected results of what is most likely the first and so far the only study of this kind in Poland. It helped identify, among other things, the expected outcomes of the use of EU funds in the financial framework by the communes of the Kujawsko- Pomorskie voivodship and the importance of this funding for the implementation of individual commune development strategies.

48 48 Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel The results of the study show that the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship intend to actively seek financial resources made available to Poland for the implementation of the cohesion policy in , as part of both the national programmes and the regional programme, with the latter being reported the most frequently. The conclusions drawn from this study have raised some concerns, however, as it seems that the expectations of the communes regarding the outcomes that they expect to achieve as a result of the implementation of the projects co-financed by the EU, are formulated based on the opportunities offered by the regional programme in the previous financial framework. In addition, these expectations relate to objectives set out in their development strategies. They have not been matched with the actual opportunities offered by the operational programmes in the framework in terms of the implementation of their investment projects. The EU funding available as part of the current financial framework can be used by the communes of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodship to build their competitive potential. If local authorities approach this problem skilfully, then this potential may not only become a factor but also a guarantee of positive changes in the level and the dynamics of growth in the region. They should therefore seek to ensure that the projects financed with the help of the EU funds contribute to the intensification of entrepreneurship development and a significant improvement in the investment attractiveness of the region. The communes participating in the survey do not seem to fully recognise this fact. References Gardiner, B., K. Martin, and P. Tyler Competitiveness, Productivity and Economic Growth Across the European Regions. Regional Studies no. 38 (9): doi: / Godlewska-Majkowska, H., A. Komor, P. Zarębski, M. Czernecki, and M. Typa. 2014a. Atrakcyjność inwestycyjna regionów Raport syntetyczny. Warszawa: Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie b. Atrakcyjność inwestycyjna regionów Województwo kujawsko-pomorskie. Warszawa: Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie. Jewtuchowicz, A Innowacje i organizacja transferu technologii jako elementy konkurencyjności regionu. In Polityka regionalna i jej rola w podnoszeniu konkurencyjności regionów, edited by M. Klamut and L. Cybulski. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej im. Oskara Langego. Karaszewski, W., and S. Sudoł Empirical Research on the Process of Transformation of Polish Companies in the Period of Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. Kola, M Fundusze pomocowe Unii Europejskiej jako czynnik poprawy konkurencyjności małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw w Polsce. Toruń: Dom Organizatora. Kosiedowski, W Regiony Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w procesie integracji ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem wschodniego pogranicza Unii Europejskiej. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. Łaźniewska, E., R. Chmielewski, and P. Nowak Definicje, modele i studia nad regionalną konkurencyjnością. In Konkurencyjność regionalna. Koncepcje, strategie, przykłady, edited by E. Łaźniewska and M. Gorynia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Martin, R.L A Study on the Factors of Regional Competitiveness. A Draft Final Report for the European Commission Directorate-General Regional Policy. Nowicki, M Atrakcyjność inwestycyjna województw i podregionów Polski Gdańsk- Warszawa: Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową; Fundacja Konrada Adenauera w Polsce. Porter, M.E The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: Free Press Strategia konkurencji. Metody analizy sektorów i konkurentów. Translated by A. Ehrlich, Światowe Bestsellery Biznesowe. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo MT Biznes. Wosiek, M Instytucjonalne uwarunkowania konkurencyjności jednostek terytorialnych. Nierówności Społeczne a Wzrost Gospodarczy (14):

49 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish- -Ukrainian Cross-Border Area in the New European Union Programming Period ( ) in the Context of Regional Planning Documents Andrzej Miszczuk Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Poland Abstract The objective of the article is to present the state and directions of the development of tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area covering the Lubelskie and Podkarpackie voivodships and the Lviv and Volyn Oblasts in the context of regional strategic documents prepared in the scope of the new EU perspective for the years In spite of the lack of a uniform strategic document for the purposes of development of the entire cross-border area in the years , the area is considered in development strategies of Polish voivodships and in related documents. In the case of the Lubelskie Voivodship, it is the cross-border cooperation strategy, and in the case of the Podkarpackie Voivodship subregional strategic programmes. All of these documents consider tourism, including the specification of the objectives, priorities, and directions of activities, and even proposed projects. The content of these documents can provide a good basis for the development of modern tourism products at the local, regional, and cross-border level, with a potential to stimulate tourist traffic in the cross-border area. Possible support from the EU resources in the new financial perspective is important for these types of activities. Keywords: Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area, tourism, development strategy Introduction Due to the diversity of its forms, tourism as a multidimensional and complex phenomenon constitutes an attractive tool for stimulating local and regional development (Kozak 2009, 32). This is frequently reflected in strategic planning documents prepared by public administration at various levels. Such an approach is based on the existence of attractive environmental and/or cultural values. Public authorities generally tend to overestimate such values. It actually turns out that, as confirmed by the research by Kozak (Kozak 2009, ), the success of tourism development in a given area predominantly depends on the attitude of the local and regional communities, and particularly on the existence of a leader (leaders) supported by integrated elites able to generate social mobilisation around a commonly accepted strategic idea. Cooperation with the surroundings is also of importance, including that with other units of territorial authorities, as well as the ability to obtain an external supply of financial and human capital. As a consequence, areas with rich as well as poor environmental and cultural values can become attractive in terms of tourism. The existence of this kind of resource itself however does not guarantee tourism development and the related benefits. Cross-border areas are very specific, also from the point of view of possibilities of tourism development. Each area of the type is unique (Anderson and O Dowd 1999, ). Its delimitation and importance can frequently change in time and space very dramatically. Specific attributes of a cross-border area include (Chojnicki 1998; Miszczuk 2012):

50 50 Andrzej Miszczuk geographical (geopolitical) location at the boundary of countries (blocks of countries) the character of the national border (closed, filtering, open) constituting the axis of the crossborder area low transport accessibility differences in the level of development and manner of functioning of the economy of the neighbouring regions caused by the national border (economic distance) institutional distance related to the competence inadequacy of the neighbouring administrational regions and subregional units differences in the state of management in relation to cross-border regions of the neighbouring countries socio-cultural conditions related to the functioning of national and ethnic minorities and stereotypes concerning inhabitants of the neighbouring near-border regions, as well as the confluence of cultures The effect of the national border on tourism development in the cross-border area can be varied. According to Więckowski (2010, 61 66), a closed border constitutes a barrier for tourism development, but in a situation of an increase in its permeability or complete opening it can become a tourist destination, modifying the tourist space of the cross-border area, or leading to its integration. The most frequent forms occurring in cross-border areas include: shopping tourism, gastronomic tourism, health tourism, transit tourism, entertainment tourism, environmental tourism, cultural tourism, pilgrimage tourism, event tourism, and sentimental tourism (Więckowski 2010, 77 82). The objective of the article is to present the state and directions of development of tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area covering the Lubelskie and Podkarpackie voivodships and the Lviv and Volyn Oblasts in the context of regional strategic documents prepared in the scope of the new EU perspective for the years Because Ukraine is not a member state of the European Union, the study is limited to the applicable documents developed in the Polish voivodships. The starting point is constituted by provincial development strategies and the related crossborder cooperation strategy in the case of the Lubelskie Voivodship, and subregional strategic programmes regarding Bieszczady and the Blue San River regions in the case of the Podkarpackie Voivodship. It is worth emphasising the lack of a single common strategic document covering the four mentioned regional units included in the analysed cross-border area. 1 Diagnosis of the state of development of the tourist function of the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area The current Polish-Ukrainian border constituting the axis of the cross-border area has a length of 535 km. This is equivalent to 15,4% of the length of the borders of Poland, and 6,9% of the length of borders of Ukraine. 1 It extends from the vicinity of Włodawa in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. It includes cross-border physiographic units with latitudinal orientation with exceptional environmental and tourist values: Polesie (Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland and Szack Lakeland), Lublin-Lviv Upland, Volyn Upland, Roztocze, and East Beskidy Mountains (Bieszczady Mountains). On the one hand, the Polish-Ukrainian border is partly of natural character it is determined by the Bug River along its length of 201 km. On the other hand, in historical terms, the Bug River has usually been an internal river, and its catchment has been located in the territory of a single country the Duchy of Halych-Volyn, Poland, Russia (in the years ), and then again Poland. Therefore, the Polish-Soviet border established in 1945 was a new phenomenon, running through an area coherent in spatial and functional terms. After its final determination in 1951, related to the exchange of land between Poland and the Soviet Union, the stage of closed border began, lasting until 1991 (i.e., until independence was obtained by Ukraine). The period was distinguished by very low permeability of the modern Polish-Ukrainian border, both in physicaltechnical and political-legal terms, and breaking a number of functional-spatial links between 1. According to the state from before the attack of Russia on Crimea and east Ukraine in 2014.

51 Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian Cross-Border Area 51 the Lublin, Podkarpacie, Volyn, and Lviv regions. It also contributed to the decline of cities, and particularly towns, as well as to the cross-border area gaining features of a peripheral area, not only in the geographical, but also in the economic sense. From 1991, the Polish-Ukrainian border entered a phase continuing today which can be described as the border of coexistence with dynamically intensifying elements of cooperation. The strengthening of its control functions occurred in 2004, when it became the external border of the EU, and in 2007 due to the accession of Poland to the Schengen Zone. Due to the contemporary (until 2013) lack of decisive action of Ukraine for the support of European integration, the Polish- Ukrainian border has no chance of becoming an open border by The Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area of km has a population of 7 877,4 thousand. 2 The primary tourism resources of environmental character in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area include: 10 national parks: Polesie and Roztocze National Parks (Lubelskie Voivodship), Bieszczady Mountains and Magura National Parks (Podkarpackie Voivodship), Szack, Tsuman Forest, and Prypeć-Stochód National Parks (Volyn Oblast), Yavoriv, North Podole, and Skole Beskids National Parks (Lviv Oblast), and 31 landscape parks, numerous reserves, protected landscape areas, and natural monuments. It is worth emphasising the process of development of environmentally valuable (and simultaneously attractive in terms of tourism) cross-border areas in the scope of the UNESCO initiative Man and the Biosphere. These include: the International Biosphere Reserve East Carpathians, established in 1992, expanded in 1998, covering: the Bieszczady Mountains National Park, the Cisna-Wetlina Landscape Park, the San River Valley Landscape Park on the Polish side, the San River Landscape Park (Lviv Oblast) and Uż River National Park (Carpathian Ruthenia) on the Ukrainian side, as well as the Slovakian Poloniny National Park the International Biosphere Reserve West Polesie (2002/2011), covering on the Polish side: the Polesie National Park and the Sobibór Landscape Park, and on the Ukrainian side the Szack National Park and the Belarusian biosphere reserve Polesie Nadbużańskie planned Cross-Border Biosphere Reserve Roztocze, potentially covering on the Polish side: the Roztocze National Park and the South Roztocze, Krasnobród, Szczebrzeszyn, Solska Forest, and Janowskie Forest Landscape Parks, and on the Ukrainian side: the Yavoriv National Park, Roztocze Rawskie Landscape Park, and Roztocze reserve Deposits of mineral waters and climatic values became an impulse for the establishment and development of health resorts. On the Polish side these include: Nałęczów (Lubelskie Voivodship), Horyniec Zdrój, Iwonicz Zdrój, Rymanów Zdrój, and Polańczyk Zdrój (Podkarpackie Voivodship), and on the Ukrainian side: Truskavets, Morshyn, Nemyriv, Skhidnytsia, Shklo, and Lubin Velykyi (Lviv Oblast). The arboretum in Bolestraszyce is an interesting environmental object. Very good conditions for the development of water tourism are provided by the artificial Lake Solina on the San River. The (multi)cultural values include among others: old town complexes of Lviv and Zamość, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List historical wooden Orthodox churches in the Podkarpackie Voivodship and Lviv Oblast, part of which are included in the UNESCO List old town complex of Lublin, and towns: Kazimierz Dolny (Lubelskie Voivodship) and Zhovkva (Lviv Oblast) fortress and old town complex in Przemyśl numerous palaces and castles (among others Krasiczyn, Kozłówka, Łańcut, Lutsk, Olesko, Pidhirtsi Zolochiv) open air museums of rural settlement in Sanok, Lublin, and Kolbuszowa martyrological objects former Nazi concentration camps (Majdanek, Bełżec, Sobibór) 2. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

52 52 Andrzej Miszczuk Tourism centres of national importance in the Lubelskie Voivodship particularly include cities: Lublin, Kazimierz Dolny-Nałęczów-Puławy, and Zamość. They also provide the best developed hotel infrastructure (particularly Lublin). The possibilities of tourism development are related to increasing inflow of tourists from abroad, and particularly from Ukraine and Israel. In the case of the Podkarpackie Voivodship, tourist traffic is concentrated in the Bieszczady Mountains and the Pogórze Przemyskie region (including Przemyśl). On the Ukrainian side, the primary area of inflow of tourists, also from Poland, is the Lviv Oblast, particularly including the city of Lviv and the surrounding towns: Olesko, Pidhirtsi, Swirz, Zolochiv, and Zhovkva. In the case of the Volyn Oblast, the Szack Lakeland attracts the highest numbers of tourists, followed by Lutsk and Volodymyr-Volynsky. The assessment of the state of tourism development in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area employed the following indices (tab. 1): Baretje index of tourist function (accommodation capacity to number of inhabitants) Schneider index of intensity of tourism (number of accommodated tourists annually to number of inhabitants) Charvat index of intensity of tourist traffic (number of provided accommodation services annually to number of inhabitants) accommodation infrastructure density (accommodation capacity to area in km 2 ) traffic density (number of accommodated tourists to area in km 2 ), accommodation infrastructure development (number of accommodated tourists to accommodation capacity) used accommodation capacity (number of provided accommodation services to accommodation capacity) Table 1 suggests several important conclusions. Firstly, Poland does not belong to countries with a strongly developed tourist function, but its situation is still considerably better than that of Ukraine. Secondly, the presented indices suggest a better developed tourist function in the Podkarpackie Voivodship than in Lubelskie Voivodship, but still in the case of both of the voivodships, they are considerably lower than the national average (except for the accommodation capacity indices, comparable with the average). Thirdly, the Ukrainian regions show lower indices than those on the Polish side, but the indices clearly differ between the Volyn and Lviv Oblast in favour of the latter. The Volyn Oblast shows low tourist traffic, weak development of accommodation infrastructure, and low level of its use. In the case of the Lviv Oblast, higher tourist traffic is observed, as well as better developed infrastructure (although worse than on the Polish side) and its very high level of use. The synthetic description of the conditions and state of tourism development in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area provides the basis for the analysis of objectives and directions of activities in the scope of tourism in regional strategic documents. Tab. 1. Tourism development indices in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area in 2013 (for Poland) and 2011 (for Ukraine) Baretje index of tourist function Intensity of tourist traffic Schneider Density Accommodation infrastructure development Used accommodation capacity Region Poland 1,8 60,8 163,5 2,2 74,8 34,4 90,8 Lubelskie Voivodship 0,9 33,7 73,8 0,8 28,9 36,9 82,0 Podkarpackie Voivodship 1,2 36,7 107,9 1,4 43,8 30,7 89,9 Ukraine 0,1 20,0 1,0 13,1 13,5 Volyn Oblast 0,6 11,2 57,3 0,3 5,8 19,4 5,1 Lviv Oblast 1,2 24,7 167,1 1,4 28,8 20,7 140,1 Charvat Accommodation infrastructure Source: Own elaboration based on Jakubowski, Bronisz and Dziaduch (2013), (Turystyka w 2013 roku 2014), and data published by State Statistics Service of Ukraine at in February 2015 Traffic

53 Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian Cross-Border Area 53 2 Objectives and directions of development of tourism in the context of the development strategy for the Lubelskie Voivodship and cross-border cooperation strategy None of the four equal strategic objectives of the Development Strategy for the Lubelskie Voivodship for the years (with a perspective by 2030) (tab. 2) directly addresses tourism, particularly in relation to the cross-border location of the Lubelskie Voivodship. Only three operational objectives in the scope of objective 4: Functional, social, and cultural integration of the region were related to tourism, namely: Operational Objective 4.3: Strengthening of the regional social identity and development of the intraregional cooperation, among others by addressing the multicultural tradition and its incorporation within regional educational programmes and selectively supported cultureformative activities, as well as by stimulating undertaking common economic, organisational, and educational activities, and particularly by complex and systematic marking of tourist trails and the cultural heritage of the region Operational Objective 4.5: Rational and efficient use of environmental resources for economic and recreational purposes with the preservation and protection of the values of the natural environment, including improving the quality and efficiency of use of water resources with the development of the accompanying functions (including tourist and recreational functions) Operational Objective 4.4: Overcoming negative effects of the near-border location of the region, including the development of a complex development policy for the near-border Lubelskie Voivodship (in cooperation with the near-border regions of Ukraine and Belarus), whose implementation should include an ability to contribute to an increase in tourist traffic Conditions favourable for tourism development can also be generated by the implementation of operational objectives 1.3 and 4.1 aimed at the improvement of internal and external transport accessibility of the region. The spatial dimension of activities proposed in the Development Strategy for the Lubelskie Voivodship for the years (with a perspective by 2030 ) was determined by the delimitation of seven objectives of strategic intervention (OSI) two of which concern the issue of tourism development and near-border location. The first one concerns economic use of environmental and cultural values (fig. 1) including three functional units: Polesie, Powiśle, and the Roztocze forest region together with areas with identified health resort potential. They are distinguished by: a varied degree of recreational-holiday investment and intensity of use of natural environment for tourism purposes, a considerable contribution of insufficiently attractive accompanying tourism-holiday infrastructure, as well as conflicts resulting from uncontrolled tourism development and underdevelopment and low quality of technical, particularly water-sewage infrastructure. Activities in the scope of this OSI should focus on increased use of environmentally and culturally valuable areas in order to provide conditions for socio-economic growth of the areas, and on the determination of the character and intensity of the tourist function by developing products considering among other aspects the specificity of sightseeing tourism, ecotourism, therapeutic tourism, residential tourism, sport tourism, water tourism, and agro-tourism. The second OSI is a functional near-border area delimited in a rather narrow manner, exclusively based on districts directly neighbouring with the national border with Belarus and Ukraine (fig. 2). In this case, the vicinity of the national border offers opportunities for development, but its use is limited particularly by the existing restrictions in movement of persons, goods, capital, and services. One of the activities activating the near-border area should be establishing new and expanding the existing border crossings (including local ones), particularly where the reconstruction of formerly existing transport connections would be involved, as well as establishment of seasonal (tourist) border crossings located on both sides of the border with allowed pedestrian traffic Pedestrian and cycling traffic is currently allowed exclusively on the Polish-Ukrainian border crossing Medyka-Shehyni.

54 54 Andrzej Miszczuk Tab. 2. Strategic and operational objectives in the Development Strategy for the Lubelskie Voivodship Strategic Objectives 1. Strengthening of the region s urbanisation 2. Restructuring of agriculture and development of rural areas 3. Selective increasing of the potential of knowledge, qualifications, technological advancement, entrepreneurship, and innovativeness of the region 4. Functional, spatial, social, and cultural integration of the region Operational Objectives 1.1. Development of metropolitan functions of Lublin 1.2. Support of supralocal functions of cities 1.3. Improvement of transport connections between Lublin and metropolitan areas in Poland and abroad 2.1. Improvement of conditions for an increase in the competitiveness and commerciality of farms 2.2. Development of agricultural and food processing industry 2.3. Strengthening agricultural consultancy and promoting and support of initiatives involving the cooperation of farmers and inhabitants of rural areas 2.4. Support of entrepreneurship in rural areas and generating non-farm employment in rural areas 2.5. Equipment of rural areas in transport, municipal, and energy infrastructure 3.1. Support of the most prospective research and commercialisation of its results 3.2. Support of higher education courses of particular importance for the future job market of the region and of unique importance at the supranational scale 3.3. Development of the system of scientific, expert, and implementation support for the development of selected sectors of the economy 3.4. Development of the educational system adjusted to the region s specificity 3.5. Support of small and medium enterprises 3.6. Development of the information society 4.1. Improvement of the internal transport system of the region through connecting its most important cities with an efficient road network, first constructed in places where its imperfection is a barrier for development 4.2. Support of social inclusion 4.3. Strengthening of regional social identity and development of intraregional cooperation among others by addressing the multicultural tradition and its incorporation in regional educational programmes and selectively supported culture-formative activities, and by stimulating undertaking common economic, organisational, and educational activities 4.4. Overcoming negative effects of the near-border location of the region 4.5. Rational and efficient use of environmental resources for economic and recreational purposes, with the preservation and protection of values of the natural environment Source: Strategia rozwoju województwa 2014 In reference to operational objective 4.4., based on the initiative of the Local Authorities of the Lubelskie Voivodship and the Cross-Border Association Euroregion Bug, and with financial support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland, the Strategy of cross-border cooperation of the Lubelskie Voivodship, Volyn Oblast, Lviv Oblast, and Brest Oblast for the years was prepared. Its general objective is to increase the socio-economic competitiveness of the cross-border area at the European, national, regional, and local level by efficient use of endogenic potentials and reducing restrictions resulting from the functioning of the external EU border.

55 Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian Cross-Border Area 55 Functional unit of Polesie Functional unit of Powiśle Functional unit of Roztocze Near-border functional area Sphere of border influence Fig. 1. Areas of the economic use of environmental and cultural values Fig. 2. Near-border area Source: Strategia rozwoju województwa 2014 Source: Strategia rozwoju województwa 2014 One of the four areas of strategic activities next to Economic cooperation, Transport and border infrastructure, and Science and higher education, is natural environment, culture, and tourism. The identified strong points of tourism in the cross-border area include: considerable environmental values and low level of their degradation, location of the most valuable physiographic units integrating in the cross-border dimension (Polesie, Roztocze, Bug River catchment), cultural potential based on multicultural heritage, cross-border location of cultural objects, lack of considerable linguistic barriers, and friendly attitude to tourists (hospitality). The weak points include: weakly developed or diversified tourism infrastructure, lack of important cross-border tourism products, low transport accessibility of potential tourism products, lack of tourist border crossings, low availability of tourist information (low number of tourist publishing houses, including electronic ones, low number of tourist information points, and their inaccurate distribution), and dissatisfactory state of historical monuments and urban complexes, particularly on the Ukrainian side. Opportunities for tourism development are sought for in unique on a European scale environmental and cultural values, development of cross-border tourism products (regional, local) adequate for various forms of tourism, development of modern forms of environmental protection (geoparks), and expansion of the territorial scope of the agreement on low border traffic with Ukraine. The primary threats include: competition of other tourist areas, dominance of travel motifs other than tourism, maintenance of visa traffic for the citizens of Ukraine, and the diminishment of the regional and local culture. A new and very important threat is the war in the western parts of Ukraine, discouraging tourists to visit its western part due to the uncertainty of the situation. The objective in the scope of natural environment, culture, and tourism was defined as: strengthening of the environmental and cultural potential and its use for the development of tourism. Its implementation should result in an increase in the tourist attractiveness of the cross-border region at the national and European level with the maintenance of biodiversity and cultural heritage. Due to the above, among others the following activities were proposed: support of the establishment and coordination of the functioning of cross-border protected areas stimulating cross-border activities for the cleanliness of the waters of the Bug River catchment development of cross-border tourism products

56 56 Andrzej Miszczuk cross-border activities for the protection of the global cultural heritage support and coordination of cross-border cultural events development of cross-border networks of cooperation of institutions and organisations dealing with natural environment, culture, and tourism Their implementation will occur based on detailed projects an important source of financing of which can be the EU Programme of Cross-Border Cooperation Poland-Belarus-Ukraine for the years Objectives and directions of development of tourism in the context of the development strategy for the Podkarpackie Voivodship and strategic development programmes for the Bieszczady Mountains and the Blue San River region In the Podkarpackie Voivodship, the Development strategy for the Podkarpackie Voivodship 2020 includes one general objective, namely: efficient use of internal and external resources for balanced and intelligent socio-economic development leading to the improvement of the quality of life of the inhabitants. It also includes the so-called objective tree for four areas of strategic objectives and the related 19 priorities (tab. 3). Tourism was treated as one of five priorities in the scope of a competitive and innovative economy. According to the SWOT analysis for the area, its strong points include among others: mountain areas attractive in terms of landscape with high degree of forest cover, and places with numerous forms of nature protection, the Bieszczady Mountains as one of the most identifiable tourist brands in the country, health resort and recreational infrastructure adjusted to supporting tourist traffic all year round with diversified standards, and near-border location in the Carpathian Euroregion. The weak points include: the predominance of a seasonal character of the region s incoming tourist traffic, lack of a residential offer for Polish and foreign tourists with high requirements in terms of the quality and range of provided services, and the decapitalisation of the health resort infrastructure. Tab. 3. Areas of strategic objectives and priorities in the Development strategy for the Podkarpackie Voivodship 2020 Areas of strategic objectives Priorities in the scope of areas of strategic objectives 1. Competitiveness and innovative economy 1.1. Industry 1.2. Science, research, and higher education 1.3. Tourism 1.4. Agriculture 1.5. Business environment institutions 2. Human and social capital 2.1. Education 2.2. Culture and cultural heritage 2.3. Civil society 2.4. Social inclusion 2.5. Public health 2.6. Mass sport 3. Settlement network 3.1. Transport accessibility 3.2. Availability of information technologies 3.3. Metropolitan functions of Rzeszów 3.4. Functions of rural areas 3.5. Spatial coherence and strengthening of functions of subregional centres 4. Environment and energy 4.1. Prevention and counteracting threats and removal of their negative effects 4.2. Environmental protection 4.3. Energy security and rational use of energy Source: Załącznik nr 1 do Uchwały Nr XXXVII/697/13 Sejmiku Województwa Podkarpackiego w Rzeszowie z dnia 26 sierpnia 2013 r. Strategia rozwoju województwa Podkarpackie Rzeszów, sierpień [Development Strategy for Podkarpackie Voivodship]

57 Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian Cross-Border Area 57 An opportunity for tourism development in the Podkarpackie Voivodship can be offered by: construction of highly standard multifunctional recreational-holiday and health resort complexes, and development of the offer of package and integrated tourism products. A threat may be involved in: high sensitivity of the tourism sector to changes in the economic and political situation (the effects of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict are already reflected in a decrease in the number of tourists from these countries), and the risk of low level of support of tourism development in the voivodship from external resources, including those of the European Union. The directions of development of tourism specified in the Development strategy for the Podkarpackie Voivodship 2020 include: the development of tourist attractions and tourist infrastructure the development of tourism promotion and partnership supporting incoming tourism in the voivodship increasing the competitiveness of tourism products in the leading forms of incoming tourism in the voivodship (thematic trails, UNESCO objects, etc.). Whereas the first two directions should be implemented throughout the Podkarpackie Voivodship, the third direction should be executed in the scope of OSI covering the southern and central part of the region (fig. 3). m. Tarnobrzeg stalowowolski tarnobrzeski niżański mielecki kolbuszowski leżajski dębski ropczycko- -sędziszowski łańcucki m. Rzeszów przeworski jarosławski lubaczowski strzyżowski rzeszowski jasielski m. Krosno brzozowski przemyski m. Przemyśl krośnieński sanocki leski bieszczadzki Fig. 3. Area of focus of activities for increasing the competitiveness of tourism products Source: Załącznik nr 1 do Uchwały Nr XXXVII/697/13 Tourism was also considered in two subregional strategic documents developed in reference to the Development strategy for the Podkarpackie Voivodship 2020 i.e., in the Strategic Programme for the Development of Bieszczady (PSRB) and in the Strategic Programme Blue San River (PSBS). The former was developed based on the initiative of the Association of Bieszczady Communes of the Border Area (ZBGP) including 12 local authority units, and the Local Authority of the Podkarpackie Voivodship. Bieszczady is a region with exceptional environmental values favourable for tourism development. It is also weakly populated with low transport accessibility. Therefore, the primary objective of PSRB is: increasing the level and conditions of life of the inhabitants by improving access to workplaces and services with efficient use of endogenic resources and strengthening functional external relations (Churski 2013, 60). In reference to the objective, four priorities were identified, namely:

58 58 Andrzej Miszczuk tourism and recreation entrepreneurship human and social capital infrastructure favouring the improvement of accessibility and environmental protection Directions of activities were defined in the scope of each of the priorities. From several to a dozen strategic projects were proposed for each of them with consideration of social consultations. From the point of view of the objective of the article, the activities were restricted to those in the scope of priority I and IV. The following activities were proposed in priority tourism and recreation (Churski 2013, 62 69): 1.1. Coordination of development and improvement of the functioning of tourism and recreational infrastructure, 1.2. Development and diversification of the offer of tourism services and products, including by cross-border cooperation, 1.3. Protection and promotion of cultural heritage objects, 1.4. Development of partnership for increasing tourist traffic and its promotion, and particularly residential tourism. In the scope of priority Infrastructure for the improvement of accessibility and environmental protection, activities involving the following are of particular importance were specified (Churski 2013, 80 84): 4.1. Improvement of spatial and digital accessibility, 4.2. Use of cross-border transport infrastructure in local and tourism traffic, 4.3. Maintenance of the environmental and landscape values, 4.4. Improvement of the water-sewage management and waste management. The Strategic Programme Blue San River was developed for 48 communes in the Podkarpackie Voivodship located along the San River. Its territorial range covers the area from the south-eastern part of the voivodship (Bieszczady, Pogórze Przemyskie) to its north-western boundaries (Stalowa Wola and vicinity). It is an example of high diversity typical of the Podkarpackie Voivodship: from an area attractive in environmental and cultural terms with insufficient tourism infrastructure to a well developed, but not very attractive in terms of tourism industrial area. Four priorities were defined in the scope of the Strategic Programme Blue San River (Churski and Miszczuk 2013, 68 94), namely: innovative entrepreneurship tourism human and social capital environment and energy The following activities are of considerable importance in the scope of the second programme: 2.1. Development and diversification of tourism products with integrated promotion, 2.2. Development of specialised tourism clusters, 2.3. Coordinated development of management and improvement of the functioning of tourism infrastructure, 2.4. Revitalisation, protection, and promotion of cultural heritage objects, as well as the first activity from the fourth priority that is: 4.1. maintenance of the environmental and landscape values. Both of the strategic programmes: for Bieszczady and Blue San River are mutually coherent, and include a number of proposals of strategic programmes in each of the activities, but they emphasise the cross-border (with Ukraine) character of the Podkarpackie Voivodship in the context of tourism to a very low degree. Conclusion The presented discussion permits several conclusions. In spite of frequently exceptional and almost untransformed environmental values and valuable multicultural heritage resources, tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian cross-border area is not the leading type of economic activity. The tourism

59 Directions of Development of Tourism in the Polish-Ukrainian Cross-Border Area 59 infrastructure is inadequate to the needs of tourists in terms of its quantity and quality. Tourism traffic shows relatively higher intensity in the Polish part of the cross-border area, particularly in the Podkarpackie Voivodship, and in the Lviv Oblast on the Ukrainian side. No uniform strategic document exists for the purposes of development of the entire Polish- Ukrainian cross-border area in the years , although the area is considered in the development strategies for Polish voivodships and related documents, i.e. the cross-border cooperation strategy in the case of the Lubelskie Voivodship and subregional strategic programmes in the case of the Podkarpackie Voivodship. All of these documents consider tourism with specification of objectives, priorities, and directions of activities, and even proposed projects. The content of the documents can provide a good basis for the development of modern tourism products at the local, regional, and cross-border level with a potential to stimulate tourism traffic in the cross-border traffic. Possible support from the EU resources in the new financial perspective is of considerable importance in these types of activities. References Anderson, J., and L. O Dowd Borders, Border Regions and Territoriality: Contradictory Meanings, Changing Significance. Regional Studies no. 33 (7): Chojnicki, Z Uwarunkowania rozwoju regionu nadgranicznego. Koncepcje i założenia teoretyczne. In Studia rozwoju i zagospodarowania przestrzennego, edited by J.J. Parysek and B. Gruchman, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu. Churski, P Program Strategicznego Rozwoju Bieszczad (projekt ). Rzeszów: Urząd Marszałkowski Województwa Podkarpackiego. Churski, P., and A. Miszczuk Program Strategiczny Błękitny San. Rzeszów: Urząd Marszałkowski Województwa Podkarpackiego. Jakubowski, A., U. Bronisz, and S. Dziaduch Diagnoza sytuacji społeczno-ekonomicznej na obszarze województwa lubelskiego, obwodu brzeskiego, obwodu wołyńskiego oraz obwodu lwowskiego. Lublin: Urząd Statystyczny w Lublinie. Kozak, M.W Turystyka i polityka turystyczna a rozwój. Między starym a nowym paradygmatem. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar. Miszczuk, A Dysproporcje społeczno-ekonomiczne jako uwarunkowanie współpracy transgranicznej (na przykładzie pogranicza polsko-ukraińskiego). In Kadry dla gospodarki transgranicznej, edited by M. Kowerski and I. Pieczykolan, Zamość: Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Administracji w Zamościu. Strategia rozwoju województwa lubelskiego na lata (z perspektywą do 2030 r.) Lublin: Urząd Marszałkowski Województwa Lubelskiego. Strategia współpracy transgranicznej Województwa Lubelskiego, Obwodu Wołyńskiego, Obwodu Lwowskiego i Obwodu Brzeskiego na lata Lublin: Urząd Marszałkowskiego Województwa Lubelskiego w Lublinie. Turystyka w 2013 roku Informacje i opracowania statystyczne. Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny, Urząd Statystyczny w Rzeszowie. Więckowski, M Turystyka na obszarach przygranicznych Polski, Prace Geograficzne/ Polska Akademia Nauk Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania. Warszawa: IGiPZ PAN.

60 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

61 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland in Assessment of the Analytic Hierarchy Process Method Stanisław W. Ceran University of Warsaw, Poland Abstract The article presents the role of information technologies in the process of development of the economically weak regions of Poland. The state and the dynamics of the process of information technologies, in relation with the digitization, mobility and cloud computing processing trends in the areas of public administration and economics as well as functioning of individual households show vast diversification in those areas. The aim is formulating an answer to the question concerning the efficiency of the solutions being introduced in the area of public administration and the level of the IT implementation within the range of the basic economic activities, as well as the services provided to the inhabitants. The state of completion of the regional programs, the national strategies for IT implementation, the Digital Agenda for Europe as well as infrastructural investments are subject to assessment with use of the Analytic Hierarchy Process method. An important part of the process is the factor of user willingness to adopt the technologies, skills and competences necessary for their effective use and that problem was assessed with utilization of the comparison method. Keywords: computerization, digitization, analytic hierarchy process, outermost regions Introduction The report Poland says that Poland, although centrally located on the European continent, maintains its position as a peripheral country. This is very bad for Polish regions, for example those located in the east of Poland. Opportunity for integration or competition with the global or European economies is seen only in metropolitan areas of western border regions and some regional centers. Furthermore, in the structural transformations and development of modern economies a very important role is played by both information and communication technologies. Studies indicate that from the start, technological implementations in the ICT field confirm the ratio of the global digitization factor for social and economic effects. In fact, it appears to be a legitimate view that this factor has become an impulse in the transformation processes of the economies in some Polish regions. The purpose of this article is to indicate the factors shaping digital transformation and development of these areas among economically weak, low income level population and human capital, in the predominantly rural areas, with limited availability and poor communication infrastructure. On top of that, a very slow development of both e-government, and e-economy besides digital literacy provides a strong barrier for building stable grounds for creation of the Information Society. Herewith, the article describes the problem of selecting the appropriate model of IT development for the Polish peripheral regions which refers to both a quantitative and spatial approach with hierarchical analysis. 1. See: Polska Wyzwania rozwojowe. Zespół Doradców Strategicznych Prezesa Rady Ministrów. Warszawa [@:] %20aktywne%20starzenie/pl_2030_wyzwania_rozwojowe.pdf.

62 62 Stanisław W. Ceran 1 Computerization and digital development issues The newly established Ministry of Administration and Digitization (in 2011) has assessed implementation of projects in a report titled Government 2.0.( 2 ) The division is into projects fully implemented and those which are not, but which required both improvement and correction of assumptions and organizational design. The list of completed projects has proved to be very short. The biding document describing the problems is a long-term Development Strategy through 2030., which was adopted in 2013 by the Council of Ministers (Polska Trzecia 2013). The strategy identified the areas of the State s direct action, its objectives and also development priorities associated with digitization. At the same time it is difficult to assess how the existing framework for the creation of this kind of society in Poland corresponds to the tasks set by the European Commission in the recent Digital Agenda for the current Financial Perspective. 3 On top of that, in the ratings in the digital development report, Poland is placed in the last row of underdeveloped countries. 4 In conclusion, the implementation of the idea of an Information Society and digitalization of all areas of state and society of our country is still insufficient. Certain regions of Poland, as the low-rated regions within the European Union, require special attention as far digitization is concerned. Assessment of the success and failure factors, as well as the economic development model which would guarantee improvement of the position of our country among the other regions of the European Union, seems to be advisable. 2 The digital development factors The current formal document indicating the strategic directions of Poland s development through 2030 is a long-term National Development Strategy. The document both determines and defines all planned development tasks and challenges called the Polish Third Wave. It simply means that it s high time for the third wave of modernity where the targets set out new competitive advantages to prevent a deepening peripheral status of Poland with the ambition of becoming a leader in many areas in the future. On the whole, by creating conditions for development through innovation and creativity, the strategy includes the dissemination of innovative attitudes in all areas of life and the economy with the application of the accelerated momentum of Polish Digital (Polska Trzecia 2013). 5 Digital development processes and computerization occur in many domains of public space, including economic and social sectors. The processes create conditions for the transformation and development of the country and its respective regions. This tendency relates in particular to peripheral economies, where one of the most important tasks is to create effective and functional systems with tools which allow acceleration of the process of modernization. In addition, the mechanism itself for raising people s standard of living and the efficiency of the economy and its public institutions matters a lot, but also as a comprehensive civilization project that goes beyond the purely material matters covering education, quality of life and health, the safety of citizens and even social capital resources. Further on, the digitalization process broken down by areas takes place in three domains: GOV- ERNMENT ECONOMY HUMAN. In the article five basic types of factors and criteria for the initial evaluation of the course of this process are assumed for these domains (see fig. 1). These include: in the GOVERNMENT sector digital services in the ECONOMY sector infrastructure and information sector in the HUMAN sector the use of technology and digital skills 2. See: Polska Wyzwania rozwojowe 3. See: Europejska Agenda Cyfrowa w pracach i planach polskich instytucji rządowych. Wydanie I. MSWiA. Departament Społeczeństwa Informacyjnego. [@:] informacyjne/dokumenty/europejska_agenda_cyfrowa.pdf. 4. See: Polska Wyzwania rozwojowe ; Europejska Agenda Cyfrowa w pracach i planach polskich instytucji rządowych. Wydanie I. MSWiA. Departament Społeczeństwa Informacyjnego. [@:] 5. See also: Europejska Agenda Cyfrowa w pracach ; Polska Wyzwania rozwojowe

63 Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland 63 The role of information technology in the development of economic regions level of domains government economy people A B C D E digital services ICT infrastructure ICT sector use of digital technology digital competences factors A1 - A4 B1 - B4 C1 - C4 D1 - D4 E1 - E4 criterion Fig. 1. The hierarchy model of the transformation and digital development The analysis method applied in this particular study does not only take into account the specifics of the processes of evaluation factors but also criteria with their relational and hierarchical character. (see fig. 2). The elements assessed in varying degrees shape the final image and development effect. The theoretical framework for assessing the effectiveness of computerization focuses mainly on ICT products. These are the applications that allow for implementation of e-services, systems and platforms bringing together information and content systems for collection, processing and data transfer. The quality and application of products besides usage and meeting the requirements determine their applicability, scalability and security. This allows you to achieve the purpose of providing electronic services (online) with a minimum participation of human factors in a fully automated fashion. On top of that, in the analysis of a hierarchical level relative to the second main branch it was spun off as a factor marked with the letter A. It is a structure responsible for the smooth functioning of the state, both (central government and local government, public institutions, financial, banking, science, and culture sectors). The size and appropriate level of supply of electronic services allows full electronic errands, transactions, observation and control processes and monitoring imaging and tracking objects in space. 6 The equivalent of a domain specified for digital services in this analysis is known as GOVERNMENT. Criterion forming the branches of the third level are four elements identified as: A1 the supply of e-services A2 interoperability A3 access to public information A4 effectiveness and efficiency of market operators The condition for use of e-services is the ICT infrastructure. In addition to computer hardware, peripherals and other devices, processing and storing of information requires network infrastructure for communication and transfer of data and content beyond the place of their creation and storage. A central element is the Internet. Access to a global network creates location-independent resource sharing of information and allocated services. To ensure standards of authenticity, security and uniqueness essential information has interoperability of systems. The availability of all participants and systems for the primary source of information is an absolute condition to the effectiveness of communication, interactivity and transactional functionability. ICT infrastructure is a hierarchical branch marked with the letter B. In the analysis this create the following criteria: B1 penetration and availability of the network (on the fourth level will be a hierarchical subcriteria nature of indicators available in detailed studies for all levels of the territorial division of the country: 7 an indicator of broadband accessibility, the broadband service penetration rate, 6. See: Ocena dostępności usług egovernment na terenie województw ściany wschodniej i porównanie z dostępnością tych usług w wybranych województwach Polski północnej i środkowej. Instytut Łączności. Nr pracy: Warszawa [@:] 7. See: Moduł Analityczny do wyznaczania obszarów interwencji publicznych w obszarze rozwoju Internetu

64 64 Stanisław W. Ceran a broadband infrastructure competition indicator and a sustainable indicator of broadband accessibility (Polska Trzecia 2013) B2 the quality and range of communication B3 efficiency data processing B4 to sustain the technological needs The public, economic and social sphere each country or region should aim for the completion of the computerization process function as a coupled system in a relational manner which is efficient, economical and secure. The economic sector which determines the size and importance of information and communication technologies in each area is the information sector (ICT). According to Dziuba (1998, 28), the information sector is the totality of activities within the manufacture, use, preservation, collection, storage, transmission, and transmitting of information. It consists of all those employed in these processes and the entities and people creating the information infrastructure. The role of information technology in the development of economic regions goal of analysis 1 factors criterion A digital services A1 supply of services A2 interoperability A3 access to public information A4 the efficiency of market players B ICT infrastructure B1 penetration and network availability B2 quality and coverage communication B3 data processing efficiency B4 delivery of the digital technology C ICT sector B1 integration technology B2 supply of technologies B3 ICT innovation B4 ICT entrepreneurship D use of digital technology B1 digital demand B2 interactivity B3 security and quality of life B4 rationalization of market mechanisms E digital competences B1 digital skills B2 the quality of teaching B3 communication skills B4 creativity 2 3 level of analysis Fig. 2. Three-level hierarchy model for evaluation analysis This sector is steadily expanding thanks to the great variety of dissemination tools and data communications, telecommunications, the media present in almost all of life and the economy (Rocznik Statystyczny Województw 2013; Saaty 2008). 8 For this analysis, the criteria that characterize this factor are C1 technological integration, this is an absolute condition for the provision of services by electronic means. The complexity of information systems supporting e-services requires a fusion of data located in multiple locations, consistency technological solutions like applications, networks, databases to meet the conditions of standardization, compatibility of the requirements of security, efficiency, and business procedures contained in the architecture of ICT products. Again, technological integration leads to many economic and social dimensions through synergies. This factor within the framework of technological integration can be characterized by criteria: use f electronic document circulation, electronic customer relationship management, cloud computing services and even access to public data. C2 supply of technology or market presence for the information sector, i.e. hardware, software, networking solutions, wired and wireless mobile communication tools, collection and processing which includes cloud computing, semantic technologies, expert systems and so on. C3 innovation in the ICT sector expressed by patent applications, ideas implemented in many centers and centers of growth and by promoting cluster cooperation in innovative businesses. C4 entrepreneurship in the information sector as an added value created by emerging consortia or groups of companies, their competitiveness on local and global levels as well as the nonprofit sector institutions, business support organizations, etc. szerokopasmowego umożliwiający szacowanie kosztów niezbędnych inwestycji realizowany w ramach projektu Budowa i utrzymanie portalu Polska Szerokopasmowa. System Informacyjny Polska Szerokopasmowa. Projekt: POIG /09. UKE. Warszawa 2015 r. 8. See also: Polska Wyzwania rozwojowe

65 Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland 65 One of the main drivers of economic mechanisms through the use of ICT systems is their widespread application. This branch is represented in the analysis by the following criteria at the hierarchical third level: D1 digital demand describing the possibilities of using information and communication technologies in all areas of public activity, economic and social life. At the fourth level it describes such elements as: demand for broadband services (such as content delivery services as online, , instant messaging and communication tools for distance telework services, monitoring services and even geolocation-gps); demand access to content resources, such as digital libraries, virtual museums, portals providing multimedia content and so on.; participation in social networks and banking services. D2 interactivity D3 safety and quality of life D4 improvement of market mechanisms In the last pillar analysis factors were very important because of the nature of taking into account the demand side of the process. Like branch D the use of technology is associated with the domain HUMAN since it refers to a broad spectrum of dependent variables and feedback affecting to a decisive extent technological reception adoption. Digital competence E is therefore an essential factor for use of the possibilities offered by technology. In this case these are: E1 digital skills characterized by a fourth level sub-criteria: skill preparation and processing of digital information (such as , multimedia tools, office tools or instant messaging); network participation, participation in forums and discussion groups, the presence of social networks; basic skills to use digital tools; search information, the use of search engines, browsers, etc. E2 the quality of teaching E3 communication efficiency E4 creativity The analysis omitted those factors which express high-level skills, professional and vocational education. Causative factors discussed above on digital development are generally presented in table 1. Tab. 1. Factors and criteria used in the model Factors Criteria Full name Symbol Full name Symbol Digital services A supply of e-services interoperability access to public information the efficiency of market players ICT infrastructure B penetration and network availability quality and coverage communication data processing efficiency delivery and provision of digital technology ICT sector C integration technology supply of technologies ICT innovations ICT entrepreneurship Use of digital technology D digital demand interactivity security and quality of life rationalization of market mechanisms Digital competences E digital skills the quality of teaching communication skills creativity A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 B4 C1 C2 C3 C4 D1 D2 D3 D4 E1 E2 E3 E4

66 66 Stanisław W. Ceran 3 Research test procedure The analysis was carried out using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. To achieve this the issue of IT-implementation, as discussed in section 2, was decomposed, with attention paid to the socio-economic conditioning of the analyzed regions, namely their demography, unemployment, weakness of infrastructure, development level of their main branches of economy, the functioning of the public institutions, material status and households. For the analysis, the following assumptions were mostly taken into account: defined as the main objective, namely the role of information technology in the development of Polish regions and hierarchically subordinate to factors factors are grouped in relation to the areas of development, the main domains of subjects (GOVERNMENT ECONOMY HUMAN) specifying their value and relevance in the process of achieving and selecting the appropriate model to attain it hierarchically organized groups of factors are summarized in the scale vector of comparisons between each other pair of criteria the procedure of comparing on a nine-point scale applied Saaty s method by assigning each numerical assessment comparisons and a verbal description (Saaty 1980). Indicator Term significance Tab. 2. The scale comparisons by Saaty Verbal rating 1 same significance we compare factors equally contributing to the objective, they are equivalent 3 small, poor advantage moderate importance factor compared to the second factor 5 overwhelming majority of large preponderance of one factor over another 7 a very big advantage meaning dominant factor of the first over the second 9 absolute advantage absolute greater importance of the first factor over the other, at the highest possible level to determine 2, 4, 6, 8 intermediate values where there is a need to express the assessment in numerical form and the problem of assigning a pointer to any of the above Final remarks. The analysis was performed in three steps: Step 1. Data collection on the expert assessment of the significance of individual factors digital development. Gathering the expert data for the assessment of the significance of the individual digital development factors. The assessment was performed by a group of eight experts representing wide ranges of the information and communication technologies. 9 The examination was performed after recognizing the aim and the criteria for the analyzed hierarchical structure with use of the form establishing the points given for the individual criteria. A synthetic group assessment of the parameter values and the comparison results was established as the arithmetic mean of the individual grades assigned by the individual experts. 10 Step 2. Analysis of the problematic aspects and the construction of the three-level hierarchical structure (see fig. 2), which covered the vital criteria for the issues presented in section The experts of the following specializations were involved in the examination: information and communication technology 3, sociology of the Internet 1, computer education 2, electronics in the economy 2. Those specialists possessed a wide range of interdisciplinary knowledge and long-term experience of evaluation activities within the framework of the Innovative Economy Operational Programme, priorities 7 and 8, for the period from 2007 to They were accompanied by expert candidates from the list of the Operational Program Digital Poland for the period from 2014 to The drawback of such an approach was that the values of the assessed parameters were considerably varied. In this particular case owing to the uniformity of the selected expert domains the diversification of grades was minimal.

67 Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland 67 Step 3. Pair comparison of the aggregated criteria within the matrix formulated for the purpose of the analysis and recognizing the relative relevance of the factors and the level of their reciprocal dominance. The results were formulated with utilization of a spreadsheet and Expert Choice application (Prusak and Stefanów 2014, 241). The vector value and the weight calculations were performed and the priorities were ranked according to the importance of the second level criteria, which enabled achievement of the assumed examination aims. The range of the acceptable values indicated by the expert was placed within the basic scale from 1 to 9 (see tab. 2). 4 Results The grade results indicated by the experts, after they were averaged, were input in pairs into the comparison square matrix, which constituted the basis for further calculations (Prusak and Stefanów 2014, ). Upon the diagonal of the A matrix composed of n elements equivalent to the number of factors and the criteria for the hierarchical analysis there is the same number of values 1, equivalent to the number of comparisons (the rule of uniqueness of a mutually compared same element) a 12 a 1n 1/ 12 1 a 2n (1) A = / 1n 1/ 2n 1 Pairwise comparison matrices show rear elements, which means factors represented at every level of the hierarchical structure. Matrices are created for determining the significance of criterion within one of the branches indicating the degree of validity important when choosing a model or digitalization option. Sum (σ j ) given in the last line of the statement was created by the addition of ratings (a ij ) in each column of the matrix comparisons. The next step specifies the weight values and priorities to verify data integrity (2) and correctness of calculations. The bottom line shows the values to verify the correctness of the calculations: nx (2) λ max = λ i, where λ max is the value of the eigenvector matrix, confirming its consistency. Others according to validate the analysis come from formulas i=1 (3) CI = λ max n n 1 and Tab. 3. Numerical results of the comparison factors in pairs on the second level* A B C D E A 1 1 0,5 0,33 0,25 B ,33 0,25 C 2 0,5 1 0,5 0,33 D ,2 E σ j 11 9,5 8,5 7,16 2,03 Note: Symbols described in table 1 * [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

68 68 Stanisław W. Ceran (4) CR = CI RI, where: n the number of criteria (rows of the matrix), RI random compliance rate ratio of 1.11 for n = 5. Tab. 4. Results of pairwise comparison calculated factors and their weight on the second level Factors A B C D E Scores Weights (in %) A 0,0909 0,1053 0,0588 0,0461 0,1232 0, ,2 B 0,0909 0,1053 0,2353 0,0461 0,1232 0, ,8 C 0,1818 0,0526 0,1176 0,0698 0,1626 0, ,1 D 0,2727 0,3158 0,2353 0,1397 0,0985 0, ,6 E 0,3636 0,4211 0,3529 0,6983 0,4926 0, ,0 λ max = 0,074038; CI = 0,0185; CR = 0,01667 The value of CI (3), which is an index of conformity and CR (4) the compatibility factor must satisfy the condition 0,10 < CI; CR > 0 (they should not be higher than 0,10). The factors constitute elements of the evaluation values calculated by weight in the form of: a weighted average of the geometric mean given in table 5. The comparison generated in the analysis of indicators clearly showed the dominant role of the digital literacy factor (100%) for the success of the transition and development processes who are based on digital technologies (see fig. 3). Tab. 5. The values calculated weights for the digital development factors Factors Average Weights (in %) Geometric mean Weights (in %) A 0, ,2 0, ,7 B 0, ,8 0, ,3 C 0, ,1 0, ,3 D 0, ,6 0, ,2 E 0, ,0 0, ,0 A slightly less significant factor here was the use of information and communication technologies (45,6%), the smallest weighing values were noted in ICT infrastructure (25,8%) and e-services (18,2%). digital services ICT infrastructure ICT sector use of digital technology digital competences Fig. 3. Main determinants of digital development Because of the great importance of the digital competence factor, the diagram shows the course of the analysis in the third hierarchical level along with the chart criteria. The comparison of the criteria factor of digital skills indicates a high rank of quality teaching criterion (E2) in the shaping of a sufficiently high level ICT skill development in society. These indicators also confirm the role of the following criteria, i.e. creativity (68,6%) and digital literacy (63,9%) as a critical component in the transformation based on digital technologies. For confirmation of this notion, the spatial distribution of the results of the significance criterion of the quality of education in the county system on Polish territory was examined. These are the data contained in its report on the problem areas of the country (Bartkiewicz et al. 2009). Eastern Polish counties predominantly characterized themselves by low levels of education.

69 Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland 69 Tab. 6. Numerical results of the comparison criteria for digital literacy at the third level E1 E2 E3 E4 E ,5 E2 0, E3 0,5 0,5 1 0,5 E4 2 0,3 2 1 σ j 4 2, Note: Symbols described in table 1 Tab. 7. Results of pairwise comparisons calculating the criteria and their weights at the third level Factors E1 E2 E3 E4 Scores Weights (in)% E1 0,2500 0,4286 0,2500 0,0909 0, ,1 E2 0,1250 0,4286 0,2500 0,5455 0, ,0 E3 0,1250 0,2143 0,1250 0,0909 0, ,6 E4 0,5000 0,1429 0,2500 0,1818 0, ,9 λ max = 0,1028; CI = 0,0343; CR = 0,0385 digital skills the quality of teaching communication skills creativity Fig. 4. Distribution of weight value for the criterion of digital literacy For example, Eastern Poland representing a quarter of the land is 34 counties with the rating of low and very low; the remaining territories, which is 3/4 of this area, have predominantly medium or high level of education indicators and the number of counties with low and very low indicator is 39. Comparative figures testify to the overlapping hierarchical analysis of official statistics in the field of digital literacy (Rocznik Statystyczny Województw 2013; Społeczeństwo informacyjne w Polsce 2013). Education changes dynamically when faced with the technological and social changes, so its purpose is also to shape and educate the inhabitants of the regions with a weak economy, who learn and prepare to teach themselves for the rest of their lives. New media, such as the Internet, digital television or cellular telephony, do not condition the quality of education itself, but they decrease its quality when implemented without prior preparation. Without introduction of new educational methods the effective solutions and the digital educational equipment adjusted to the specific educational requirements of various social groups makes the knowledge available in the electronic form lose its educational qualities, which reduces its meaning to a mere source of information of unspecified quality and low usability. Statement summarizing the analysis undertaken hierarchical shown in table 8. Conclusions The observations of the development processes supported with the digital communication equipment in Poland from 1995 to 2015 show an evident lack of effects. Our country is far behind the group of countries where the mechanisms of efficient public operations with the use of information technologies were introduced successfully. Thus, a proper diagnosis of the factors and the criteria for digitalization development is the main priority. The factor of digital competence along with the supply of services and the infrastructure has proven to be the most important among the factors influencing the picture of the economy and development in certain areas of Poland. The Analytic Hierarchy Process method has proven its high practical value for establishing the

70 Tab. 8. A summary of results of the hierarchical analysis for digital development Criterion of 3 level hierarchical analysis Factors of digital development 2 level analysis Descriptions and symbols Average % Priorities % Normalized priority weights % % Symbols Supply of e-services A1 0, ,7 0, ,7 0, ,9 Interoperability A2 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Access to public information A3 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,9 The efficiency of market players A4 0, ,3 0, ,3 0, ,2 Penetration and network availibility B1 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Quality and coverage communication B2 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Data processing efficiency B3 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,5 Delivery of the digital technology B4 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,5 Integration technology C1 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Supply of technology C2 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 ICT innovation C3 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,4 ICT entrepreneurship C4 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,7 Digital demand D1 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Interactivity D2 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,5 Security and quality of life D3 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,1 Rationalization of market mechanisms D4 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,5 Digital skills E1 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,9 The quality of teaching E2 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Communication skills E3 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,0 Creativity E4 0, ,0 0, ,0 0, ,7 18,2 A digital services 25,8 B ICT infrastructure 25,1 C ICT sector 45,6 D use of digital technology 100 E digital competences

71 Information Technologies for Development of Specific Regions of Poland 71 aims and indicating the achievement model. The digital competence factor analysis results coincide with the statistics and provide the evidence for the great significance of this aspect of the economy functioning in the era of the globalized society. The level of information technologies use is largely proportional to the quality of education at every stage, while the competences of the digital education leaders result in the achieved range of infrastructure and use of system instruments, or access to the provided digital content. It should be stated that the applied hierarchical method of problem analysis showed a high level of fidelity of its results to the results presented in the reports and the statistical data analysis and, as such, it can be applied as a useful analytic instrument. References Bartkiewicz, P. et al Identyfikacja i delimitacja obszarów problemowych i strategicznej interwencji w Polsce. Wnioski z analiz, Raporty/Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego Instytut Badań Strukturalnych. Warszawa: Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego. Dziuba, D Analiza możliwości wyodrębniania i diagnozowania sektora informacyjnego w gospodarce polskiej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Polska Trzecia fala nowoczesności. Długookresowa Strategia rozwoju Kraju Warszawa: Ministerstwo Administracji i Cyfryzacji. Prusak, A., and P. Stefanów AHP analityczny proces hierarchiczny. Budowa i analiza modeli decyzyjnych krok po kroku. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck. Rocznik Statystyczny Województw Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny. Saaty, T.L The Analytic Hierarchy Process: Planning, Priority Setting, Resource Allocation. New York-London: McGraw-Hill International Book Co Decision Making with Analytic Hierarchy Process. International Journal of Services Sciences no. 1 (1): Społeczeństwo informacyjne w Polsce. Wyniki badań statystycznych z lat Informacje i opracowania statystyczne. Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny, Urząd Statystyczny w Szczecinie.

72 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

73 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Comparison of Methods in the Definition of Home Energy Characteristics in the Context of the European Union Directives Tomasz Szul University of Management and Administration in Zamość, Poland Abstract Energy characteristics were estimated for an exemplary single-family detached house on the basis of four calculation methods (according to the Directive 2010/31/EU on energy characteristics of detached houses) such as: the method based on the actually consumed amount of energy, the method based on the actually consumed amount of energy calculated for the standard weather conditions and the calculation method compatible with methodology from 2009 with its newest version of 2014 as well. Then the comparison analysis of the method based on the energy actually consumed with the calculation methods for the standard weather conditions was conducted. While comparing needs for final energy for building heating, one can notice a great discrepancy between values of relative errors of estimation. The value of estimation error in comparison with the total energy consumption for heating and preparing hot usable water amounts to 70% if you compare it to the calculation method (according to the methodology of 2014) with the actual energy consumption, whereas 36% if compared to the conversion conditions. The application of calculation models contained in the methodology of 2008 gives better results, because the estimating error is from 38% (compared with the actual energy consumption) to 11% (compared with real consumption taking into consideration the standard conditions). The method used to determine the characteristics will depend on whether the house meets the criteria in rules concerning minimal demands indicating the unit need for initial energy IE max. If the energy characteristics certificate is made on the basis of the method based on the real energy quantity consumption, it will show that a house will fulfill demands, while in the case where energy characteristics will be prepared based on calculation method compatible with the methodology of 2014 the house won t fulfill demands and it won t be accepted. If you want to accept as objective the proposed methodology of fulfilling energy certificates, energy characteristics defined on the actual consumed quantity of energy should include a notation of the need to calculate results for the conditions of the standard season. Keywords: methodology of energy characteristics definition, real energy consumption, final energy, the heating season number of days counting for decreases of heat Introduction Energy consumption in the European construction sector is about 45% of the total energy needs of the European Union and 50% of the pollution put into the atmospheric air comes from this sector (Ballarini and Corrado 2009). As noted by Chan, Riffat and Zhu (2010), the construction sector consumes 35,3% of the needs for final energy. Therefore the energy consumption reduction in this area is a priority in the aims of in the range of energy effectiveness. In the aim of improvement of energy exploitation effectiveness for building heating and air conditioning and in the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emission, the European Parliament and European Union Council accepted the Directive in the case of building energy characteristics. 1 It inscribes guidelines concerning the energy effectiveness augmentations and it proposes guidelines for membership countries concerning building energy characteristics. In the guidelines two possibilities of energy 1. See: Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002 on the energy performance of buildings. OJ L 1, , p

74 74 Tomasz Szul estimate of buildings were allowed the calculation and exploitive methods. Poland as a rightful member of the European Union was obliged to introduce the decisions contained in the Directives 2 on energy certification of buildings. The Act on the change of the Construction Law from 2007 was a general basis to prepare energy certificates. The detailed methodology of preparing energy characteristic certificates for buildings, parts of buildings and apartments was set into the Infrastructure Minister Regulation in In this regulation the calculations were established that must be made within the framework of building estimates of energy needs (i.e., the theoretical quantitative forecast of energy consumption in the scale of one year). This quantification makes an objective estimation of the energy quality of the building. This quality can differ from the measured quality of consumed energy because this quality depends also on the manner of exploitation (Regulation 2008). Heating needs are calculated by assuming normative usable conditions that is: temperature in rooms established in the Regulation on technical conditions as to what the building should be like and where equipment should be situated (Regulation 2013), the most unfavorable temperatures established for a climatic zone in the PN-82/B norm, 3 average external monthly temperatures and qualities of the solar radiation for particular months after the average of many years of data defined for the closest meteorological station, quality of the ventilation air flux according to the PN-B/ norm. 4 Calculations concerning the energy needs in the homes should include: energy consumption for heating and ventilation energy consumption for preparation of hot water (further called h.u.w.), compared with the quantity of water consumed by inhabitants or other users Energy need is calculated in turn for: usable energy (consumed directly), final energy (supplied to a building including waste of energy as a result from the efficiency of installation systems) and initial energy (that takes into consideration waste of energy during its production and transmission, and the type of energy carrier). Estimation of usable energy needs for heating, ventilation and cooling is made with the monthly balance-sheet method according to the PN-EN ISO 13790:2008 norm. 5 The Law of building energy characteristics was introduced in This Law defined rules for: creating energy characteristic certificates, heating and air conditioning system control in buildings, a central register of building energy characteristics, the development of the national plan for increasing the construction and local planning for the number of buildings with low energy consumption. Article 15 of this Law states that: The proper Minister for construction, local planning, spatial development and housing policy will define, by the way of regulation, the methodology of establishing building energy characteristics, the way of making documentation and models of energy characteristic certificates. The proper Minister for construction, local planning, spatial development and housing policy issuing the regulation, mentioned in Point 1, will take into consideration: building or part of building construction technical parameters, kinds of technical systems in the building or part of the building, the methodology of energy characteristics defined based on the standard way of using a building or a part of the building, the methodology of energy characteristics defined based on the actually consumed quantity of energy. 2. See: Directive 2002/91/EC... and Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings. OJ L 153, , p PN-82/B Temperatury obliczeniowe zewnętrzne. 4. PN-83/B-03430/AZ3:2000 Wentylacja w budynkach mieszkalnych, zamieszkania zbiorowego i użyteczności publicznej. Wymagania. 5. PN-EN ISO 13790:2009 Energetyczne właściwości użytkowe budynków Obliczanie zużycia energii na potrzeby ogrzewania i chłodzenia. 6. See: Rozporządzenie Ministra Infrastruktury i Rozwoju z dnia 3 czerwca 2014 r. w sprawie metodologii obliczania charakterystyki energetycznej budynku i lokalu mieszkalnego lub części budynku stanowiącej samodzielną całość techniczno-użytkową oraz sposobu sporządzania i wzorów świadectw charakterystyki energetycznej. DzU z 2014 r. poz. 888.

75 Comparison of Methods in the Definition of Home Energy Characteristics 75 By this law the Infrastructure end Development Minister issued new regulation on the methodology for buildings, homes or their part making a separate technically-usable unit for energy characteristic calculation, the method of documentation and the models of certificates of energy characteristics (further called the methodology). In this methodology two ways of making energy characteristics were introduced i.e., based on a standard way of using energy and on the climate data based on the nearest meteorology station, and secondly, based on the actual quality of the consumed energy (Regulation 2014). The first manner in the part concerning energy consumption for heating and ventilation calculation doesn t meaningfully differ from the notations of previous regulation. The change followed in the way of estimating ventilation flux. It is compared with a building s usable area now and it is defined with an indicative method. Values for the efficiency of production, accumulation, distribution and heating transfer were changed (or modified). The indicators for the value of expenditure necessary to calculate the qualities of initial energy consumption were also changed. The notation on the necessity of calculation for seasonal fuel consumption and also pollution emission was introduced. The Regulation assumes calculation needs for h.u.w. by indicating a method related to a m 2 of area. Indicator qualities of efficiency of preparation for hot usable water were changed in this case, too. In the case of the exploitative method the annual need for final energy supplied to a building for heating and hot usable water is defined on the basis of documents confirming actual consumption of network heat or natural gas for heating needs and for hot usable water preparation. The value Q W + Hk, expressed in kwh/year is average consumption of network heat or natural gas over the last 3 years. Annual consumption of hot usable water is calculated as a product of demands for final energy supplied to a building for the heating system as the average total efficiency of the heating system. Initial energy consumed is calculated in the same way as in the detailed method. Quality of pollution is calculated in the same way. The methodology doesn t assume a calculation (correction) counting the values for a standard year, so that in an objective way one can determine the building energy quality. Therefore the target of this work is to make a comparative analysis of the method based on actually consumed energy with by calculating a method for standard climatic conditions. The quality of needs for usable, final and initial energy will be defined. We ll examine also the influence of the observed calculating method on the value of the home energy characteristics. 1 Object of the research and methodology The calculations were made for a detached house built in 2010, located in the rural area in Bochnia commune in Malapolska district. The house was fitted with a system of central heating working in a closed system (separated pipes) with aluminum linked heaters (fitted with thermostatic valves with a proportional working of P = 2K supplied with a gas condensation boiler of 3 13 kw power used with a weather regulator. Hot usable water is prepared for three inhabitants through a gas condensation boiler working with an h.u.w. tank. Water is supplied to scooping valves through water circulation (separated pipes). In the analyzed house gas is used strictly for heating and h.u.w. preparation. Basic data concerning the analyzed object are compared in table 1. The building, despite being built in 2010, fulfills the actual technical demands contained in the regulations of the warm filtering coefficient for the outside partitions U max (Regulation 2013). The monthly readings of the level of gas from the gas meter (readings confirmed by invoices for gas) were conducted in the analyzed building. In table 2 a year-long gas consumption of the preceding three years certification are compared. The year-long gas consumption for heating and h.u.w. preparation in respective years fluctuates from approximately m 3 with an approximate value of m 3.( 7 ) The defining of the year-long demand for usable, final and initial energy in the building was the next stage of calculation. The comparative calculations were made according to the methodology from 2008 (Regulation 2008) and actual regulation from the year 2014 (Regulation 2014). 7. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

76 76 Tomasz Szul Tab. 1. Building basic data Building heated area Af (m 2 ) 136,26 Cubage of the heated part of the building ,30 Coefficient of heat filter U (W/m 2 K) Outsider walls The floor on the soil The structural ceiling under the attic Heated roof Windows ,25 0,24 0,20 0,20 1,00 Area of all outside partitions of the building A (m 2 ) 307,17 Coefficient A/Ve ,90 Tab. 2. Gas consumption for heating and h.u.w. preparation in the years (C H +W ; in m 3 ) Month Average of three years January ,4 February ,4 March ,4 April ,7 May ,4 June ,0 July ,7 August ,7 September ,0 October ,0 November ,7 December ,4 Total ,8 In the method based on the actual consumed energy, heat combustion of gas supplied to the building (the heat serves in the final energy calculation) was taken from information for the Heat Combustion Counting Area (HCCA) in the Polish Gas Company Sp. z o.o. (Ltd.) for the station OK9 in the commune of Bochnia. For the analyzed years it is on average 11,116 kwh/m 3. 8 Although the methodology (Regulation 2014) doesn t assume a conversion (correction) of real energy consumption for needs of heating and ventilating for the standard seasonal conditions, in this work calculations like that were made. We took advantage of interelations: 3X Sd(t b ) i (1) Q K,H = Q K,Hi 1 Sd(t i=1 b ) 0 3, where: Q K,H demand for final energy for heating in a standard season (kwh), Sd(t b ) 0 number of degree- days in a standard heating season ( Cd), Sd(t b ) i number of degree-days for a given year ( Cd), Q K,Hi final energy consumption for heating in the season for a given year (kwh). Climatic data based on which the calculations were made were taken from the climatic database for the station Kraków-Balice for the standard year 9 and for the years 2012, 2013, They served to define the degree days of the heating season Sd (15 C)[Sd = Dd ] in the standard year 8. Obszary Rozliczeniowe Ciepła Spalania. [@:] 9. See: Wskaźniki emisji i wartości opałowe paliwa oraz typowe lata meteorologiczne i statystyczne dane klimatyczne dla obszaru Polski do obliczeń energetycznych budynków. [@:] /dane-do-swiadectw-charakterystyki-energetycznej-budynkow. 10. Data published at

77 Comparison of Methods in the Definition of Home Energy Characteristics 77 (Dopke 2014) and for a given year that were calculated based on the Hitchin formula (Degree- Days: Theory and 2006): 9X t (2) b tśr Sd(t b ) = Sd(t b ) m = 1 e k (t b tśr ) L m, i=1 where: Sd(t b ) number of degree-days of the heating season ( Cd), Sd(t b )m number of degree-days for a given month of a heating season ( Cd), according to methodology (Resolution 2008, 2014) a heating season lasts for 9 months (i.e., from January to May and from September to December), t b assumed base temperature (15 C) (Dopke 2012), t śr average monthly temperature ( C), k constant, to Cracow = 0,821 (Dopke 2011), L m number of days in a month (d ). The number of degree-days in the standard heating season Dd (tb) 0 is 3 615,9 ( Cd), while in years 2012, 2013, 2014 was adequately Dd (tb) i : 2 789,1; 2 766,9; 2 422,6 ( Cd) which gives an average of 3 years on the level of 2 659,5 ( Cd). Comparing the results we can note that the number of degree-days of a standard season is greater on average about 36% of the time in comparison with the number degree-days in the measured period (years ). Energy consumption was calculated by four methods. They were defined as follows: A the method based on the actually consumed quantity of energy B the calculative method compatible with the methodology of 2014 C the calculative method compatible with the methodology of 2008, and additionally D the method based on actual quantity of consumed energy, counted for standard seasonal conditions 2 Results of the research and analysis Calculations that were done allowing for the definition of seasonal demand for usable, final and initial energy for heating and h.u.w. preparation. In the method based on real energy consumption it was necessary to separate two fluxes of energy: usable and initial. It was necessary in turn to define usable and initial energy consumed for heating and h.u.w. preparation. In summer months (i.e., June, July, August, natural gas was consumed strictly to prepare h.u.w.). So one can precisely estimate final energy consumption Q K.W for this period. It was assumed in calculations that in the months of the heating season final energy Q K.W that serves to prepare h.u.w. will be an average value of the three month of the summer season. This provided a way to calculate usable and final energy consumption according to the methodology contained in attachment 2 regulation. The results of a calculation for annual demand for final energy Q K,H, Q K.W dividing for processes were compared in table 2, while demand for usable energy Q H,nd + Q W,nd and initial energy Q P,H + Q P,W for the analyzed building was done in the table 3. In this table were also compared values of the unit indicator for the demand for initial energy IE. For comparison the method based on real energy consumed with the calculation methods relative error was defined according to the formula 3 and the results are shown in table 4. (3) δ = x 0 x x 0 100, where: δ relative error of the estimated final energy consumption (%), x 0 real value of the final energy consumption (kwh), x value of the final energy consumption estimated by the calculation method (kwh). Annual final energy consumption for heating in the analyzed building runs from 7,9 to 12 MWh. The consumption delimited based on the method of actual consumed energy is 7,9 MWh, meanwhile after calculation based on a standard heating season with Formula 2 it is 10,8 MWh. For the

78 78 Tomasz Szul Tab. 3. Quantity of the demand for final energy for heating and preparation of hot usable water Calculation Annual demand for final energy kwh method Heating: Q K,H Hot usable water: Q K,W Total: Q K,H + Q K,W A 7 952, , B , , C , , D , , preparation h.u.w. it runs from 3 to 5 MWh. Annual demand for final energy for heating and h.u.w. preparation runs from 12 to 20,3 MWh. The calculation results for demand for final energy defined by the method based on the real energy consumption and the calculation methods served to define the value of the relative error of estimating δ (tab. 4) for three premises that were as follows: the comparison of the real final energy consumption for the preparation of h.u.w. Q K.W with the results obtained from the methodologies of 2014 and 2008 the comparison of the real final energy consumption for heating Q K,H (real energy consumption and counted for a standard season) with the results obtained from calculations in the methodologies of 2014 and 2008, the comparison of the real final energy consumption for heating and h.u.w. preparation Q K,H (the real energy consumption calculated for a standard season) with the results obtained by the calculations contained in the methodologies of 2014 and Analyzing the results obtained in table 4 one can affirm that in the case of h.u.w. preparation the discrepancy between the real and calculated demand for final energy is ca. +/ 20% while in the method based on the methodology of 2014 consumption of water is reappraised, while in the method contained in the methodology of 2008 it is underestimated Tab. 4. Values of relative estimating of error comparing the methods of the calculations of final energy consumption Calculation δ % method A/D (Q K,W ) A (Q K,H ) D (Q K,H ) A (Q K,H + Q K,W ) D (Q K,H + Q K,W ) B 26,5 51,6 11,1 69,1 36,3 C 23,8 50,7 10,4 38,6 11,6 These discrepancies result first of all from the individual method of using h.u.w. by consumers. A no less important aspect of the comparison is the difference between the two calculation methods. This difference is as much as 50%. The only explanation is the method of estimation of consumption of h.u.w., where the methodology of 2008 accepts values of unit water consumption per person while in the newest methodology this consumption is related to the building usable area so it has nothing in common with the quantity of users. In the case of comparing demand for final energy for building heating we can notice a great discrepancy between the values of errors. Comparing consumption based on real energy consumption with calculating methods this error is about 50% while correction of the value of actual consumed energy in conditions of a standard season and compared this way obtained results with a relative error of estimation on the of about 10% to 11%. The relatively low value of error comes from the fact that in this case every compared method (exploitative and calculative) compares energy consumption to standard conditions. The value of the estimating error in the case of comparing the total energy consumption for heating and h.u.w. preparation is close to 70% if we compare the calculation method (by the methodology of 2014) to real energy consumption, while 36% while we relate it to the calculation conditions. Using the calculation methods contained in the methodology of 2008 gives better results. The estimated error in this case is from 38% (compared with the real energy consumption) to 11% (compared with the real consumption and calculation for standard conditions).

79 Comparison of Methods in the Definition of Home Energy Characteristics 79 The quantity of the usable energy consumption and initial energy which additionally takes into consideration electric energy consumption supplied for the driving force of the auxiliary devices of the heating and h.u.w. preparation systems was put together in table 5. The electric energy consumption was counted according to the guidelines of the Regulation Depending on the calculation method seasonal needs for usable energy is from 8,9 MWh to 15,3 MWh while demand for non- renewable initial energy includes the interval from 14 MWh to 23 MWh. Tab. 5. Quantity for annual demand for usable and initial energy Year-long demand for energy Coefficient of unit demand Calculation method Usable Q H,nd + Q W,nd Initial Q P,H + Q P,W for initial energy kwh/(m 2 year) IE A ,4 103,00 B ,8 170,23 C ,6 140,08 D ,3 126,42 If we compare demand for initial energy with the building s usable area we ll obtain a synthetic indicator SI (i.e., unit demand for initial energy). For the analyzed building it ranges on a scope kwh/(m 2 year) depending on the method. Lesser values relate to the methods based on the real energy consumption and larger values to the calculation methods. Indicator value SI referred to the notes contained in Regulation 2013 Technical terms that the building and its location should be matched to as of 2014 (in abbreviation WT 2014 (TS2014) regarding the allowable value for detached houses IE max. It gives an objective opinion for the building energy quality. According to WT2014 the indicator value should be 120 kwh/(m 2 year). The value of energy characteristics for the analyzed building depending on the calculation method is shown in figure 1. A D C B > 500 according to TS 2014 according to TS 2008 Fig. 1. Building energy characteristics We can note a great discrepancy if we compare the indicator of unit demand for initial energy IE with a reference level IE max depending on the method used to establish building energy characteristics. The method used affects opinion as to whether this building will fulfill criteria of rules concerning the minimal demands for the IEmax indicator. It can influence technical acceptance for a newly built house. Using the method based on real energy consumption will show that this building undoubtedly will fulfill minimal demands. We can classify it even among the group of the energy-saving buildings. The problem will occur at the moment when energy characteristics will be established based on the calculation method according to the methodology of In this case it will occur if it has a higher IE indicator value that significantly surpasses the limit permitted by the rules and even though it will fulfill maximum value indicators of heat penetration for outer partitions U max it won t obtain technical acceptation. If energy characteristic would be defined according to rules of the method of 2008, there would be better results. The value of the IE defined with the method based on the actual consumed quantity of energy and calculated on the conditions of a standard season insignificantly 6 kwh/(m 2 year) surpasses the value of IE max.

80 80 Tomasz Szul Conclusions Comparative analysis of the method based on the actual consumed energy with the calculation methods for standard climatic conditions done in this study allowed for statement of the following conclusions. Comparing demand for final energy for building heating we can notice a great discrepancy among the values of relative errors of estimation. If comparing consumption based on actual energy consumption with calculation methods the error is c. 50%, while the correction of actual consumed energy with standard seasonal conditions and compared this way obtained results with calculation methods gives a relative error of estimation on the level of c. 10 to 11%. The value of the estimating error comparing total energy consumption for heating and h.u.w. preparation is almost 70% if we compare the calculation method (by the methodology of 2014) with the real energy consumption and 36% when we compare it with the calculation conditions. Better results are obtained using calculation models contained in the methodology of The estimating error is then from 38% (compared with the actual energy consumption) to 11% (compared with the actual consumption calculated on the standard conditions). Final energy consumption for hot usable water preparation in the exploitative method depends on the individual manner of use by consumers. In the analyzed building the discrepancy between real and calculated demand for final energy is ca. +/ 20%. It depends on the method used to establish building energy characteristics whether the building fulfills criteria set down in the rules in relation to demands concerning the IEmax indicator. The building will fulfill demands if certificattion of energy characteristics is done based on the method based on real energy consumption. The problem will appear at the moment when energy characteristics are established on the base of the calculation method of In this case it will show that the building will have a higher indicator of the IE value. Thus it will significantly surpass the limit allowe by the rules and in spite of fulfilling demands concerning maximal values of coefficients of heat penetrating the outer partitions Umax, it won t accepted. We are not able to accept the method suggested of defining energy characteristics based on the actual consumed quantity of energy if it doesn t compare with the note about the necessity of calculation results for standard seasonal conditions. For the climatic station Kraków-Balice the number of degree-days of a standard season is higher on average ca 36% compared with the number of degree-days in the calculation period ( years). References Ballarini, I., and V. Corrado Application of Energy Rating Methods to the Existing Building Stock. Analysis of Some Residential Buildings in Turin. Energy and Buildings no. 41 (7): doi: /j.enbuild Chan, H.Y., S.B. Riffat, and J. Zhu Review of Passive Solar Heating and Cooling Technologies. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews no. 14 (2): doi: / j.rser Degree-Days: Theory and Application. TM41: London: The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers. Dopke, J Liczba stopniodni grzania dla dwudziestu sześciu miast Polski w 2010 r., -polski-w-2010-r Wyznaczanie temperatury bazowej budynku. File/DOPKE/Wyznaczanie%20temperatury%20bazowej%20budynku.pdf Zużycie energii do ogrzewania budynków w trzydziestu trzech miastach Polski w 2013 r. Ciepłownictwo, Ogrzewnictwo, Wentylacja no. 45 (5):

81 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 The European Landscape Convention as a Tool for the Protection, Management and Planning of Landscapes Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland Abstract Landscape protection and planning have attracted the attention of experts in many branches of science and industry. The growing interest in landscape management reflects concerns over environmental degradation that deteriorates the quality of life. Undesirable landscape changes result mostly from civilizational development, inappropriate land use and spatial planning. Further adverse landscape transformations should be prevented at local, regional and national levels. On 24 June 2004, Poland ratified the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which was opened for signature in 2000 in Florence (Italy ). The ratifying countries have committed themselves to enhance the quality of local landscapes which are the basic components of Europe s natural and cultural heritage. Despite several attempts that resulted in the development of preliminary analytical reports, the Convention has not been implemented in Poland to date. For the Convention to be implemented, landscapes on Polish territory have to be identified and assessed. A systemized approach to landscape evaluation can provide a basis for creating landscape maps. This paper discusses selected methodological assumptions underlying landscape classification (typology) and quality assessment, which could be used in the implementation process. The proposed method for assessing the esthetic value of landscape may become an integral part of landscape auditing, which is an important legal aspect of implementing the Convention. A landscape audit involves the identification of priority landscapes of particularly high scenic value. Keywords: landscape, landscape protection, landscape development, landscape auditing, European Landscape Convention Introduction The progressive deterioration of the surrounding space calls for intensified measures aimed at landscape protection and planning. Environmental degradation lowers the quality of life. Economic development together with inappropriate planning and land management lead to adverse and irreversible changes in landscape. Further undesirable changes in landscape should be prevented at the local, regional and national level. On 24 June 2004, Poland ratified the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which was opened for signature in 2000 in Florence. The ratifying countries have committed themselves to enhancing the quality of local landscapes which are the basic components of Europe s natural and cultural heritage. 1 The primary goal of the ELC is to promote landscape protection, management and planning and to organize European cooperation on landscape issues. 1. See: The European Landscape Convention (Florence, 2000). [@:] -european-landscape-convention and Europejska Konwencja Krajobrazowa, sporządzona we Florencji dnia 20 października 2000 r. DzU z 2006 r. nr 14 poz. 98.

82 82 Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska This paper analyzes legal provisions applicable to landscape protection and management, and it discusses the principles for landscape quality assessment in view of their applicability for the implementation of the European Landscape Convention. The proposed method of landscape assessment could be used in landscape auditing, which is an important legal aspect of implementing the ELC. The esthetic value of landscape was evaluated based on data covering three periods. Changes in the esthetic value of rural areas induced by human activity were monitored. The presented empirical study discusses the results of field surveys that could contribute to the development of principles and methods of landscape management and protection. 1 Landscape In the European Landscape Convention, landscape is defined as an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors. 2 Landscape is perceived as a visual phenomenon, a spectacle presented by the countryside (Land Use Consultants (Great Britain) and Countryside Commission for Scotland 1971). A landscape can be perceived from a near-view perspective when all senses are employed or from a distant-view perspective when we rely only on the sense of sight to observe the view stretching to the horizon (Natori and Chenoweth 2008; Qiu, Lindberg, and Nielsen 2013). The word landscape is often regarded as synonymous of the environment and geography, but according to many authors, this interpretation is incorrect because both concepts have much broader meanings. As a visual phenomenon, landscape incorporates numerous layers (land relief, water bodies, vegetation, etc.) that form a whole in terms of composition. Individual layers do not create separate landscapes (Brown and Brabyn 2012). Landscapes are also perceived as spatially heterogeneous areas characterized by a mosaic of patches that differ in size, shape, contents and history (Wu 2013). Simple definitions of landscape that are comprehensible for all readers are strongly accentuated in the literature. Landscape is a place where we live, work, eat and sleep. It is a phenomenon that gives meaning to our existence. As an integral component of the natural environment, landscape is a historical record of human activity. It is a symbolic representation of a country, region, city or village that embodies local traditions, history of governance and land use, esthetic and economic value of the surrounding space. It is the heritage of life (Antrop 2005; Brace 2003; Lowenthal 2003; Nassauer 2012; Sevenant and Antrop 2009; Valk 2009). 2 European Landscape Convention The signatories of the European Landscape Convention undertook to recognize landscapes in law as a foundation of their identity, to establish and implement landscape protection policies, and to integrate landscape protection and management into spatial planning and development strategies. The Parties identify and describe landscapes throughout their territory. European countries develop national and regional landscape classification systems based on various criteria and procedures. The definition of landscape formulated by the ELC sets out a methodological framework for landscape studies. Landscapes have to be identified, characterized, classified and audited based on numerous features that combine natural and anthropogenic factors with information about the historical, cultural, usable and esthetic value of land (Solon 2013). The ELC defines landscape protection as actions to conserve and maintain the significant and characteristic features of a landscape, justified by its heritage value derived from its natural configuration and/or from human activity. 3 The signatories are under obligation to identify and characterize landscapes throughout their territory and to analyze the landscape forming factors. They have to describe and evaluate the observed changes in view of the special features attributed to a landscape by members of the local community. The ELC does not contain detailed theoretical or methodological guidelines for dividing national territory into landscape units. 2. European Landscape Convention 3. Ibidem.

83 The European Landscape Convention as a Tool for the Protection 83 Despite several attempts that resulted in the development of preliminary analytical reports, the Convention has not been implemented in Poland to date. A draft regulation proposing legislative amendments in connection with new landscape protection tools has been developed. Some of its provisions transpose the recommendations of the ELC, including the implementation of landscape audits involving: identification of landscape categories in every region of the country description of characteristic landscape features landscape evaluation identification of priority landscapes of particularly high natural, cultural, historical and esthetic value identification of threats to priority landscapes protection of priority landscape by identifying areas that should be governed by landscape protection principles and areas entitled to legal protection Under the provisions of the ELC, the competent public authorities should preserve or formulate landscape quality objectives. The signatories should develop a set of recommended landscape quality features that condition the achievement of desirable landscape quality. The ELC aims to identify and preserve landscape quality parameters or objectives that are socially desirable (Chmielewski 2012). 3 Landscape assessment Landscape classification is a process that stirs controversy, debate and reveals differences in the scientific community. Following the ratification of the ELC, many European countries modified the existing landscape typologies and created new classification standards. Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) is one of the key methods of landscape identification and characterization inspired by the provisions of the ELC. LCA originated in the United Kingdom, and various versions of this tool have been used in Ireland, Northern Ireland and Scotland. LCA supports the identification and description of landscape features that make a given locality different from neighboring areas. The LCA process aims to describe the perceptual qualities of an area, and it relies heavily on field surveys. The character of a landscape is defined as a specific, distinctive and cohesive arrangement of various features that distinguish one area from another. The analyzed features include geological structure, soil type, land relief, vegetation, land use, settlement pattern and agricultural system. The natural and cultural elements of a landscape and its physical attributes are characterized with different level of detail, and the result are typological and regional units at national to local level at 1 : to 1 : or even 1 : scales (Swanwick and Land Use Consultants 2002). Assessment reports are valuable sources of landscape data that can be used in various documents, in particular development strategies and planning outlines that issue recommendations for the protection of valuable and unique landscapes and introduce landscape management principles in line with the provisions of the ELC. Lithuania has implemented a national landscape policy. The national landscape typology comprises maps illustrating landscape typologies, land relief, landscape naturalness as well as botanical, geochemical and visual diversity (Veteikis and Jankauskaite 2009). Landscape typologies are part of Lithuania s national atlas, and they are used in the planning process to evaluate the environmental impacts of development projects. Spatial typologies also contribute to the protection and rational management of landscapes. The Polish regional classification system was developed by Kondracki who identified 318 mesoregions representing 59 macroregions and 5 provinces (Kondracki 2002). This is the only comprehensive classification system to be recognized by most Polish geographers. Kondracki s system is used only in Poland, and it differs from the classifications applied across Europe. Physical geographic regions are identified based on land fragmentation, morphological features and macroclimate diversity. Provinces are distinguished in view of their geological structure, the effects of neotectonic movements and general differences in land relief and climate. Macroregions represent the combined effects of all environmental components. They are identified based on location, character, origin of relief parameters and lithological differences (Kondracki 2002; Richling and Solon 2011).

84 84 Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska 4 Materials and methods Landscape is classified based on various criteria, including the percentage of areas characterized by intensive land use, field systems, settlement patterns, visual quality, sustainable land use and major geological and climate zones. In this article, landscape is classified based on its esthetic value. The esthetic qualities of landscape are discussed based on regional examples. Changes in the esthetic qualities of a rural landscape induced by human activity were evaluated based on data covering three periods. Landscape assessments were performed in 2002, 2008 and 2014 to monitor changes in esthetic qualities. Every evaluation was performed in May, under similar weather conditions and by the same expert. This approach ensured the highest comparability of landscape attractiveness. The research process was divided into the following stages: Identification of the analyzed area. The research site was the central part of the commune of Pozezdrze in the Region of Warmia and Mazury (fig. 1). This rural area features numerous lakes and forests. It is highly suitable for recreational purposes due to the high quality of the natural environment. The research site is also characterized by high levels of development (seat of community authorities, recreational facilities surrounding lakes) in comparison with neighboring areas. The remaining parts of the municipality are typical agricultural areas. Determination of a geometric network of basic survey units. A network of basic survey units contains 100 squares measuring 500 x 500 m (fig. 1). The evaluation scores noted during a field survey were assigned to the center of mass of basic units. If an evaluation could not be performed at the center of a basic unit, the nearest locality offering a good view of the assessed landscape was selected. The size of survey units was determined by the scale of the map and land configuration. The adopted unit size ensured satisfactory visibility and, in sites characterized by significant slope, it supported the assessment of fragments of space that were not visible from other locations. In selected measurement points, landscape was assessed with the use of Wejchert s impression curve. In this method, four parameters of the observed landscape are evaluated: diversity, degradation, infrastructure and balance. Each parameter is assessed on a scale of 0 to 3 points, producing a total of 0 to 12 points. The most highly evaluated parameter scores 3 points, and the least satisfactory parameter scores 0 points. Parameters of intermediate value are assigned 1 or 2 points (Cymerman et al. 1988). The impression curve is developed by registering an Map 1. Map of the Pozezdrze Commune. Basic survey units

85 The European Landscape Convention as a Tool for the Protection 85 observer s impressions of the esthetic qualities of landscape during spatio-temporal movement. Evaluation sites are distributed at equal distance or time intervals. A landscape is composed of various views which are selected by a moving observer who subconsciously classifies and organizes the perceived sights. The applied method does not propose any units of measure, and it is merely a tool for comparing different fragments of space. The impression curve is highly suitable for monitoring changes in landscape. Evaluations have to be performed at specific time intervals in order for the changes to be registered and analyzed. Landscape attractiveness maps were developed with the use of isolines. Landscape qualities were divided into five attractiveness categories which were used to compare the results from three analyzed years. The geostatistical method of ordinary kriging was applied in the study. Measurement data were processed and the results were presented with the use of ESRI ArcGIS 10 software which features a variety of interpolation tools, including geostatistical methods for analyzing spatial data. Kriging, a geostatistical estimation method, supports the determination of the most unbiased linear estimator of the analyzed regionalized variable. The value estimated by kriging constitutes a weighted, linear combination of regionalized random variables. The kriging estimate is random function Z(s i ) represented by: nx (1) Z (s 0 ) = w i Z(s i ), i=1 where w i are kriging weights calculated based on minimized error variance. In ordinary kriging, the sum of weights has to equal 1. Kriging is strongly rooted in geostatistical theory, and it accounts for both the distance between and the direction of measurement points. If the interpolated point x and the points in its vicinity x i are spatially autocorrelated, then the value of z (x ) does not differ significantly from the value of z (x i ). The squared difference in value removes the negative sign [z(x) z(x i )] 2. Calculations can be performed for any pair of points. In evaluations of natural phenomena, as the distance between point x and points x i increases, the difference in variable value will increase until it reaches a stable level (Bohling 2005; Eldeiry and Garcia 2010; Longley et al. 2005; Sarma 2009; Urbański 2012). The results of landscape quality assessment are compared with the rate and direction of changes in land use in the analyzed commune based on data supplied by the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography (as at 1 January of a given calendar year). The proposed method s applicability for a landscape audit was evaluated. 5 Results The isolines of the analyzed phenomenon in the proposed system of basic survey units were interpolated to visualize measurement data in the evaluated area. The esthetic qualities of landscape were assessed. In the three evaluated years, the lowest score was 2 points and the highest score was 12 points. The resulting scale was proportionally divided into 5 categories of attractiveness (fig. 2). An analysis of interpolation results revealed that in 2002, the most attractive landscapes (category I) spanned a larger area than in successive years. Their area was gradually reduced from 18% in 2002 to 10% in In 2008 and 2014, the area of the least attractive landscapes (category V) increased relative to The above parameter increased by 4% throughout the entire period of the study. Only minor fluctuations were reported in the area of category II, III and IV landscapes. The noted results point to progressive deterioration of landscape quality in the analyzed site. The average score for all basic survey units decreased from 7,84 points in 2002 to 7,62 points in 2008 (by approximately 2,8%). 4 In 2014, the average score was 7,31 points (decrease by 4% from 2008). The observed drop in landscape quality resulted from human activity in areas of high scenic value. The percentage area (rounded off to 1%) of every landscape category in the evaluated site is presented in table [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

86 86 Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska Fig. 1. Interpolation results for 2002, 2008 and 2014 Tab. 1. Percentage of each landscape category Year of Area of landscapes in different attractiveness categories (%) survey category I category II category III category IV category V Field observations and survey measurements presented in cartographic form indicate that the most dramatic changes in the esthetic qualities of landscape took place in areas of greatest scenic value. The highest drop in value was noted in the vicinity of lakes and forests that attract developers of recreational and residential estates. Those projects require utility networks, which further contributes to landscape transformations. The observed change trends are listed in table 2, and they constitute the background for landscape transformations in the entire municipality. The changes in the area of land used for various purposes were analyzed in (as at 1 January of a given year) i.e., in the second period of the survey. The regularities observed during landscape assessment point to the most significant increase in the area of developed and urbanized land (5,02%). Anthropogenic transformations affect the perceived quality of space, which is one of the assumptions of Wejchert s impression curve used in the analysis (infrastructure, degradation, balance). The area of forests and land covered by trees and shrubs also increased, which contributes to scenic attractiveness. The area of all land types increased at the expense of farmland, which is consistent with national change trends. Tab. 2. Area of different land categories ( ) in Pozezdrze Commune (in ha) Year PE UR GLZiZ GZiZ GW UE N TR Increase/decrease (%) 0,67 +0,62 +5,28 +0, ,31 0 Source: Own elaboration based on the data supplied by the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography Note: PE registered land, UR agricultural land, GLZiZ forests, land covered by trees and shrubs, GZiZ developed and urbanized land, GW water bodies, UE conservation areas, N wasteland, TR miscellaneous land uses

87 The European Landscape Convention as a Tool for the Protection 87 Conclusions The European Landscape Convention placed all signatories under the obligation to implement landscape audits, which necessitates the development of methods for identifying landscape typologies and evaluating landscape quality. Landscape audits involve the assessment of the esthetic quality of local scenery, which coincides with the main objectives of the ELC. Progressive deterioration of landscape quality leads to undesirable and irreversible changes in the environment and quality of life for humans and all living organisms. Rapid economic development should be accompanied by sustainable principles of land management that rely on the protection, quality conservation and conscious planning of landscape. Landscape protection and management activities should involve regular evaluations of the esthetic qualities of landscape. The continuity and repeatability of surveys will contribute to effective monitoring of changes and the identification of threats posed by social and economic growth. The proposed method for assessing the esthetic value of landscape could become an integral part of landscape auditing. Rapid landscape transformations of recent years call for new methods that cater to contemporary needs. GIS software features analytical tools that can be used to process the results of field surveys, analyze spatial data and visualize the examined phenomena. Statistical and geostatistical tools are deployed in landscape analysis to present the rate, direction and range of spatial transformations. They supply valuable information about the types of environmental threats, which contributes to the implementation of the most appropriate conservation and remedy measures. Analyses of developmental trends in the surrounding space, including changes in land use, and a comparison of the results with the values of landscape quality parameters, complements the observations of landscape transformations. The applied method is consistent with the main objectives of the European Landscape Convention. It can be used to develop landscape maps for analyzing transformation processes based on numerous criteria. Landscape maps can play an important role in landscape protection, planning and management. The results of this study indicate that the proposed method is suitable for transposing the provisions of the ELC. The discussed method can be incorporated in the landscape auditing process recommended by the ELC. Evaluations of the esthetic qualities of landscape have to be repeated regularly to guarantee that the results of the audit are reliable. References Antrop, M Why Landscapes of the Past Are Important for the Future. Landscape and Urban Planning no. 70 (1 2): doi: /j.landurbplan Bohling, G Introduction to Geostatistics and Variogram Analysis. 20, Brace, C Landscape and Identity. In Studying Cultural Landscapes, edited by I. Robertson and P. Richards, London: Arnold. Brown, G., and L. Brabyn An Analysis of the Relationships Between Multiple Values and Physical Landscapes at a Regional Scale Using Public Participation GIS and Landscape Character Classification. Landscape and Urban Planning no. 107 (3): doi: / j.landurbplan Chmielewski, T.J Systemy krajobrazowe. Struktura, funkcjonowanie, planowanie. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Cymerman, R., A. Hopfer, K. Korelski, and G. Magiera-Braś Zastosowanie metody krzywej wrażeń do oceny krajobrazu obszarów wiejskich. Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Rolniczo-Technicznej w Olsztynie (18): Eldeiry, A.A., and L.A. Garcia Comparison of Ordinary Kriging, Regression Kriging, and Cokriging Techniques to Estimate Soil Salinity Using LANDSAT Images. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering-Asce no. 136 (6): doi: /(Asce) Ir Kondracki, J Geografia regionalna Polski. 3rd ed. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

88 88 Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska Land Use Consultants (Great Britain), and Countryside Commission for Scotland A Planning Classification of Scottish Landscape Resources. Perth: Countryside Commission for Scotland. Longley, P.A., M.F. Goodchild, D.J. Maguire, and D.W. Rhind Geographical Information Systems and Science. 2nd ed. Chichester Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lowenthal, D Landscape as Living Legacy. In The Landscape of Symbols, edited by K. Kerkstra et al., Wageningen: Wageninhen, Blauwdruk. Nassauer, J.I Landscape as Medium and Method for Synthesis in Urban Ecological Design. Landscape and Urban Planning no. 106 (3): doi: /j.landurbplan Natori, Y., and R. Chenoweth Differences in Rural Landscape Perceptions and Preferences between Farmers and Naturalists. Journal of Environmental Psychology no. 28 (3): doi: /j.jenvp Qiu, L., S. Lindberg, and A.B. Nielsen Is Biodiversity Attractive? On-Site Perception of Recreational and Biodiversity Values in Urban Green Space. Landscape and Urban Planning no. 119: doi: /j.landurbplan Richling, A., and J. Solon Ekologia krajobrazu. 5th ed. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Sarma, D.D Geostatistics with Applications in Earth Sciences. 2nd ed. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media B.V. Sevenant, M., and M. Antrop Cognitive Attributes and Aesthetic Preferences in Assessment and Differentiation of Landscapes. Journal of Environmental Management no. 90 (9): doi: /j.jenvman Solon, J Wybrane podejścia do typologii krajobrazu w Polsce i ich przydatność dla implementacji Europejskiej Konwencji Krajobrazowej. In Identyfikacja i waloryzacja krajobrazów wdrażanie Europejskiej Konwencji Krajobrazowej. Referaty konferencyjne, 18. Warszawa: Generalna Dyrekcja Ochrony Środowiska. Swanwick, C., and Land Use Consultants Landscape Character Assessment. Guidance for England and Scotland. In. heritagecouncil.ie: Scottish Natural Heritage; The Countryside Agency. CPD_Sep_2011/Reports/LCA_Guidance_for_England_and_Scotland.pdf (accessed ). Urbański, J GIS w badaniach przyrodniczych. In. ocean.ug.edu.pl: Uniwersytet Gdański. Valk, A.J.J. van der Multiple Cultural Landscape: Research and Planning for Living Heritage in the Netherlands. In Cultural Landscape Across Disciplines, edited by J. Hernik, Kraków-Bydgoszcz: Oficyna Wydawnicza Branta. Veteikis, D., and M. Jankauskaite Territorial Regionalization of Landscape Technosphere in Lithuania. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management no. 17 (1): doi: / Wu, J Landscape Ecology. In Ecological Systems. Selected Entries from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology, edited by R. Leemans, New York: Springer.

89 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 European Union Funds as a Growth Stimulant of Electromobility on the Example of Electric Public Transport in Poland Marcin Połom University of Gdansk, Poland Abstract Urban electromobility is becoming a significant idea in shaping transport systems, in particular in towns and cities. The growth of urban areas and the lack of opportunities to develop road infrastructure at the same time as well as the impact of transport on the environment imposes on the national and local governments an obligation to develop a conscious regulation of transport policy with a focus on collective electric transport. The paper presents differentiation in spatial distribution of EU funds for electrified urban transport, broken down by city and state, and the extent of the variety of EU expenditure on electric transport. Keywords: public transport, electromobility, European Union funds, sustainable development Introduction The idea of urban electromobility is considered to be a response to the growing problems of public movement inside heavily urbanized areas (as observed in increased congestion), and the need to take care of the environment of towns and cities (Kopeć 2012). Activities associated with the development of electromobility focus on improving the accessibility of urban electric transport which is the most environmentally friendly form of population movement. Even in the case of countries whose economy is based on energy from non-renewable sources, and where its production pollutes the environment, it is essential to reduce pollutant emissions in the vicinity of the means of transport. The answer to these demands is the idea of electromobility, which assumes the increasing importance of electric forms of transport, both collective and individual. The European Union stimulates the growth of electromobility through a series of regulations, requiring all its members to implement them. The most important documents in the promotion of electric urban transport is the Green paper on the urban environment, the Plan for urban mobility and transport and the White book on transport (Załoga and Kłos 2011). 1 Among the most important tasks there is the promotion of the concept of sustainable development, which includes electromobility and improving social environmental awareness. Measures focused at increasing electromobility can be divided into two groups. The first concerns the construction of the foundation for hard infrastructure (such as a transport network, interchanges, rolling stocks). The second is related to the soft actions gathered in the area of attitudes of passengers (such as organization of services, information, promotion). 1. See also: Action plan on urban mobility European Parliament resolution of 23 April 2009 on an action plan on urban mobility (2008/2217(INI)). OJ C 184E, , p and Tekst dokumentu Zielona Księga COM(2007) 551. W kierunku nowej kultury mobilności w mieście. Transport Miejski i Regionalny 11/2007, p

90 90 Marcin Połom Funds given by the European Union aim primarily at improving the transport infrastructure, in particular their level of equalization among members. The European Union budget is concentrated basically on innovation, which includes the idea of electromobility. This attitude towards new investments allows members to have easier access to receive co-financing in improving the availability of urban electric transport. European funds received by Poland in have largely been used for purposes connected with public transport, in particular those concentrated in large cities. There is a noticeable increase in investments related to electric transportation, trams and trolleybuses. The article characterizes experiences with electromobility in public transport in Poland so far and presents the investments made in the field of urban electric transport co-financed from European funds in It also states that European funds can be considered a dominant stimulant in this regard. Spatial differences in the use of EU funds for urban electric transport by provinces is also presented. 1 Experience in the field of electromobility in Poland so far Polish experience in the field of electromobility has primarily been associated with the functioning of urban public transport, especially in the forms of a tram network (14), trolleybus (3), metro (1) and urban railway (2). Before accession to the European Union there was a noticeable stagnation in the function of these means of transport in Poland. This situation was primarily related to under-investment in the years before as well as a significant degree of overexploitation of infrastructure and rolling stock. For small tram networks (like the ones in Gorzów Wielkopolski and Grudziądz) there were some judgements promoting the liquidation of the system, as in the case of the three existing trolleybus networks (in Gdynia and Sopot, Lublin and Tychy) (Bartłomiejczyk and Połom 2011). Usually high awareness of the local authorities and public transport organizers or citizens opposition saved the public transport systems from liquidation. In the 1990s three trolleybus networks were liquidated in Dębica (in 1992), Warszawa (in 1995) and Słupsk (in 1999). The last new electrical systems of public transport launched in Poland were the tram network in Częstochowa in 1959 and the now non-existent trolleybus networks in Słupsk launched in 1985 and Dębica in Lack of sufficient financial resources for the development of high quality urban electric transport infrastructure caused a decrease in the share of these forms of transport in the total volume of public transport and resulted in the growing importance of traditional bus service. The decreasing concern for electric transport also resulted from the dynamic development of the growth of individual vehicle means of transport, which was underdeveloped prior to the period of economic transition in In addition, before Poland s accession to the European Union and apart from the collective extent of electric transport there were virtually no individual forms of electromobility electric cars. The development of these means is associated with an increase in public awareness, wealth and technology, which took place during the accession to the European structures. 2 Investments in urban electric transport in In the period , and so during the first two budgets of the EU in which Poland participated, for the first time significant financial resources appeared to improve the quality of transport infrastructure. Among the main investment targets were those associated with public transport. This tendency fits perfectly in the idea of sustainable growth promoted by the European institutions. Completed projects can be divided according to their scope, size and type of transport. The main recipient of EU funds in this period was the tram system (fig. 1). Main efforts focused on modernizing the railway tracks and depots, building new roads and purchase of trams in 13 of the 14 existing tram networks. The only tram transport system which did not benefit from European funds, was a network in Gorzów Wielkopolski. The attitude of the urban authorities there concentrated on the liquidation of the system. This met with strong opposition from the local community, yet it has not resulted in the preparation and implementation of any investment projects through

91 European Union Funds as a Growth Stimulant of Electromobility 91 the end of In addition, there were investments in all the cities with trolleybus networks in Lublin with the greatest material scope (Połom 2011a; Połom and Tarnawski 2011). There were also the first projects for the purchase and introduction into service of hybrid buses (electro-combustion) and those fully electric. However, these were projects taken only up to initial conceptual stage and have not been included in this report. Particularly noteworthy are the investments that were associated with the creation of entirely new systems of electric transport. The only new tram network is planned to be built in Olsztyn (fig. 1). It is an investment co-financed largely from European funds allocated for the poorest regions in the European Union, which includes Warmińsko-Mazurskie Voivodship. As part of the initiatives related to the construction of new transport systems there are plans for construction of urban railways. An example of such an enterprise is the Pomeranian Metropolitan Railway in its agglomeration, which in the first stage will be operated by combustion traction, but was primarily designed and built as an electric railway, and the development of an electric suburban train in Łódź. In the period there were no plans for new trolleybus networks. As part of the completed projects co-financed from EU funds in the region with the highest expenditure on urban electric transport was Mazowieckie Voivodship with the sum of more than PLN 5 billion. The next region with approximately PLN 3 billion in expenses was the Pomorskie Voivodship. Expenses in other regions achieved the level of PLN 470 million up to million (tab. 1). In counting the value of investments by region in terms of population the highest indicator belongs to Pomorskie Voivodship. In second place remains Mazowieckie Voivodship. Five regions did not see any investments and therefore have not been included in the analysis (fig. 2). Participation of European funds and contributions from national funds in projects concerning urban electric transport were counted among the regions in which investments were made. Of the 11 regions in which such projects were taken, the share of European funding in the total sum of completed projects ranges from approximately 40% to more than 75% (fig. 3). There are three regions with particularly large share of funding Pomorskie, Warmińsko-Mazurskie and Lubelskie. Two of these three regions qualifies among Poland s poorest regions. For these viovodships Fig. 1. Investments in electric urban transport in Poland carried out in according to the division of the type of electric traction

92 92 Marcin Połom Tab. 1. The total value of EU projects related to urban electric transport (in PLN billions) Voivodship Value of EU co-financed investments Value of funding Own contribution Mazowieckie 5,09 2,02 3,07 Pomorskie 2,94 2,18 0,76 Małopolskie 1,63 0,75 0,88 Łódzkie 1,57 0,80 0,77 Wielkopolskie 1,15 0,52 0,63 Kujawsko-Pomorskie 1,07 0,50 0,57 Śląskie 0,87 0,47 0,40 Dolnośląskie 0,86 0,40 0,46 Warmińsko-Mazurskie 0,57 0,40 0,17 Lubelskie 0,53 0,36 0,17 Zachodniopomorskie 0,47 0,23 0,24 Source: Author s description based on the scattered materials Note: [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.] Fig. 2. Investment in the electric urban transport in Poland carried out in , characterized by financial efficiency the European Union prepared a separate budget within the Operational Development Project of Eastern Poland. Pomorskie region gained primarily on the construction of the Pomeranian Metropolitan Railway, which was financed with funds distributed centrally by the Ministry of Regional Development (Kołodziejski and Wyszomirski 2014).

93 European Union Funds as a Growth Stimulant of Electromobility % own contribution EU contribution 50% 0% pomorskie warmińsko-mazurskie lubelskie śląskie łódzkie zachodnio-pomorskie kujawsko-pomorskie dolnośląskie małopolskie wielkopolskie mazowieckie Fig. 3. Diversity of participation of EU and national funds for projects completed in Soft EU projects stimulating change in the behavior of urban transport passengers In the process of organization and management of public transport vital are those aspects of transport policy instruments that support the use of new communication infrastructure and affect the unfavorable preferences of citizens in the field of urban transport travel by individual means. Implementation of even the largest infrastructure investment will not change anything if passengers do not benefit from them. The choice of transport policy by local government directly affects the standard of living. The desire to reduce the negative effects of individual travel requires new measures to support behavioral change in inhabitants transport preferences (Kauf 2013). The city of Gdynia serves as a case study in this article. Gdynia was one of the first cities in Poland where the local authorities decided to reform the organization by separating the roles of transport manager and public transport operators. In 1992 local authorities established the Public Transport Authority, whose role was to organize and manage public transport (Wyszomirski 2012). Gdynia authorities, aware of the importance of sustainable development, for many years have reached for the so-called soft EU projects, usually carried out by international consortia These projects were supposed to help bring to life concepts of sustainable transport. Particularly noteworthy were the educational projects implemented by the established Public Transport Authority, aimed at younger children and students (Transport Education, Project YOUTH fig. 4, Mom, Dad, I choose econtransport fig. 5). The TROLLEY project, in which Gdynia s Fig. 4. Trolleybus pasted in advertising promoting the use of public transport (project YOUTH). Photo by author. Fig. 5. Promotional poster Mom, Dad, I choose ECOtransport Source: ZKM Gdynia materials

94 94 Marcin Połom trolleybus network was presented as a model, also played an important role. The products of the project focused on promoting the development of transport infrastructure It also produced analysis of trolleybus transport as the most cost-effective means of transport taking into account the external costs cheaper than diesel-powered buses (Hebel and Wyszomirski 2014; Połom 2011b; Wyszomirski 2014). 4 The prospect of investment in urban electric transport in Poland in Public transportation requires high expenses financed constantly in order to maintain its potential. An aging fleet and high resources for its reproduction is the most important element planned in the budgets of transport companies. Innovation and technological development stimulates purchases on a higher level, including financially. The positive experiences of Polish transport companies and local authorities in the field of investments co-financed from European funds can help in predicting the situation in the new funding period It is expected that not only cities and regions that have already co-financed projects in the previous term, but also all those that previously did not do that, will make efforts to reach for them. Based on already published ideas and initiatives in the regions as well as the preparations undertaken for the new EU budget, an estimated volume of investments planned for the coming years can be predicted. The biggest projects are planned in Warsaw, where the initial expenses are estimated at PLN 2,2 billion, and will result in purchase of nearly 200 new vehicles (mainly trams). Next is the city of Łodź with the plans of approximately PLN 1,5 billion. In this city, a significant share of the expenditure is to be placed in the modernization of tram routes, neglected and under-invested in previous years. At a high level, planned expenditures will also take place in Wrocław (nearly PLN one billion) and Bydgoszcz (PLN 870 million), Gdańsk, Upper Silesian Industry Region (GOP), Kraków and Toruń (approximately PLN 700 million). Fig. 6. The planned investments in the electric urban transport in Poland in as of October Source: own study based on scattered materials

95 European Union Funds as a Growth Stimulant of Electromobility 95 With the analyzed investment plans so far all city centers with tram and trolleybus networks plan stock and infrastructural investments. The cities with tram networks seem to dominate among other investments in expense, due to its much higher investment costs. Big plans for the tram network are located in Gorzów Wielkopolski, where no projects co-financed from European funds in were conducted. In addition, the three trolleybus transport networks are expected to invest in the purchase of new vehicles and the construction of new routes. Summary The development of electric transport is considered by many researchers in engineering and economics of transport as the only way forward in developing public urban transport. Increasing public awareness in the matter of impact of transport on the environment, further stimulated by international legal regulations (e.g., the European Union) and the rapid development of technology, which reduces manufacturing costs and operating all-electric means of transport, can confirm this thesis. Before Polish accession to the European Union, there was above-average growth of individual vehicle transportation, far ahead undertaken road projects in each spatial scale, setback of rail transport and urban electric transport. The collapse of public transport was mainly related to a lack of investment measures. All investments then aimed at improving the general condition. Electric transport was more expensive in investment costs, mainly due to the diverse infrastructure, and was therefore in the situation of disadvantage. This resulted in focusing all efforts almost entirely on bus transport, in which faster and more significant image improvement is easily achieved. Before 2004 small infrastructure investments in urban electric transport and slight vehicle purchases did not meet with public requirements. The final period of negotiations on Polish accession to the European Union provided the possibility of predicting a level of aid from the European budget for transport investments and preached signs of recovery in investment planning. Most urban authorities, which remained decisive on the matters of electric transport, managed to use the European funds for the modernization and development of the network in High level of success remains in the hands of cities such as Gdańsk, where the size of the investment, calculated according to the number of inhabitants, was the biggest in Poland. Great successes were also achieved in Warsaw, Łódź and Olsztyn. Given the fact that a significant portion of investment funds were distributed as part of regional contracts, it is estimated that the most pro-electromobile regions are Pomorskie and Warmińsko-mazurskie. Particularly noteworthy are the investments that were associated with the creation of new systems from scratch such as the tram network in Olsztyn and city agglomeration rail in Łódź and Tri-City (Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot). The most negative example of missing the opportunity for the development of sustainable mobility concerns Gorzow Wielkopolski authorities. In this city he neglected tram network did not receive any funds from the European Union. The policy of the city authorities sought to dismantle the system. This situation directly violates the horizontal policy objectives of the European Union. These activities ceased only after the intervention of citizens and currently the authorities are planning a significant investment in the next funding period. Among other regions, there were also those who do not invest in electric transportation at all those did not have this form of transport and did not plan any new urban transport systems (Lubuskie, Opolskie, Podkarpackie, Podlaskie, Świętokrzyskie). The predicted significant financial resources supporting transport, negotiated by the Polish government within the European budget for , are a great opportunity to improve infrastructure and rolling stock and perhaps invest in new systems. Among the known projects, the proposed investments in Warszawa, Łódź and Upper Silesian Industry Region (GOP) are most noteworthy. The project of Gorzów Wielkopolski s authorities should also be evaluated positively. The European Union s support focuses on equalizing economic development among new members. One of the important factors related to the functioning of the economy is public transportation. Polish cities and regions were most successful in exploiting the possibility of co-financing from European funds in and referred to the policy adopted in Europe concerning reduction of liquid fuel powered transport (Perujo, Van Grootveld, and Scholz 2012). In summary the two tasks of overtaking malpractices from past decades on the one hand and making a technological leap to new trends on the other were fulfilled.

96 96 Marcin Połom References Bartłomiejczyk, M., and M. Połom Determinants of Functioning of Trolleybus Transport in Selected Cities of the European Union. Translated by K. Nowicka. Pelplin: Wydawnictwo Bernardinum. Hebel, K., and O. Wyszomirski Wykorzystanie funduszy unijnych w zarządzaniu mobilnością w Gdyni Autobusy. Technika, Eksploatacja, Systemy Transportowe no. 15 (1/2): Kauf, S Logistyka miasta jako podstawa kształtowania zachowań komunikacyjnych. Studia Miejskie (10): Kołodziejski, H., and O. Wyszomirski Wykorzystanie unijnych środków pomocowych w publicznym transporcie zbiorowym na przykładzie Metropolii Zatoki Gdańskiej. Autobusy. Technika, Eksploatacja, Systemy Transportowe no. 15 (4): Kopeć, K Koncepcje kształtowania systemu transportowego współczesnych metropolii. Zeszyty Naukowe. Problemy Transportu i Logistyki/Uniwersytet Szczeciński (19): Perujo, A., G. Van Grootveld, and H. Scholz Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport. In New Generation of Electric Vehicles, edited by Z. Stevic. InTech. Połom, M. 2011a. Projekt rewitalizacji i rozwoju komunikacji trolejbusowej w Gdyni współfinansowany ze środków unijnych. Transport Miejski i Regionalny (6): b. Promocja elektrycznego transportu miejskiego. Projekt TROLLEY. Autobusy. Technika, Eksploatacja, Systemy Transportowe no. 12 (7/8): Połom, M., and R. Tarnawski Wsparcie modernizacji i rozwoju komunikacji miejskiej w Lublinie z funduszy strukturalnych. Transport Miejski i Regionalny (10): Wyszomirski, O Dwadzieścia lat funkcjonowania Zarządu Komunikacji Miejskiej w Gdyni. Transport Miejski i Regionalny (8):4 12. Wyszomirski, O Zrównoważony rozwój miejskiego transportu zbiorowego przykład Gdyni. Transport Miejski i Regionalny (4):4 9. Załoga, E., and Z. Kłos Transport miejski w polityce transportowej Unii Europejskiej. Zeszyty Naukowe/Problemy Transportu i Logistyki (14):

97 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 The Effect of Nature Conservation Legal Instruments on Spatial Management in a Commune Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poland Abstract The aim of the study was to analyse the dependence between nature conservation instruments and the percentage of land covered by local spatial development plans and to assess the effect of conservation areas on the type of spatial management in a commune. The material for the analyses comprised local spatial development plans, an administrative decision concerning terms of construction and land management (the WZiZT decision) and administrative decisions on location of public purpose investment projects (LPP decisions) issued in the years Based on the Mosina commune (in Wielkopolskie Province) an analysis was conducted on land allocated to individual land use forms in spatial development plans as well as their distribution in relation to existing land surface conservation areas. The study investigated the issue of whether the current spatial planning approach at the commune level covering all land within the boundaries of conservation areas with spatial development plans ensures rational spatial management. Keywords: spatial planning, nature conservation areas, commune Introduction Nature conservation and spatial planning are primary tasks for communes in Poland. 1 These obligations overlap. Sustainable spatial management requires adherence to nature conservation principles, including preservation of existing nature conservation objects and indication of areas of nature value to be covered by legal protection (Hełdak 2009; Zbierska, Przybyła, and Zbierska 2012). Spatial development in Poland on the local level is mainly based on the spatial policy defined in the Study of Determinants and Directions for the Spatial Management of a Community (STUDY). A tool used to carry out the spatial policies contained in the STUDY is the local spatial development plan (LSDP Polish MPZP) (Hełdak and Raszka 2013). These documents promote limitation of urban sprawl (Frenkel and Ashkenazi 2008; Hasse and Lathrop 2003). However, frequently we may observe considerable procedural problems connected with passing a LSDP. In such situations the main tool for spatial development is provided by an administrative decision concerning terms of construction and land management (in Polish a WZiZT decision ), which by virtue of the law do not have to and frequently do not reflect the spatial policy of the commune specified in the STUDY (Nowak 2012). These decisions do not require nature value analyses in the form of ecophysiographic studies or environmental impact analyses, required in the case of LSDP. In such situations we frequently observe spatial conflicts of highly varied background (Rannikko 1996). 1. See: Obwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 24 kwietnia 2012 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o planowaniu i zagospodarowaniu przestrzennym. DzU z 2012 r. poz. 647 as amended [The Act on planning and spatial development]; Obwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 14 maja 2013 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy o ochronie przyrody. DzU z 2013 r. poz. 627 as amended [The Act on the protection of nature]. * This study is partly supported by Polish National Science Centre (2011/03/B/HS4/06031) core funds.

98 98 Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański Dutkowski (1995) defines the source of spatial conflicts as the occurrence in a given area of many various potential land development options and/or many different interests and goals, including those connected with use of environmental goods. Thus the greater the value of a given area, the greater the probability of a conflict (Hełdak and Raszka 2011; Kistowski 2007). The incidence of spatial conflicts is most evident in the case of towns and villages located within metropolitan areas of big cities comprising within their limits areas of nature value. 2 This is the case of the Mosina commune, being the subject of this study. The primary problem in such areas is connected with suburbanisation, transformation of farmland and forested land and defragmentation of landscape (Lisowski and Grochowski 2008; Przybyła et al. 2011). In communes contained in the forming metropolitan areas we observe a dramatic increase in the demand for new development areas (Szczepański, Pyszny, and Zydroń 2013). Thus, as it was observed by Bednarek-Szczepańska et al., pressure on areas of nature value increases and it may be assumed that spatial conflicts between development of suburban areas and the environment are going to deepen. (Bednarek-Szczepańska, Więckowski, and Komornicki 2010) The basic problem, connected with the occurrence of nature conservation objects in communes, is also related to the fact that they are very often treated as barriers to development (ibidem). This is determined by the fact that in the case of a conflict between intentions of the investor and requirements of nature conservation, communes often decide not to pass a local spatial development plan for a given investment project. Then a dominant role in spatial management tends to be played by the WZiZT decision. In turn, this instrument is perceived as one disintegrating space. For this reason Solon (2010) stated in his study that the greatest planning needs in the years were observed in communes located in national or landscape parks and their protection zones. That author was of an opinion that only complete coverage of a given area with spatial planning documents facilitates rational spatial management. 1 Methodology Analyses were conducted in the town and rural commune of Mosina. The location of the commune in the immediate vicinity of the City of Poznań and the nature value and high tourist attractiveness is connected with strong urbanisation pressure. In its area there are many overlapping nature conservation forms: the Wielkopolski National Park (together with the buffer zone covering 18% area of the commune), the Rogaliński Landscape Park (45,5% area of the commune), four Natura 2000 areas (overlapping with the other conservation areas), 11 reserves, the Łęgi Rogalińskie nature and landscape complex as well as numerous natural monuments. The main aim of the study was to analyse urbanistic pressure on areas of nature value. This pressure in this study was assumed to be the transformation of the existing manner of land development into residential, service or industrial functions. The indirect aim of the study was to indicate a dependence between the incidence of nature conservation objects and the percentage of land covered by planning documents in the commune, and thus to show their effect on the manner of spatial management in the commune. The material for analyses comprised local spatial development plans (LSDP), the administrative decision concerning terms of construction and land management (WZiZT decision) and administrative decisions on location of public purpose investment projects (LPP decision) issued in the years Other planning and strategic documents of the commune were also analysed in order to define priority tasks for the commune. The study presents a comparison of 24 local spatial development plans with a total area of ca ha. Surface areas of the areas covered by individual LSDP were considered together with main resulting directions for development, which were classified into 7 functions: housing development (MN), service facilities development (U), housing development with service facilities (MN/U), production facilities, storage and warehouse development (P), agricultural and livestock facilities (RU/RM), managed green areas and forested areas (ZL) and water construction facilities (W). 2. See: Uchwała Nr 239 Rady Ministrów z dnia 13 grudnia 2011 r. w sprawie przyjęcia Koncepcji Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania Kraju Monitor Polski z 2012 r. poz. 252.

99 The Effect of Nature Conservation Legal Instruments on Spatial Management in a Commune 99 A similar generalisation of functions was conducted for WZiZT decisions and 78 LPP decisions collected from the commune register. In relation to the selection process only those decisions were analysed which were connected with the introduction of new development (housing, production, service, garage facilities) and water facilities as those having the greatest impact on space and the environment. Collected data from planning documents were compared with the changes in land use resulting from the land and building records and the analysis of cadastral maps and orthophotomaps. The dependence between the distribution of nature conservation objects and the number of issued planning decisions was analysed using the QGIS programme. Moreover, a tabular analysis was conducted for the percentage of land covered by planning decisions and the dynamics of increase in the land area covered by the plans. It was assumed in this study that in the case of communes with a large conservation surface area i.e., such as the Mosina commune, it would be essential to ensure the greatest possible area included in planning documents providing such a spatial development, which would not cause a negative impact on conserved nature or which would impose the obligation to provide adequate nature value compensation. It was assumed that the listing of the area allocated to individual functions in the commune based on LSDP and WZiZT decisions gives grounds for inference on the spatial policy in a given commune. 2 Results and discussion In the course of the decade of the population of the commune increased by over 19%. Taking into consideration the rate of natural increase in the commune it may be stated that the factor determining changes in the number of inhabitants was the inflow of inhabitants from other regions. When analysing changes in land use types recorded in the register of land and buildings we may observe an increase in the developed area at the expense of farmland (fig. 1). Farmland was also partly afforested. In the commune environmental protection policy specified in the Environmental Protection Programme for the Mosina commune for the years of the primary assumptions include also the necessity to protect biodiversity by combining requirements of nature conservation with assumptions of spatial policy. We also need to stress the necessity to prevent excessive investments in conservation areas, as well as to cultivate existing and introduce new green areas in order to increase the aesthetic attractiveness of the commune. This was reflected in the Study of Determinants and Directions for the Spatial Development of the Mosina commune from the year Development areas in that study were limited to six development zones settlement units, for which it was deemed necessary to pass local spatial development plans in order to limit unplanned development. The need to develop LSDP was also assumed for farmland with soils of the best quality classes to prevent or limit investment activity in that area. When comparing the area and main planning functions in the binding LSDP with the areas for which the preparation of the plan was postulated in the Study, it may be stated that the commune authorities to a hectares urbanized areas woodland water areas fallow lands other arable land Fig. 1. Differences in the area

100 100 Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański left bars: LSDP right bars: WZiZT* 100% 80% 60% W ZL RU/RM P MN/U U MN 40% 20% 0% Fig. 2. The percentage of land allocated for each function limited degree realised the imposed goals in that respect. The share in the area observed for the plans, which provided protection of farmland, was also limited (fig. 2). Only one LSDP from 2009 and to a limited degree LSDP for areas in a section of the village of Radzewice from 2012 met this recommendation. The commune comprises predominantly LSDPs of small areas prepared mainly for housing and service facilities development (fig. 2). A problem is connected with the preparation of plans for specific investment projects and not ensuring appropriate spatial policy. Planned regulations concerning planning for conservation areas are also inadequate (tab. 1). Even if for an area within the nature conservation area an LSDP is established, its planning specifications concern mostly housing development. A vast majority of changes in land use in conservation areas are executed based on WZiZT and LPP decisions (fig. 3). The total number of issued decisions ranged in the analysed period from 77 to 192, including those for plots located within the land surface conservation objects, with the greatest number of decisions issued in Similarly as with LSDP, the biggest number of decisions concerned the introduction of housing development areas (fig. 2) and they were also small areas. Throughout the study period one decision was issued on the location site for a public Tab. 1. The number and area of land covered by the local spatial development plan (LSDP located within the forms of nature protection* Year The number of LSDP Total Within the forms of nature protection Area of land covered by the LSDP located within the forms of nature protection (ha) Buffer zone of Wielkopolski National Park Rogaliński Landscaped Park Natura 2000 The main forms of land use ,0 Single-family housing ,7 Single-family housing ,7 3,0 3,0 Single-family housing ,6 0,6 Single-family housing ,3 Wooded area ,5 Agricultural buildings ,5 Main water line * [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

101 The Effect of Nature Conservation Legal Instruments on Spatial Management in a Commune 101 number of decisions (WZiZT) issued in the commune (right axis) percentage of decisions within protected areas (left axis) 80% 60% 40% % Fig. 3. Percentage of decisions within protected areas and number of decisions issued in the commune purpose investment project for land within a conservation area. This decision concerned construction of elements of resort infrastructure on a plot located within the Wielkopolski National Park. In the first analysed year the area covered by specifications based on LSDP was comparable to the surface area of plots, for which development orders (WZiZT) were issued. Three out of four plans passed in 2004 were located in the buffer zone of the Wielkopolski National Park (tab. 1) and over 95% of these areas were allocated to single family housing and service facilities. They were areas of compact development, which was connected with an inflow of a large number of new inhabitants. Moreover, location in that area for development combining the housing and services functions may result in an increased intensity of vehicle traffic, and thus potential negative impact on nature in the park. In 2005 based on specifications of LSDP an area adjacent to a large forest complex protected within the Natura 2000 Ostoja Rogalińska bird refuge area was allocated to single family housing development with service facilities. Despite the location between two forest complexes no green areas were introduced, which would serve the role of an ecological corridor. Similarly, in 2006 land use for areas covered by specifications of newly established local plans was divided into two functions: industrial (ca. 80%) and housing, with a small area of farmland. Specified housing development areas were planned both in the buffer zone of WNP and in Ostoja Rogalińska (at the same time being located in the Rogaliński Landscape Park). However, they were single family detached buildings, with limited impact on the above mentioned nature conservation objects. Housing development concerned almost the entire area covered by regulations of the only LSDP in 2007, located at the same time within the boundaries of the Rogaliński Landscape Park and Ostoja Rogalińska. Since 2008 we have been observing a gradual increase in the area allocated to use connected with cultivated green areas and afforestation. In 2008 almost 5% the total area covered by LSDP was allocated to green areas, while in 2012 such areas accounted for almost 40% of the total area of the issued studies. A considerable document in this respect was the LSDP for over 362 ha for a part of the village of Radzewice, located at the boundary with the Rogaliński LP. The primary land use in this area was specified as cultivated green areas and the already existing forest. The incorporation of such a large part of the ZL area in the planning specifications was primarily the effect of the immediate vicinity of wetlands connected with the Warta River and protected within the Special Protection Area Natura 2000 (i.e., Ostoja Rogalińska, which to a considerable part overlaps with the Rogaliński Landscape Park). Such a location most probably also had the greatest effect on the small (11%) share of the housing development area in the area covered by the plan. This LSDP also concerned farmland, on which housing development, including farmstead development, was prohibited, which resulted from the need to protect soils, as postulated both in the Study (for soils of class IVa) and in the Environmental Protection Programme for the Mosina commune for the years Among the LSDPs issued in 2012 the strongest impact on nature conservation objects could have been exercised by the specifications of the plan connected with the construction of a water main running through the Rogaliński Landscape Park (tab. 1). Among development orders (WZiZT decisions) the introduction of housing or farmstead development predominated throughout the study period, with a periodical increase in the share of areas allocated to production facilities, warehouse and garage development (fig. 2). For most 0

102 102 Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański of the analysed years the surface area of land managed based on WZiZT decisions exceeded that covered by local spatial development plans. Such a situation may confirm the opinion on problems with passing LSDP. A positive sign is connected with the fact that we have been observing a systematic reduction, starting in 2007, in the number of WZiZT decisions issued annually, including also WZiZT decisions issued for plots from conserved areas. We need to stress here the fact that despite the decrease in both the total number of issued development plans and those for plots from conservation areas, the share of the latter in the total number of decisions in the successive years of the study increased, to reach almost 40% in 2012 (fig. 3). When analysing the number of LSDP and issued WZiZT decisions, the greatest number was issued for areas within the administrative limits of the town of Mosina and its nearest vicinity (fig. 4). This shows a high investment rate for this town in comparison to the rest of the commune. It is also significant that in the town except for its northern part there are no nature conservation objects, which facilitates a less constrained spatial management. Some plans in that town are regulatory in character and refer to the already existing development, which corresponds to the proposals contained in the Study referring to the protection of spatial order. A greater number of passed plans and issued decision were also reported for the towns and villages located in the north of the commune (i.e., Czapury, Babki and Daszewice). These areas are not covered by nature conservation, which has an advantageous effect on the potential localisation of economic development. Factors initiating the passing of LSDP may also include the immediate vicinity of the central metropolitan centre, i.e. the City of Poznań (development areas targeting population working in the city), availability of infrastructure as well as its high quality, vicinity of motorway A2 (a factor of spatial development for production use). Since planning regulations in the form of LSDP target investment functions, the existence of nature conservation objects is treated as a limiting factor for these LSDP being passed. Results indicating a low proportion of land being covered by planning specifications (fig. 5) are consistent with the data presented in the annual statistical reports on the status and conditions for planning works in communes (Śleszyński et al. 2014). This reports classifies the Mosina com- Fig. 4. Administrative limits of the town of Mosina

103 The Effect of Nature Conservation Legal Instruments on Spatial Management in a Commune % Group E of communes Mosina 12% 6% mune among the group of communes located in outer zones of metropolitan areas. The average proportion of land covered by planning documents for this group in the period ranged from 26,4% to 48,0%. The result reached by Mosina among the functional groups mentioned in the report was the closest to the level characteristic of communes with nature conservation features group E (from 7,1% in 2004 to 17,5% in 2012), which had the lowest level of land covered by planning documents (fig. 5). The area covered by specifications of LSDP in the analysed commune was markedly different from the means recorded for all functional types of communes. Conclusions There are bilateral dependencies between nature conservation and spatial management. On the one hand, sustainable spatial management requires consideration of natural conditions and observation of nature conservation requirements, while on the other hand, planning decisions determine appropriate functioning of these areas and influence their potential to fulfil their protection tasks. The necessity to meet additional requirements by the planning documents covering conservation areas results in the adversely low proportion of land covered by planning documents in communes with a considerable share of protected areas. This is connected with the limited potential for allocation of areas to production, services or intensive housing development. Spatial management in conservation areas is mainly based on issued development orders. Unless the attitude of commune authorities changes in relation to the role of LSDP as a tool in the preservation of spatial order in the commune and preservation of environmental goods, the increasing share of protected areas covered by specifications of LSDP, leading to the complete coverage of a given area by planning documents, instead of providing a ration spatial management, as indicated by Solon, will show increasing intensity of impact on nature protected within the commune. Although in accordance with the law LSDP in Natura 2000 areas in the national park or a landscape park have to be arranged with respective bodies (the Regional Director of Environmental Protection Agency and the Director of the Park), based on solely legal aspects frequently no grounds are found for the prevention of an LSDP disadvantageous for the protection of nature value. Then a gradual increase in the total urbanised area within a given nature conservation object obviously affects the environment in that area. References Fig. 5. Percentage of lands covered by planning specifications Bednarek-Szczepańska, M., M. Więckowski, and T. Komornicki Konflikty przestrzenne w wybranych gminach. In Prace planistyczne a konflikty przestrzenne w gminach, edited by P. Śleszyński and J. Solon, Warszawa: KPZK PAN. Dutkowski, M Konflikty w gospodarowaniu dobrami środowiskowymi, Rozprawy i Monografie/Uniwersytet Gdański. Gdańsk: Wydawawnictwo UG. Frenkel, A., and M. Ashkenazi Measuring Urban Sprawl: How Can We Deal with It? Environment and Planning B-Planning & Design no. 35 (1): doi: /b Hasse, J.E., and R.G. Lathrop Land Resource Impact Indicators of Urban Sprawl. Applied Geography no. 23 (2 3): doi: /j.apjeog Hełdak, M Planning Documents and Sustainable Development of a Commune. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies no. 18 (3A):

104 104 Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański Hełdak, M., and B. Raszka Prognosis of the Natural Environment Transformations Resulting from Spatial Planning Solutions. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies no. 20 (6): Evaluation of the Local Spatial Policy in Poland with Regard to Sustainable Development. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies no. 22 (2): Kistowski, M Kolizje i konflikty środowiskowe w planowaniu przestrzennym na obszarach cennych przyrodniczo. Czasopismo Techniczne. Architektura no. 104 (7-A): Lisowski, A., and M. Grochowski Procesy suburbanizacji. Uwarunkowania, formy konsekwencje. In Ekspertyzy do koncepcji przestrzennego zagospodarowania kraju , t. 1, edited by K. Saganowski, M. Zagrzejewska-Fiedorowicz and P. Żuber, Warszawa: Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego. Nowak, M.J Decyzje o warunkach zabudowy i zagospodarowania terenu w gospodarowaniu i zarządzaniu przestrzenią. Warszawa: CeDeWu. Przybyła, C., J. Bykowski, K. Mrozik, and M. Napierała Rola infrastruktury wodno-melioracyjnej w procesie suburbanizacji. Rocznik Ochrona Środowiska no. 13: Rannikko, P Local Environmental Conflicts and the Change in Environmental Consciousness. Acta Sociologica no. 39 (1): Solon, J Sytuacja planistyczna na obszarach parków narodowych i parków krajobrazowych. In Prace planistyczne a konflikty przestrzenne w gminach, edited by P. Śleszyński and J. Solon, Warszawa: KPZK PAN. Szczepański, P., K. Pyszny, and A. Zydroń Analiza zróżnicowania stopnia szczegółowości ustaleń polityk przestrzennych wybranych gmin aglomeracji poznańskiej. Rocznik Ochrona Środowiska no. 15 (3): Śleszyński, P., T. Komornicki, A. Deręgowska, and B. Zielińska Analiza stanu i uwarunkowań prac planistycznych w gminach w 2012 roku. Warszawa: Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania PAN. Zbierska, A., C. Przybyła, and J. Zbierska Analiza wskaźników zrównoważonego rozwoju w gospodarce przestrzennej na poziomie lokalnym. In Gospodarka przestrzenna w świetle wymagań strategii zrównoważonego rozwoju, edited by A. Maciejewska, Warszawa: KPZK PAN.

105 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 A Proposition for a Methodology to Assess the Influence of European Union Funds on Living Conditions among Citizens of a Commune Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszów, Poland Mariusz Poninkiewicz University of Management and Administration in Zamość, Poland Abstract In this paper a two phase methodology to assess the influence of the European Union funds on living conditions among citizens of a commune was proposed. During the first the total index of living conditions in a given commune during a specific time period is calculated. During the second phase econometric logit models of the dependence of the total index on the share of the EU funds invested in a given commune are constructed. The developed methodology has been illustrated with calculations concerning the small, rural commune Zarzecze from the Podkarpackie Voivodship during the years Keywords: total and partial indexes of living conditions, European Union funds, econometric models of living conditions Introduction Living conditions are a set of objective factors influencing the level of satisfaction in material needs related to the income situation of households, the job market, housing conditions and equipment of households, health services, education, culture and social assistance (Czapiński and Panek 2013; Ostasiewicz 2002). Similar to the reality surrounding a human being, living conditions are complex and multidimensional. In order to assess their changes one needs to take a special approach multidimensional comparative analysis. This consists in transformation of the ratings of the multidimensional, social and economic reality surrounding the human being into a one-dimensional complete index of living conditions. Most often this kind of research applies to whole countries or regions. It is much more rare to perform research on changes of living conditions of citizens of communes, especially lesser rural ones, due to their small area and lack of some statistical data. It does not mean that this problem is not important society consists of small communes. Learning the mechanisms of changes in living conditions of small societies may provide a great deal of substantial information related to similar changes in larger areas. Living conditions are determined by numerous factors economic, social and political. One factor which appeared in Poland in the beginning of the 21st century, is European Union funding. This is allocated into both large, infrastructural projects influencing the development of the whole country and small developments implemented by local societies. This would mean that the EU funds should improve the quality of living conditions. However, due to the multidimensional meaning of this notion and the inconstant number and value of EU co-financed projects over time it is essential to create a special methodology in order to assess the influence of the funds on the commune level.

106 106 Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz The proposed methodology consists of two phases. During the first the total index of living conditions in a given commune during a certain time period is calculated. During the second phase econometric logit models of the dependence of aggregate indicators on the share of the EU funds invested in a given commune are constructed. The developed methodology has been illustrated with calculations concerning the small, rural commune Zarzecze from the Podkarpackie Voivodship during the years The methodology of studying the influence of aid funds on the living conditions of the citizens in a commune The hypothesis that EU funds do improve living conditions of citizens in a commune has been stated with the years of as the timeframe of the study. This means that the following were included: the year 2003, which is the period just before joining the EU, as a reference point years in an EU commune, using aid funds The basic hypothesis has been verified via means of econometric models, whose dependent variable was the total index of living conditions of the commune s citizens. The independent variables were those describing the amount of EU fund commitment. The proposed methodology consists of the following phases. 1.1 Calculating the value of the total index of living conditions during the analysed timeframe Separation of sectors describing the living conditions The citizens living conditions is a multidimensional category, which shall be described by means of r components, referring to individual sectors of living conditions. Each of these sectors shall be described with a set of variables [x ijt ], where x ijt is the value of the i-th variable, which is included in the j-th component (sector) in the t year Transformation of the potential variables explaining individual sectors into indicators Each one of the specified variables has an appropriate name (%, pcs., km, PLN, etc.) and a very diverse range of variability. This means that they cannot be compared directly with each other and cannot be summed in order to acquire the total values. Additionally, we may deal with three types of variables: stimuli, when the higher variable amount means better living conditions, destimuli, when the higher amount means worse living conditions and neutral variables (nominants). In the last case, the best living conditions exist when this variable has a fixed value lower and higher ones mean worse conditions (this type of variable appears very rarely). 1 In order to be able to add values of different variables describing various, sometimes very dissimilar components of life conditions, a process called unitarization needs to be applied: transformation into the values ranging from 0 to 1. In this work, the following procedure of unitarization has been applied (Kukuła 2000, 79): (1) for stimuli variables: z ijt = x ijt x ij min x ij max x ij min, (2) for destimuli variables: z ijt = x ij max x ijt x ij max x ij min, where: x ijt the value of the i-th variable in the j-th life sector in the year t, z ijt the value of the i-th indicator in the j-th life sector in the year t, x ij max the maximum value of the i-th variable in the j-th life sector during the timeframe of the study, x ij min the minimum value of the i-th variable in the j-th life sector during the timeframe of the study. 1. These three types of variables are described in the work of Kukuła (2000, 53 54).

107 A Proposition for a Methodology to Assess the Influence of European Union Funds 107 In this way potential explanatory indicators are created. They are normalized within the range [0; 1] and are stimuli, which makes it possible to compare phenomena described by means of different measures. These indicators become a subject of further calculations Selecting diagnostic indicators describing certain life sectors Potential explanatory variables which are a part of certain sectors (components) may be heavily correlated with each other, which distorts the values of total measures. 2 This is the reason why the formal variable selection method has been chosen. It is based on a condition number of a correlation matrix of potential indicators describing each R l sector (Malina and Zeliaś 1996, 86). The selection process for an optimal set of indicators describing the l-th life sector proceeds as follows: Calculating the correlation matrix R = [r ij ] between potential explanatory indicators. Determining the matrixes R 1 = [rij 1 ]. It is worth noting that the diagonal element r 1 ij of the R 1 matrix equals unity, if the Z ij indicator is orthogonal in relation to remaining indicators. If it is not orthogonal, then rij 1 2 (1; 1). When the indicators are too heavily correlated with each other, the diagonal elements of a reverse matrix R 1 are much larger than unity, which is a symptom of an ill conditioned matrix R.( 3 ) Eliminating indicators controlled by means of the measure of ill conditioned matrix (Položij 1966, 349). Let us take a number N to become the measure of an ill conditioned R matrix: (3) N = 1 n N(R)N(R 1 ). The smaller the N number is, the better the matrix numerically conditioned becomes. N(R) is defined as a root mean square of the elements forming the R matrix, becoming its norm: v u nx nx (4) N(R) = t rij 2. i=1 j=1 The best conditioned matrixes are the orthogonal ones. In these the number conditioning the matrix equals unity. This value should be strived for, by eliminating in sequence those indicators which correspond with the largest values of the diagonal elements of the R 1 = [rij 1 ] matrix. In practice, it is difficult to attain an orthogonal matrix with more than one indicator. This is why a so-called stop algorithm N(R) is subjectively established. The researcher determines it is small enough and after exceeding it calculations are stopped. Diagnostic indicators chosen by means of this method for each life sector become the basis for calculating partial (concerning separate sectors), and then the total index of the commune s living conditions Calculating the partial and total index of living conditions Partial and total index of living conditions are formed as a function of selected diagnostic indicators. In the literature, there are many proposals for such indexes. The first suggestion was created by prof. Zdzisław Hellwig (1968). The total index of development he proposed became an inspiration for several generations of researchers who developed the original idea. It is worth mentioning the works of Pociecha, Podolec, Sokołowski and Zając (1988), Grabiński, Wydymus and Zeliaś (1989), Nowak (1990), Kowerski (1983), Jajuga (1993), Pluta (1977), Zeliaś (2000), Kukuła (2000) and Panek (2009). Analysis of the earlier accomplishments leads to a proposal of the following procedure of calculating the partial indexes of commune citizens living conditions over the analyzed timeframe 2. Introducing variables heavily correlated with each other causes the total index to have its distribution similar to the distribution of these correlated variables. Heavy correlation means that the variables have very similar information about the studied phenomena. In such a case the total index distorts correct results. 3. A square matrix R is ill-conditioned if a reverse matrix is unstable (i.e., small changes in elements of one matrix cause big changes in the elements of the reverse matrix).

108 108 Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz (5) M jt = 1 k z ijt, k i=1 where: M jt partial index of the j-th sector of living conditions in the year t, k amount of diagnostic indicators of the j-th sector of living conditions, z ijt the value of the i-th indicator of the diagnostic indicator of the j-th sector of conditions in the year t. Total index of the commune citizens living conditions is the arithmetic average of partial indexes (6) M t = 1 r M jt. r Both, partial and total index, take value within the range [0; 1] Building econometric models of total living conditions index Specification of the model j=1 As the dependent variable is a proper fraction, a logit transformation has been applied. 4 This eliminates a situation where estimated theoretical values exceed the [0; 1] range. 5 Logit transformation is converting respective empirical probabilities (standardised indexes of living conditions) into logits, according to the formula (Gruszczyński 2001, 19) (7) Logit = ln M 1 M, where M is the total index of living conditions within normalized the range [0; 1]. Instead of index of living conditions specified in the range [0; 1], a value of directly corresponding logit value is achieved. The next step in building models of variable normalized by means of logits is the estimation of relations between empirical values of logits and independent variables taken into account. Hence, estimated models of the total index of living conditions appear in this form (8) LogitM t = ln M t 1 M t = α 0 + α 1 t + α 2 t 2 + α 3 t 3 + α 4 CEU t + ε t, where CEU t is the percentage of cumulative (since 2003) 6 EU funds in total cumulative expenses of the commune in the year t. A hypothesis stating that the living conditions in a commune were influenced by the economic situation in Poland shall also be verified. In order to achieve this, the following model shall be used: (9) LogitM t = ln M t 1 M t = α 0 + α 1 t + α 2 t 2 + α 3 t 3 + α 4 X t + α 5 PKB t + ε t, where PKB t is the GDP growth rate of Poland in the year t. If the results of estimations will be of low quality, autoregressive models shall also be considered (10) LogitM t = ln M t 1 M t = α 0 + α 1 t + α 2 t 2 + α 3 t 3 + α 4 PKB t + α 5 M it 1 + ε t. Introducing a polynomial trend of degree 3 stems from the assumption that during the analyzed timeframe the changes of living conditions may not have a linear characteristic (which is 4. It is a monotonic transformation of probabilities (normalised indexes of living conditions) from the range [0; 1] to ( ; ). This allows the dependent variable to avoid having a finite interval. The concept of logit transformation was proposed by Ronald A. Fischer and Frank Yates in In 1944 Joseph Berkson, a physicist and a statistician introduced the term logit (Agresti 1996, ). 5. An exemplification of the problem, see Goldberger (1972, 320). 6. For the year 2003 cumulative funds are equal to the funds spent in For 2004, cumulative funds are equal to the sum of the funds spent in 2003 and 2004 etc.

109 A Proposition for a Methodology to Assess the Influence of European Union Funds 109 most commonly used in research), but might be influenced by non-linear fluctuations. However, the final choice of models of total index of living conditions shall be carried out by means of the a posteriori elimination method (Nowak 1998, ). The models with the highest value of the determination coefficient, meeting all the hypotheses concerned with the formation of random elements, shall be chosen. Estimating parameters of logit models has been performed through the method of least squares. If the assumption of the lack of autocorrelation or homoscedasticity of random elements had not been met, the heteroskedasticity corrected method or Cochrane-Orcutt procedure, with using the GRETL programme (Kufel 2011), have been employed. The assessment of the measure of goodness of fit of the model with the empirical data has been performed by using the determination coefficient R 2. Because of the small amount of observations and small number of degrees of freedom, the additional step was to calculate the adjusted determination coefficient R 2. By using the F Fisher- Snedecor test, it was also possible to study the significance of the multiple correlation coefficient, measuring the significance of dependency between the dependent variable and all the independent variables appearing in a given model. Coincidence of the estimated parameters has also been taken into account (Hellwig 1976) The interpretation of the logit model A logit model is a linear model of a logit of dependent variable relative to the independent variables. This is why individual parameters are derivatives of logits relative to corresponding independent variables. Their assessments are interpreted in the same way as in the case of a linear econometric model. Changes of the logit itself are, however, not really useful for interpreting changes of a studied phenomenon. Hence, it is much more popular to employ interpretation related directly to a predicted (theoretical) level of frequency, calculated basing on the estimated model (Gruszczyński 2001, 59). Basing on the logit model, it is possible to calculate the theoretical values of living conditions index (11) ˆm t = eŷt 1 + eŷt, where ŷ t the estimated value of logit in the year t. By using the equation above it is possible to study changes in both partial and total indexes of living conditions in relation to the share of the EU funds in the commune s expenditure. This function has a logistic distribution, and its variability may by calculated by analytic means. If according to the accepted hypothesis the value of the α 1 parameter is positive, it means that the independent variable is a stimuli. In such case, growth of value of living conditions index increase to a point of inflection (acceleration phase). After crossing the inflection point the growth of value become smaller (deceleration phase). While the direction of the probability change (derivative sign) of the indicator is specified only by the α 1 sign, the amount of the change in the indicator value in the year t (if the independent variable changes by a unit) depends on the value of the independent variables vector. This means that it changes along with the changes of the independent variables and thus the derivative is most commonly calculated for the medium (average, median) values of the independent variables within a model. 2. The influence of the European Union on changes in living conditions of the citizens of Zarzecze Commune the results of the research 2.1. A brief description of the Zarzecze Commune The commune of Zarzecze is located within the Rzeszów Foothills, in the central part of the Podkarpackie Voivodship. It is a part of the county of Przeworsk. It is a rural commune, with an area of 49,24 km 2. It consists of 9 settlements forming 10 village councils. In the end of 2013 the population of the commune was ca The population density is 146 people per km 2 and is

110 110 Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz higher both than the average for the Podkarpackie Voivodship (102 per km 2 ) and the average for the whole country (123 per km 2 ) (Powierzchnia i ludność 2013). In the end of 2013 there were 339 economic entities registered within the commune, with a domination of small businesses (either self-employment or small companies hiring a couple of persons). The amount of entities has significantly grown since The biggest growth has been noted since Most of the businesses operating within the commune deal with wholesale and retail trade and car repair services (64 companies) or construction (22 companies). 7 It is an agricultural commune with a good quality of soil (Strategy, 2007). Most commonly grown crops are grain, sugar beets and potatoes. Most common animal types are cattle and swine. 94% of citizens use the water supply network. Its length in the range of the commune is 71,1 kilometers and 1737 households are connected. The water supply network and the water treatment station were modernized in the years The sewage network has a length of 50,6 kilometers and is used by 82,2% of citizens. In the commune there is also a modernized sewage treatment plant. Every settlement has access to the national gas network. Its length is 102 kilometers and it is used by 75,9% of citizens Use of European Union funds in the years During the studied timeframe, the commune of Zarzecze carried out 22 projects with a total cost of PLN 34,7 million, 78% of this value was financed from the EU funds. Sixteen projects cofinanced via SAPARD, PROW and Podkarpackie Voivodship RPO projects were of a modernization and investment nature (building roads and pavements, water pipes, modernizing the Communal Centre of Sports and Recreation, modernizing and building educational and sports facilities, fire stations, renovations of historic buildings, modernizing settlements). In total these projects cost PLN 23,2 million and 67,3% of this value was financed by the EU funds. The other six projects, of PLN 11,5 million value were related to the development of human capital (labor market re-entry, improving the quality of education). These were financed 99,5% by the EU. During the analyzed timeframe the commune received EU funds each year, except for The biggest share of EU subsidies in total amount of expenses took place in 2010 (23,1%). Tab. 1. Structure of projects co-financed by EU funds carried out in the commune of Zarzecze in the years Type of project Number of projects Total value of projects (thousands of PLN) Amount of subsidies (thousands of PLN) Share of subsidies in the total value of projects (%) Investment and repairs ,5 67,3 Human capital ,0 99,5 Total ,5 78,0 millions of PLN total commune yearly expenses the European Union funds Fig. 1. EU funds and total commune expenses in the years Variables describing living conditions of the citizens in Zarzecze Commune Analysing social processes and the possibility to access data made it possible to isolate 7 sectors of conditions explained by 19 potential independent variables (see tab. 2 and fig. 2). 7. The registry of businesses in the Commune Office of Zarzecze. 8. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

111 12 X X X3 X X5 23,0 22,5 X X , , X X X X X X ,6 87,4 87,2 X X X16 87, , X X18 X Fig. 2. Potential independent variables adopted to describe living conditions in the Zarzecze Commune (symbols of variables are described in table 2 on next page)

112 112 Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz Tab. 2. Potential independent variables adopted to describe living conditions in the Zarzecze Commune Sector of living conditions Measure unit Variable symbol Job market the number of registered unemployed persons in relation to the number of persons of working age % X 1 Technical and sanitary utilities in households water network supply gas from network bathroom Housing resources housing resources in total average usable dwelling area per person number of dwellings per 1000 citizens Water supply network length of the active distribution network..... connected houses and blocks of flats number of people using the water supply network water consumption per person Sewage system connected houses and blocks of flats number of people using the sewage network... Gas network total length of the active network active connections with dwellings gas recipients number of people using the gas network School computerisation. Number of students per 1 computer with Internet access, for students use primary schools middle schools pcs. pcs. pcs. pcs. m 2 pcs. km pcs. person m 3 pcs. person km pcs. household person pcs. pcs. X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 X 8 X 9 X 10 X 11 X 12 X 13 X 14 X 15 X 16 X 17 X 18 X Result of selecting the diagnostic indicators Every potential independent variable underwent the procedure of normalization. Then, for each sector an elimination of indicators was performed in order to achieve diagnostic indicators. The job market sector did not have to have its indicators eliminated, as it possessed only one, which automatically became a diagnostic indicator. In the rest of the cases it was decided that the procedure should be continued until the norm becomes smaller than 4. Twelve diagnostic indicators have been chosen. Tab. 3. Result of selecting diagnostic variables by the condition number of a correlation matrix method Sector of living conditions Value of the N norm Chosen diagnostic variables Job market x Z 1 Technical and sanitary utilities and furnishings in households 94,97 Z 3 Housing resources 38,91 Z 7 Water supply network 2,51 Z 8, Z 10 Sewage system network 3,35 Z 12, Z 13 Gas network 2,95 Z 14, Z 15, Z 16, Z 17 School computerisation 5,78 Z 19

113 A Proposition for a Methodology to Assess the Influence of European Union Funds Total index of living conditions in the Zarzecze Commune in the years During the analyzed timeframe the living conditions of the citizens in the commune of Zarzecze grew, apart from a small decline in The total index of living conditions rose from 0,13 in 2003 to 0,74 in Still, it is worth mentioning that if the values of diagnostic indicators had grown systematically, then (according to the accepted methodology) the total index would have achieved the value of 1 in This did not happen. From the perspective of 2013 it can be said that in some sectors of life earlier was already better. However, the basic conclusion does not change: living conditions in the commune improved. 2.6 Results of estimations of models describing the influence of European Union funds on the living conditions of the commune of Zarzecze The obtained total indexes in respective years were transformed into logits. Then, models were built, conditioning their value on percentage share of cumulative EU funds in cumulative commune expenditure and other variables. 0,10 share of cumulative EU funds in cumulative comune expenses (left axis) total index of conditions of life (right axis) 0,8 0,08 0,6 0,06 0,4 0,04 0, Fig. 3. Share of cumulative EU funds in cumulative commune expenses and total index of living conditions of Zarzecze in the years The estimated polynomial trend of degree 3, enriched by the GDP growth rate is a good image of temporary worsening of living conditions in It also shows that the direction of the changes in living conditions was similar to the changes of the GDP of Poland. Positive and statistically significant values of parameters of the variable describing the percentage share of cumulative EU funds in cumulative expenses of the commune (CEU t ) models 2 and 3 confirm the positive influence of the EU funds on the conditions of life within the commune. However, a relatively low level of model fitness to the empirical data, and in the case of a model estimated by ordinary squares method the autocorrelation of random components makes it impossible to acknowledge the EU funds as the only mean of the improvement of living conditions. The level of fitness greatly enhances the autoregressive model (4), where the dependent variable delayed in time may be a proxy of other no-eu fund factors (although it does not explain which ones) determining the advance living conditions. Great growth (in comparison with models 2 and 3) of coefficient R 2 supports the notion that the EU funds were not even the most important source of the improvement 1,0 0,8 Probability 0,6 0,4 0, Fig. 4. Influence of share of cumulative EU funds in cumulative commune expenses (%) on the total index of living conditions. Estimations on model 2

114 Tab. 4. The results of estimation of models of Total index of living conditions (Logit Mt) in Zarzecze Commune in the years Specification Model 1 (OLS) Model 2 (OLS) Model 3 (Heteroskedasticity corrected) Model 4 (Cochrane-Orcutt) Coefficient p-value Coefficient p-value Coefficient p-value Coefficient p-value Constant 2,551 < 0,0001 1,934 0,0290 1,863 0,0451 t 2 0,089 0,0219 t 3 0,006 0,0227 PKBt 0,116 0,0011 CEUt 0,237 0,0258 0,242 0,0256 CEUt 1 0,038 0,0038 Logit Mt 1 0,850 < 0,0001 R-squared 0,9560 0,3701 0,4420 0,9018 Adjusted R-squared 0,9366 0,3001 0,3800 0,8878 Statistic value p-value Statistic value p-value Statistic value p-value Statistic value F test Null hypothesis: Multiply correlation coefficient is not significant Statistic F 138,87 < 0,0001 7,11 0,0258 7,13 0, ,16 < 0,0001 Test for normality of residual Null hypothesis: disturbance term is normally distributed Test statistic 0,10 0,9521 1,54 0,4624 1,47 0,4806 1,74 0,4197 White test for heteroskedasticity Null hypothesis: heteroskedasticity not present Asymptotic test statistic z 8,75 0,4611 2,76 0,2519 Durbin-Watson test Null hypothesis: no autocorrelation d statistic 2,64 0,5255 0,5 0,0001 Test for ARCH of order 1 Null hypothesis: no ARCH effect is present Test statistic: LM 0,92 0,3385 1,69 0,1935 2,78 0,0954 0,41 0,5204 CUSUM test for parameter stability Null hypothesis: no change in parameters Test statistic: Harvey-Collier 0,86 0,4209 6,23 0,0003 p-value

115 A Proposition for a Methodology to Assess the Influence of European Union Funds 115 of living conditions. It is also worth mentioning that in the case of model 4 the variable describing the share of EU funds is delayed by 1 year, which means that these spent funds affect living conditions with a delay (see tab. 4 on previous page) Conclusion The proposed methodology makes it possible to assess the changes in the living conditions of a commune s citizens and define the influence of the EU funds on these alterations. Because of referencing the values of respective variables to their maximums and minimums during the analysed timeframe it is recommended to repeat the calculations every year, as more up-to-date data become available. References Agresti, A An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis, Wiley series in probability and statistics. Applied probability and statistics. New York: Wiley. Czapiński, J., and T. Panek Diagnoza społeczna Warunki i jakość życia Polaków. Raport. Warszawa: Rada Monitoringu Społecznego. Czekanowski, J Zarys metod statystycznych w zastosowaniu do antropologii, Prace Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego. III Wydział Nauk Matematycznych i Przyrodniczych. Warszawa: Nakładem Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego. Skład główny w księgarni E. Wendego i S-ki. Florek, K., J. Łukaszewicz, J. Perkal, H. Steinhaus, and S. Zubrzycki Taksonomia wrocławska. Przegląd Antropologiczny (17): Goldberger, A.S Teoria ekonometrii. Translated by M. Kanton. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne. Grabiński, T., S. Wydymus, and A. Zeliaś Metody taksonomii numerycznej w modelowaniu zjawisk społeczno-gospodarczych. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Gruszczyński, M Modele i prognozy zmiennych jakościowych w finansach i bankowości, Monografie i Opracowania/Szkoła Główna Handlowa. Warszawa: SGH. Hellwig, Z Zastosowanie metody taksonomicznej do typologicznego podziału krajów ze względu na poziom ich rozwoju oraz zasoby i strukturę wykwalifikowanych kadr. Przegląd Statystyczny (4): Przechodniość relacji skorelowania zmiennych losowych i płynące stąd wnioski ekonometryczne. Przegląd Statystyczny no. 23 (1):3 20. Jajuga, K Statystyczna analiza wielowymiarowa, Biblioteka Ekonometryczna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Kowerski, M Kilka uwag na temat doboru zmiennych charakteryzujących poziom rozwoju gospodarczego województw. Wiadomości Statystyczne (11): Kufel, T Ekonometria. Rozwiązywanie problemów z wykorzystaniem programu GRETL. 3rd ed. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Kukuła, K Metoda unitaryzacji zerowanej, Biblioteka Ekonometryczna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Malina, A., and A. Zeliaś Taksonomiczna analiza przestrzennego zróżnicowania jakości życia ludności w Polsce w 1994 roku. In Ekonometryczne modelowanie danych finansowo-księgowych. Materiały na II konferencję naukową, Kazimierz Dolny n/wisłą, 12 IX 13 IX 1996 r., edited by E. Nowak and M. Urbanek. Lublin: Wydawnictwo UMCS. Misiąg, J., W. Misiąg, and M. Tomalak Ocena efektywności wykorzystania pomocy finansowej Unii Europejskiej jako instrumentu polityki spójności społeczno-gospodarczej oraz poprawy warunków życia. Rzeszów: Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania z siedzibą w Rzeszowie. Misterek, W Zewnętrzne źródła finansowania działalności inwestycyjnej jednostek samorządu terytorialnego. Warszawa: Centrum Doradztwa i Informacji Difin. Nowak, E Metody taksonomiczne w klasyfikacji obiektów społeczno-gospodarczych. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne Zarys metod ekonometrii. Zbiór zadań. 2nd ed. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

116 116 Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz Ostasiewicz, W Metodologia pomiaru jakości życia, Statystyka i Ryzyko. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej im. Oskara Langego. Panek, T Statystyczne metody wielowymiarowej analizy porównawczej. Warszawa: Szkoła Główna Handlowa. Oficyna Wydawnicza. Pluta, W Wielowymiarowa analiza porównawcza w badaniach ekonomicznych. Metody taksonomiczne i analizy czynnikowej. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne. Pociecha, J., B. Podolec, A. Sokołowski, and K. Zając Metody taksonomiczne w badaniach społeczno-ekonomicznych. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Položij, G.N Metody przybliżonych obliczeń. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowo Techniczne. Powierzchnia i ludność w przekroju terytorialnym w 2013 r Informacje i opracowania statystyczne. Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny. Zeliaś, A Taksonomiczna analiza przestrzennego zróżnicowania poziomu życia w Polsce w ujęciu dynamicznym. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej.

117 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland (specifically in Lubelskie Voivodship) in the Years Jarosław Bielak University of Management and Administration in Zamość, Poland Abstract Inflation rate, Consumer Price Index, real price changes and the cost of living change perceived by people are sometimes reported to be significantly different. In this paper the analysis of these measures and goods and services price changes in Poland, in Lubelskie Voivodship in particular in the years is conducted. The study is based on data published by Central Statistical Office of Poland and Narodowy Bank Polski 1. The results show a gap between officially published CPI and the inflation rate perceived by inhabitants who see inflation mainly from the angle of the prices of essential goods which they purchase every day. Keywords: inflation, CPI, Poland, lubelskie, consument sentiment, ShadowStats, Chapwood Index Introduction In recent years one can notice articles voicing the impressions of Polish consumers, or people connected with the financial sector of the economy, claiming that the cost of living increases faster than the official Consumer Price Index (CPI) indicates. For example Żak (2014) in his text What Is the Truth about Inflation in Poland? describes his own experience purchasing power falls much faster than the inflation rate indicates. The author of the article What is Real Inflation in Poland (Trader ) argues convincingly that inflation depends generally on the money supply. He shows M3 money supply in Poland since 2004 (and some price increases) and claims that CPI reported by Central Statistical Office of Poland (CSO) is intentionally considerably underestimated by applying some statistical tricks. Sztąberek elaborates, in his short 2013 text concerning the above-mentioned article in Trader21, entitled Does Government Lie about Inflation? 2 In May 2014, an official statement probably relevant to this kind of publications about the method of Polish CPI calculation by the press spokesman of the Chairman of Central Statistical Office was made. He explained that CPI and inflation are not the same notions, although they are used interchangeably. Moreover, the Consumer Price Index is an average measure and cannot explain price changes for all individual households. Additionally, he noted that price increases (even for a small group of goods), is more perceived than price decreases (even for a large group of products) (Satora 2014). Much the same opinion can be found about the official published inflation rate in the USA, but this time it is supported by serious statistical research and computations. Williams (2013) informs us that the Consumer Price Index published by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has been seriously reconfigured since the early 1980s, and argues that: 1. The name of the Polish central bank. 2. It is worth mentioning here that in 2012 The Economist published two short articles about Argentina s government s underhanded methods of calculating inflation rate: Don t Lie to Me, Argentina and The Price of Cooking the Books.

118 118 Jarosław Bielak CPI no longer measures the cost of maintaining a constant standard of living, CPI no longer measures full inflation for out-of-pocket expenditures, with the misused cover of academic theory, politicians forced significant underreporting of official inflation, so as to cut annual cost-of-living adjustments to Social Security, etc., politicians look to expand further the concept of artificially-suppressed cost-of-living adjustments in current budget-deficit negotiations, through the use of the Chained-CPI..., use of the CPI to adjust retirement benefits, private income or to set investment goals impairs the ability of retirees, income earners and investors to stay ahead of inflation, understated inflation used in estimating inflation-adjusted growth has created the illusion of recovery in reported GDP. He claims that real inflation is about 4 or even 7 (according to 1990 and 1980 based calculation method respectively) percentage point higher than officially reported. 3 In 2008 Butowsky began calculating the Chapwood Index to debunk a belief that the CPI represents the increase in the cost of living. Like Williams, he maintains that inaccuracy of the CPI began in 1983, during a time of rampant inflation, when the U.S. BLS began to cook the books on its calculation in order to curb the increase in Social Security and federal pension payments. Butowsky claims that the Chapwood Index reflects the true cost-of-living increase in America. It is updated twice a year and reports the unadjusted actual cost and price fluctuation (without alterations and seasonal adjustments) 4 of the top 500 items on which Americans spend their after-tax dollars in the 50 largest cities. Values of that index are quite shocking increase in cost of living fluctuate from 6,6% (Colorado Springs) to 13,7% (San Jose) in just one year in 2014 (Welcome To Chapwood Index 2015), while the official published Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) U.S. city average for this year was 1,6% (Crawford, Church, and Akin 2015). 5 As we see, there are some doubts about the officially published CPI and inflation rate, and sometimes the opinions are expressed quite clearly. These thoughts are derived both from everyday consumer experience, and alternate statistical computations. In the following part of our study we briefly review the definitions of inflation, consumer price index, the difference between them, and problems with estimation of CPI. In the last part of the work we analyze the price changes of selected goods and services in Poland (and in Lubelskie Voivodship) and contrast the results with the official CPI for Poland published by the Statistical Office, in the years We are going to investigate if there are premises that real (perceived at least) prices and cost of living in Poland, in the years , have been increasing faster than the official inflation rate. In the end of the work we show M3 money supply to real GDP ratio in Poland since the year 2002, as additionally proof that real inflation should be higher than officially reported. 1 Inflation rate and Consumer Price Index definitions and estimation problems At present 6 inflation is defined as a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services over a period of time. 7 More precisely, we deal with inflation when sustained price increase of some goods (considering changes in the quality of the good) and services is not balanced by price decrease of other goods and services. In other words it is the weighted arithmetic average of all price changes (Kamerschen, McKenzie, and Nardinelli 1991, ). The most common and widely accepted measure of price level is the Consumer Price Index, which is intended to show how the cost of a market basket has changed over time, where the market basket is constructed to represent the consumption of goods and services by a typical family. Hence the inflation rate is the annual percent change in a price index from year t 1 to year t (consecutive years), it depends on prices of what goods and services are considered, and how weights are set (Krugman and Wells 2009, 605). 3. See details at 4. Details about Chapwood Index methodology are available at 5. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.] 6. For many years the common definition was a bit different. We will elaborate on this later. 7. See for example Chiang and Stone (2014, 5, 128, 130).

119 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland 119 On the other hand the goal of the consumer price index is to measure changes in the cost of living it tries to gauge how much incomes must rise in order to maintain a constant standard of living. The consumer price index, however, is not a perfect measure of the cost of living. Problems with calculating this index are widely acknowledged, but difficult to solve: substitution bias when some prices rise by more than others, consumers respond to these differing price changes by buying less of the goods whose prices have risen by large amounts and by buying more of the goods whose prices have risen less or have fallen introduction of new goods when a new good is introduced, consumers have more variety from which to choose, yet because the consumer price index is based on a fixed basket of goods and services, it does not reflect this change goods quality change if the quality of a good deteriorates from one year to the next, the value of the money falls, even if the price of the good stays the same (similarly, if the quality rises the value of the money rises) (Mankiw 2004, ) outlet bias a result of different product prices in different stores, and passes over distribution channels formula bias results due to methods of aggregation and calculation (Hałka and Leszczyńska 2011, 55 56) Another source of the CPI bias is also described in the literature plutocratic gap (Ley 2005). Prais (1959) showed that the standard CPI computed by most statistical agencies can be interpreted as a weighted average of household price indexes, where the weight of each household is determined by its total expenditures. Therefore households of low expenditure are not represented properly in the index, and then CPI measures the change of market basket prices, whose structure is dominated by wealthier households. If prices of goods and services bought by less wealthy consumers increases faster than the basket price of richer consumers, CPI changes do not illustrate correctly the increase for poorer households in their cost of living. They experience a different rate of inflation! Households which spend a larger proportion of their total expenditure on items experiencing the largest price increases..., such as food and fuel, would be expected to have a higher individual rate of inflation than those spending a higher proportion of their expenditure on [goods]... which have seen small price increases or price decreases. Households with the lowest level of total expenditure spend a higher proportion on food and fuel and light than those with the highest level of total expenditure.... This suggests that rising food and energy prices will have a greater influence over the personal inflation rate of households with the lowest level of expenditure. (Pike, Marks, and Morgan 2008, 24) The bias of the Consumer Price Index has been widely discussed. Most of the research showed that it was overestimated in some period of time. For example according to Filer and Hanousek (2003) in the Czech Republic CPI in the years was overestimated about 4 percentage points per year. The Boskin Commission and works of Gordon showed that overestimation of CPI in the USA (years ) was about 1 percentage point (Boskin et al. 1996; Gordon and vangoethem 2005). However, bias evaluating methods based on personal experience inflation (Nordhaus 1998) indicate significant understating of CPI. Marini et al. showed that in the years the inflation rate in Italy was underestimated by at least 6 percentage points (Marini, Piergallini, and Scaramozzino 2007). Ruiz-Castillo et al. pointed out slight underestimation of CPI in Spain (in the years ) (Ruiz-Castillo, Ley, and Izquierdo 2002). 8 Poland CPI bias, for the years , was calculated by Hałka and Leszczyńska (2011). The authors obtained a very small (0,0 0,4 percentage points) underestimation of CPI, but they admitted that the scope of their research was too narrow to support a significant conclusion. On the other hand, calculations revealed that the prices of consumer goods and services grew at a faster rate than the CPI index in the analyzed period, and essential goods prices increased faster than other goods prices, the authors said. The results of a huge survey conducted in May 2003 October 2005 on observations in the EU seem to be very interesting for our consideration. It revealed (among other things), that: 8. More research examples one can find in (Hałka and Leszczyńska 2011).

120 120 Jarosław Bielak perceived inflation rate by the household was 11,6% while the official rate was equal to 2,1%, 9 inflation perceptions and expectations fall as income or education increases, perceived inflation seems to increase with age, women perceive and expect higher inflation than men (Lindén 2006). These results confirm Pike s (Pike, Marks, and Morgan 2008) observation about the relation between perceived inflation rate and household income level. 2 The analyzed data and statistical methods Our analysis was based on data published by Central Statistical Office of Poland in the Local Data Bank Internet database. 10 Research was limited by the data available in June We analyzed changes of prices, from 2002 to 2014, in the following categories: average retail prices of consumer goods and services food and non-alcoholic beverages (46 products analyzed) alcoholic beverages, tobacco (5) clothing and footwear (13) dwellings (13) health (3) transport (7) recreation and culture (3) average market-place prices received by farmers (17) average producer prices on the domestic market bread and cereals (5) prepared foodstuffs (4) fats and dairy products (12) meat, processed meat and other meat preparations (17) miscellaneous goods (5) average retail prices of non-consumer goods (14) for both Poland, and Lubelskie Voivodship, and showed the changes against the official Consumer Price Index. Additionally, all incomplete time series were removed, which considerably narrowed our data. In some cases the partial series were joined (when there were two records of the same product with two different names, but continued for the entire examined period). 11 Cumulative price changes for all individual items were calculated, next the 1st, 2nd and 3rd quartiles 12 were determined within each category and group for every year, from the base year 2002 to the year The generated charts (time series and histograms) with added official price index values allowed us to assess the gap between real prices of goods and services perceived by people versus CPI published by the Statistical Office. 13 Average yearly inflation rate (and price change of analyzed goods and services) in the years was computed as a solution of standard compound interest equation for 12 periods. 3 Results Central Statistical Office of Poland, aside from the main CPI index (total), publishes several CPI indices, for several categories of goods that is for: food and non-alcoholic beverages, alcoholic beverages, tobacco, 9. One may wonder if such a significant gap was only a result of the euro currency entered into circulation on 1 January 2002 and market price conversion, or solid, intentional underestimation of CPI. 10. Database available at For example: Vitaminum C and Vitamina C. 12. We resigned from using an arithmetic mean, to avoid its shifting due to extreme observation sensitivity. 13. We were aware of the fact that the obtained difference cannot be considered as a value of CPI bias the goal was to check if the household impressions of underestimated CPI could be justified.

121 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland 121 clothing and footwear, dwellings, health, transport, recreation and culture, education, and both for Poland, and separate voivodships (see indices for Lubelskie Voivodship in fig. 1). As we see in figure 1, according to CSO, all prices increased 33% in Poland and 30% in Lubelskie Voivodship since base-year However, prices in the clothing and footwear categories have decreased considerably (about 45% and 35% in Poland and in Lubelskie Voivodship respectively). Furthermore, prices in recreation and culture have increased only by 10% in Poland and have decreased in Lubelskie by 4% since It is interesting that prices published by CSO along with the CPI show substantial increase in these two categories (see fig. 3 and tables in the Annex). Charts presented in figure 2 show price changes of all analyzed goods (gray lines), median and quartiles along with official CPI for Poland published by CSO (we will refer to it as: CPI (GUS)) 14 by four main categories. As we see in all these categories the median of price changes is higher than the CPI (GUS) for almost all years except for producer prices on the domestic market which is higher since Of course generally CPI is not a measure of price changes others than consumer goods and services, but as a measure of inflation it may be collated with price changes of other products in fact, such as prices received by farmers, prices of producers, or prices of building materials, agricultural machines and fertilizers (non-consumer category). % Poland total food and non-alcoholic beverages alcoholic beverages, tobacco clothing and footwear dwellings health transport recreation and culture education % lubelskie total food and non-alcoholic beverages alcoholic beverages, tobacco Fig. 1. clothing Official and footwear Consumer Price Index in Poland (and Lubelskie Voivodship) dwellings since base-year 2002 health Source: Own elaboration based on data published by transport CSO recreation and culture education There are some differences between Poland and Lubelskie Voivodship and they are presented in figure 3 charts. This time we divided goods into smaller groups, in accordance with CSO classification. In all presented categories except alcoholic beverages and tobacco, medians of price changes in 2014 are significantly higher than CPI (GUS) indicates (i.e., 33,2% increase form base-year 2002 to 2014). The biggest difference we obtained for non-consumer goods (about 105% retail price increase). For consumer goods and services (as a single category) the median of price increase was 14. We only use the CPI for Poland as it is the most frequently published measure for inflation, and people trying to keep up with inflation rate usually refer to this value only.

122 122 Jarosław Bielak Retail prices of consumer goods and services Prices of non-consumer goods and services Q3 median Q1 CPI (GUS) Q3 median Q1 CPI (GUS) % % Producer prices on domestic market Market-place prices received by farmers Q3 median Q1 CPI (GUS) Q3 median Q1 CPI (GUS) % % Fig. 2. Price changes in categories of goods and services since base-year 2002 in Poland Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO about 50% in Detailed information is presented in table 1. In two groups of goods, in the years , prices stopped rising (health, transport), prices of food decreased slightly, and prices in the categories of farmers market-place, producers, non-consumer goods in the year 2014 decreased noticeably. Nevertheless the gaps between official price change since 2002 and analyzed product prices were still very serious. As we mention above, an exception was the alcoholic beverages and tobacco group, but unfortunately the computations was based on 4 products only, hence the result could be misleading. Distributions of price changes from 2002 to 2014 along with CPI (GUS) of four considered categories of goods is presented in figure 4 for Poland and figure 5 for Lubelskie Voivodship. Histo- Tab. 1. Medians of goods and services price increase in separate categories since base-year 2002 to 2014 (in %) Group/Category Poland Lubelskie Voivodship Food and non-alcoholic beverages 51,1 49,2 Alcoholic beverages, tobacco 3,9 8,1 Clothing and footwear 39,5 43,8 Dwellings 59,6 45,0 Health 65,5 58,7 Transport 58,7 62,7 Recreation and culture 65,7 67,9 Miscellaneous goods and services 50,2 47,9 Retail prices of consumer goods and services (whole category) 50,9 48,6 Average market-place prices received by farmers 78,1 83,9 Producer prices on domestic market 40,3 42,2 Prices of non-consumer goods and services 104,9 107,4 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO

123 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland 123 median - Poland median - lubelskie CPI (GUS) Food and non-alcoholic beverages Alcoholic beverages, tobacco Clothing and footwear % 120 % 120 % Dwelling 160 Health 160 Transport % 120 % 120 % Recreation and culture Miscellaneous goods and services Consumer goods and services % % % Non-consumer goods and services Producer price on domestic market Market-place price received by farmers % 160 % 160 % Fig. 3. Medians of price changes in groups of goods and services and CPI (GUS) since base-year 2002 in Poland and Lubelskie Voivodship Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO grams confirmed our previous computations, that prices of most analyzed products since the year 2002 increased much more than official CPI indicates. For Poland in category non-consumer goods, and for Lubelskie Voivodship in categories of farmers market-place prices and non-consumer goods all considered products increased in price more than 33,2%. Distribution of price changes for both Poland and Lubelskie Voivodship is shown on figure 6. Detailed numerical values are presented in table 2 and the Annex. Since the base-year 2002 to 2014, as far as officially published CPI is considered, the average inflation rate was 2,42% per year (i.e., 33,2% since 2002 to 2014). But computed average changes of product prices median for all four categories of goods and services separately were (as expected) significantly higher (see fig. 6). It is worth noting that prices in the consumer goods and services category in Lubelskie Voivodship have been increasing a bit faster (3,56%) than in Poland (3,49%). Whereas average yearly price increase for all analyzed prices together were 3,64% for both Poland, and Lubelskie Voivodship about 1,2 percentage points higher than official CPI indicates. Distributions of average price increase computed for all products separately (fig. 7) confirm that

124 124 Jarosław Bielak n Consumer goods and services CPI (GUS) Market-place price received by farmers n CPI (GUS) % % n 20 Producer price on domestic market CPI (GUS) n 6 Non-consumer goods and services CPI (GUS) % 0 % Fig. 4. Distribution of price changes, since base-year 2002, in four categories of goods and services in Poland Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO n Consumer goods and services CPI (GUS) Market-place price received by farmers n CPI (GUS) 0 % % n 20 Producer price on domestic market CPI (GUS) n 6 Non-consumer goods and services CPI (GUS) % Fig. 5. Distribution of price changes, since base-year 2002, in four categories of goods and services in Lubelskie Voivodship Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO % Tab. 2. Percentage of products which increased in price more than 33,2% since base-year 2002 Group/Category Poland Lubelskie Voivodship Retail prices of consumer goods and services 69,5 67,7 Average market-place prices received by farmers 94,1 100,0 Producer prices on domestic market 55,9 65,0 Prices of non-consumer goods and services 100,0 100,0 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO.

125 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland 125 generally price changes in Poland and Lubelskie Voivodship were generally quite similar, although there were differences between categories (see fig. 6). It should be mentioned here that due to progressing deterioration of food quality, 15 the real price increase in that group of products is probably higher than registered prices indicate, and just food price changes are the most perceived by households, especially those with relatively low income. producer prices on domestic market average yearly prices increase (GUS) market- place prices received by farmers prices of non- consumer goods lubelskie Poland prices of consumer goods and services % Fig. 6. Average inflation rate per year in four categories of goods and services since base-year 2002 to 2014 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO 0.15 average yearly prices increase (GUS) Poland lubelskie % Fig. 7. All analyzed yearly average price changes of goods and services distribution since base-year 2002 to 2014 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO 4 Quantity of money as a reason for price increase The economy s overall price level can be viewed in two ways. So far, we have viewed the price level as the price of a basket of goods and services. When the price level rises, people have to pay more for the goods and services they buy. Alternatively, we can view the price level as a measure of the value of money. A rise in the price level means a lower value of money because each [zloty] in a [consumer] wallet buys a smaller quantity of goods and services (Mankiw 2004, 342). So in addition to our price analysis, we would like to consider the other side of inflation or the reason of price change. The term inflation originally referred to increase in the amount of money in circulation, 16 and some scientists still use the word in this way. Although economists generally agree that in the long run inflation is caused by increase in the money supply, 17 most modern economists as we mentioned above use the term inflation thinking of a rise in the price level only. Milton Friedman and other University of Chicago economists in the 1950s and 1960s concluded that the money supply, while not a reliable instrument for controlling short-term movements in the economy, can be effective in controlling longer term movements of the price level and that the prescription for stable prices is to increase the money supply regularly at a rate equal to 15. We cannot prove it here, but we think that any attentive consumer could confirm that phenomenon. 16. See: (Chisholm 1922). In Webster s New World Dictionary of the American Language (edition from 1960) the definition of inflation reads as follows:... an increase in the amount of currency in circulation, resulting in a relatively sharp and sudden fall in its value and rise in prices: it may be caused by an increase in the volume of paper money..., so the increase of prices is rather an effect of inflation than inflation itself. 17. See for example (Mankiw 2004).

126 126 Jarosław Bielak that at which the economy is estimated to be expanding. 18 Hence, inflation arises when quantity of money increases faster than global production. Let as analyze the present situation in Poland. The left chart in figure 8 shows clearly that in Poland M3 money supply increased much more faster than real GDP in the years Since the ratio of money supply to real GDP may be a good measure of inflation, 19 we obtained in this way values of inflation rate they are substantially higher than official CPI, and in 2014 (compared to base-year 2002) exceed 200% (see fig. 8). Average inflation rate determined from this ratio values, in the years , was 6,1% (sic) per year. We will not develop this result further. 20 Our conclusion here is only that inflation defined by increase in the amount of money causing the prices increase is substantially higher (3,7 percentage points per year) than the officially published measure of inflation in Poland, CPI. 21 In other words, the value of money decreases much faster than the official CPI indicates, and we think people feel that fact. 300 M3 real GDP 300 M3/real GDP CPI (GUS) % 200 % Fig. 8. M3 money supply, real GDP (left) and M3/real GDP ratio (right) in Poland since base-year 2002 to 2014 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by NBP and CSO Conclusions According to the presented analysis of price changes we can state that most of the considered goods since 2002 have increased in price more than the official CPI indicates (i.e., 33,2%). Moreover, many of the necessary or essential goods and services in 2014 are about twice as expensive than in 2002 for example: fresh butter (95% increase in price), whole-meal rye bread (93%), rice (85%), black tea (82%), potatoes (124%), milk (117%), 22 eggs (106%), natural net-gas (114%), cold water (84%), hard coal (80%), electricity (68%), 95 octane petrol (66%), consultation of a specialist doctor (82%), driving lessons (92%), and theater tickets (106%) see more in Annex. Pietrzak (2015) showed that information about CPI is for households too general and much less relevant than prices of products in their consumer baskets. So if we look at the consumer basket of Polish households (fig. 9), about 21% of expenditures consist of food, and circa 20% housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels (in 2014). As we showed above, many products in these categories have almost doubled their prices since 2002, and perceived inflation rate depends just on these goods and services, especially if a household has quite a low income. 18. Encyclopædia Britannica Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. inflation. 19. If the quantity of goods and services available for purchase output, for short were to increase as rapidly as the quantity of money, prices would tend to be stable. Prices might even fall gradually as higher incomes led people to want to hold a larger fraction of their wealth in the form of money. Inflation occurs when the quantity of money rises appreciably more rapidly than output, and the more rapid the rise in the quantity of money per unit of output, the greater the rate of inflation. There is probably no other proposition in economics that is as well established as this one. (Friedman and Friedman 1980, 254) 20. It is probably material for another more detailed study. 21. Sargent (1982) showed than in the 1920s in Austria, Hungary, Germany and Poland the quantity of money and the price level moved closely together. The strong association between these two variables was consistent with the quantity theory of money, which states that growth in the money supply is the primary cause of inflation. In the years in Poland this relation seems to not have occurred so either the economy rules now work differently or the CPI is significantly understated. 22. Fresh milk at market-place from farmers; cows milk, fat content 3 3,5%, sterilized available in the store 44%.

127 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland 127 other goods and services restaurants and hotels education recreation and culture communication transport health furnishing, household equipment and routine maintenance of the house housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels clothing and footwear alcoholic beverages, tabacco food and non-alcoholic beverages Fig. 9. Structure of the market basket in Poland (weights applied to calculation CPI) Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO % In figure 10 average monthly available income per capita in Poland and in Lubelskie Voivodship is shown. The nominal average income increased about 100% since 2002, as did many of the essential good prices. Hence people s experience is that prices regularly increase and their wallet purchasing power only just keeps up. On the other hand, deflating nominal income by official CPI gives only about a 50% real increase since But if the true average inflation rate in Poland was about 6% per year (as we determined considering money supply), the real available income generally has not changed for 12 years (sic). In that situation it may be a very uncomfortable feeling for people, when the media continuously announces that Polish GDP grows, and average salary nominal deflated by CPI (GUS) increases from month to month nominal deflated by CPI (GUS) Poland deflated by analyzed price changes deflated by analyzed price changes deflated by M3/real GDP lubelskie 1400 deflated by M3/real GDP 1200 PLN 1000 PLN Fig. 10. Average monthly available income per capita, nominal and deflated, in Poland (left) and Lubelskie Voivodship (right), since base-year 2002 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by NBP and CSO As economists generally agree (and hope), the Consumer Price Index should be a good measure of inflation. CPI value is very important both for politicians and ordinary people. Its rate is regularly used by government, bankers, economists, businessmen and ordinary consumers to make decision about monetary policy, interest rates, investments, level of savings, selling or buying real estates, taking out a loan, etc. respectively. Regardless of inflation definition (and meaning) rise in the price level or increase in the amount of money in circulation considered, it seems that our brief research revealed faster price increase or higher inflation rate than the published CPI indicates. Relying on price changes we showed that average yearly inflation rate in the years was about 1,2 percentage points higher than the published rate of 2,42% per year, but for products in the categories of market-place prices received by farmers and non-consumer goods and services yearly increase in prices exceed 5%. Furthermore, the presented observations concerning the macroeconomic relation of total money supply to real GDP seems to indicate that the real inflation rate in Poland in the analyzed period was about 6% per year. We appreciate the fact that this study (the main part of it) is strongly limited only to prices of goods and services published by the Central Statistical Office, and that analysis of price changes 600

128 128 Jarosław Bielak did not reflect the method of CPI estimation. 23 Nonetheless, in our humble opinion, the conducted computations and presented information are sufficient enough to lead us to the conclusion that real inflation in Poland is higher than the official CPI published by the Central Statistical Office, and consumer sentiment about that fact is fully justified. Annex Price changes of analyzed goods and services in Poland from 2002 to 2014 Prices of food and non-alcoholic beverages in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Beef meat, bone-in (roast-beef) per 1 kg ,71 26, Natural cocoa, domestic milling per 100 g ,83 4, Roasted buckwheat groats, whole 0,5 kg ,03 4, Pearl-barley groats per 0,5 kg ,08 2, Multi-fruit juice per 175 ml ,64 3,27 99 Fresh butter, fat content about 82,5% per 200 g ,35 4,60 96 Whole-meal rye bread, standard per 0,5 kg ,51 2,92 93 Black pudding per 1 kg ,04 10,28 90 Deep-frozen strawberries per 0,5 kg ,37 8,3 90 Rice per 1 kg ,12 3,92 85 Headcheese per 1 kg ,44 15,5 84 Black tea, leaf per 100 g ,14 3,90 82 Pork fat per 1 kg ,67 6,45 76 Hen eggs, fresh per 1 piece ,30 0,52 73 Natural honey per 400 g ,66 11,01 65 Wheat-rye bread per 0,5 kg ,34 2,20 64 Salted herring, headless per 1 kg ,97 12,73 60 Smoked mackerel headless per 1 kg ,63 16,72 57 Wheat flour per 1 kg ,57 2,45 56 Sour cream, fat content 18% per 200 ml ,22 1,89 55 Lard per 250 g ,21 1,86 54 Semi-fat cottage cheese per 1 kg ,78 13,46 53 Rape-oil, domestic Goods and services per 1 l ,13 6,33 53 Deep-frozen mix of carrots and green peas per 0,5 kg ,82 4,20 49 Disembowelled chicken per 1 kg ,93 7,34 49 Fillets of hake, frozen per 1 kg ,85 21,76 47 Wheat roll per 50 g ,29 0,42 45 Jam per 360 g ,51 4,98 42 Natural coffee, ground per 250 g ,75 6,69 41 Smoked bacon per 1 kg ,31 20,15 41 Fresh carp per 1 kg ,04 14,11 41 Milk chocolate per 100 g ,54 3,55 40 Raw bacon per 1 kg ,44 14,51 39 Dry sausage per 1 kg ,19 29,96 29 Cows' milk, fat content 3 3,5%, sterilized per 1 l ,32 2,99 29 Smoked sausage per 1 kg ,44 15,82 27 Pork ham, boiled per 1 kg ,85 24,39 23 Apple juice per 1 l ,11 3,79 22 (continues on next page) 23. But our computations, based on median, allowed us not to take into consideration the most varying prices.

129 Prices of food and non-alcoholic beverages (continued) Goods and services Increase in price Poultry filet per 1 kg ,1 18,85 17 Cereal muesli with fruits per 350 g ,06 5,88 16 Baleron (cervical pork, boiled) per 1 kg ,79 20,19 13 Pork meat, bone-in (centre loin) per 1 kg ,48 14,87 10 White sugar, crystallized per 1 kg ,28 2,5 10 Egg pasta per 400 g ,59 3,87 8 Can of pork meat per 300 g ,92 3,93 0 Pork meat, boneless (shoulder) per 1 kg ,37 13,38 0 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices of alcoholic beverages, tobacco in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Cigarettes per 20 pcs ,18 12, Beer, light full per 0,5 l ,68 2,86 7 White grape wine, dry per 0,75 l ,24 9,6 4 Flavoured vodka 40% per 0,5 l ,69 22,64 4 Pure vodka 40% per 0,5 l ,68 21,67 8 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices of clothing and footwear in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Women's tights, plain, 15 den ,24 6, Resoling men's shoes per 1 pair ,12 40,37 67 Children's low leather shoes with non-leather sole per 1 pair ,15 150,07 58 Men's boots shoes with non-leather sole per 1 pair ,62 227,91 53 Jacket (aged 2 6), fabric, warmish ,37 127,44 48 Trousers (aged 6 11), jeans-type ,05 68,09 45 Women's leather knee-boots with non-leather sole per 1 pair ,91 340,24 39 Women's low leather shoes with non-leather sole per 1 pair ,24 180,19 38 Men's low leather shoes with non-leather sole per 1 pair ,99 189,63 36 Men's suit dry-cleaning per set ,61 33,21 35 Tights (aged 2 6), cotton and other fibers ,78 15,54 32 Men's shirt, polyester staple fibres and cotton, long sleeve ,9 95,36 27 Women's overcoat, wool ,23 626,62 4 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices in dwellings category in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Natural net-gas, high-methanated for households (W-1.1 tariff) per 1 m 3 1,31 2, Sink fixture ,33 151, Cold water by municipal water-system per 1 m ,97 3,64 85 Hard coal per 1 t ,27 802,37 81 Electricity for households (G-11 tariff) per 1 kwh ,38 0,64 68 Double bowl stainless steel sink ,81 205,58 63 Enamel frying pan with Teflon coating, diameter 24 cm ,26 59,47 60 Heating of dwellings per 1 m 2 of usable floor space ,89 3,97 37 (continues on next page)

130 Prices in dwellings (continued) Goods and services Increase in price Enamel pot, capacity about 3 l ,85 39,7 29 Iron with dusch system ,22 193,16 22 Vacuum-cleaner ,17 347,39 5 Automatic washing machine (dry-linen capacity not exceeding 5 7 kg) , ,59 11 Fridge-freezer, capacity about 300 l , ,11 42 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices in health category in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Consultation of a specialist doctor ,57 86,51 82 Cotton wool per 200 g ,68 6,09 65 Vitaminum C, coated tablets 0,1 g per 50 pcs ,25 4,94 52 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices in transport category in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Driving lessons, B category , ,58 92 Tourist bicycle , ,48 81 Unleaded 95 octane motor petrol per 1 l ,2 5,3 66 Single ticket for travelling by tram ,08 3,3 59 Single ticket for intra-urban bus ,78 2,73 53 Taxi daily fare for 5 km distance ,23 16,15 32 Mechanical car body wash ,6 17,04 25 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices in recreation and culture category in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Theatre ticket ,19 43, Local daily newspaper ,28 2,12 66 Cinema ticket ,48 17,65 54 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices in miscellaneous goods and services category in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Men's quartz watch ,46 115,96 74 Men's hair-cut ,15 16,83 51 Women's cold wave ,46 72,78 50 Toilet soap per 100 g ,58 2,01 27 Tooth-paste per 100 ml ,04 8,04 14 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Prices in non-consumer goods and services category in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Tractor mounted grain seeder , ,7 204 Sulphate of potash, nutritive content about 60% K2O per 25 kg ,73 43, (continues on next page)

131 Prices in non-consumer goods and services (continued) Goods and services Increase in price Granulated superphosphate, nutritive content about 20% P2O5 per 25 kg 10,00 24, Urea, nutritive content 46% N per 25 kg ,16 40,6 137 Compound feed for cattle per 1 dt ,66 171, Polifoska, nutritive content 8% N, 24% P2O5, 24% K2O per 25 kg... 24,10 50, Steamer on solid fuel, capacity 100 l ,44 718, Ammonium phosphate, nutritive content 18% N, 46% P2O5 per 25 kg. 25,88 52, Tractor rotary mower , , Building burnt brick, full, class 15 per 1 piece ,63 1,17 83 Hydrate lime per 1 t ,40 567,13 82 Compound feed for pigs per 1 dt ,72 142,22 78 Roofing paper, 15 m 2 in roll per 1 roll ,70 73,44 64 Portland cement per 25 kg ,56 11,17 48 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Market-place prices received by farmers in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Edible potatoes (excluding early kinds) 1 dt ,76 100, Straw of winter cereals 1 dt ,45 27, Cows' milk 1 l ,02 2, One-year heifer 1 head , Hen eggs 1 piece ,32 0, Dairy cow 1 head , Calves for slaughter 1 kg ,99 9,72 95 Barley 1 dt ,42 80,34 85 Oats 1 dt ,6 66,97 78 Triticale 1 dt ,45 73,46 77 Meadow hay 1 dt , Rye 1 dt ,13 63,91 72 Wheat 1 dt ,64 84,97 71 Piglet for breeding 1 head ,7 164,52 56 Farm horse 1 head ,85 49 Pigs for slaughter 1 kg ,65 4,94 35 Fodder potatoes 1 dt ,96 34,86 29 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO Producer prices on domestic market in 2002 and 2014 (in PLN), and price changes since 2002 (in %) Goods and services Increase in price Raw beef with bone, rump cut 1 kg ,67 25, Raw leg of beef, boneless, 1 kg ,55 28, Fresh butter, fat content about 82,5% per 1 kg ,2 17,05 85 Black pudding 1 kg ,17 7,55 81 Pork lard in cubes (250 g) 1 kg ,47 6,15 77 Roasted buckwheat groats, whole 1 kg , Pearl barley mazurska 1 kg ,23 2,13 73 Wheat-rye bread 1 kg ,28 3,92 72 (continues on next page)

132 132 Jarosław Bielak Producer prices on domestic market (continued) Goods and services Increase in price Headcheese włoski 1 kg ,36 10,54 66 Pork fat per 1 kg ,16 5,17 64 Salted herring, without head, not gutted, 1 kg ,03 9,73 61 Cows' milk 3 3,5% fat, extended shelf life, in a box, 1 l ,43 2,15 50 Gutted chickens 1 kg ,36 6,32 45 Smoked bacon with ribs 1 kg ,77 15,55 44 Tomato concentrate 30% 1 kg ,21 10,38 44 Raw pork bacon 1 kg ,68 12,48 44 Semi-fat cottage cheese per 1 kg ,81 9,58 41 Ripening gouda cheese per 1 kg ,57 14,8 40 Deep frozen filets of hake, 1 kg ,34 14,35 39 Cream, non-returnable packaging, 18% fat, 1 l ,41 5,75 30 Wheat flour poznańska in bags 1 kg ,87 1,1 26 White evaporated salt in bags 1 kg ,32 0,4 25 Fresh-packed pickles, whole 0,9 l, 1 pcs ,68 3,28 22 Pork, cooked ham, 1 kg ,73 20,21 21 Daisy ham 1 kg ,98 20 Sausage myśliwska sucha 1 kg ,72 22,2 19 Apple juice, box ,76 2,08 18 Fresh hen eggs, whole, 1 pc ,25 0,29 16 Raw pork with bone, shoulder 1 kg ,56 10,61 11 Natural chocolate, full, without additives 1 kg ,12 16,69 10 Raw pork centre cut loin roast 1 kg ,16 13,3 9 Deep-frozen mix of carrots and green beans, 1 kg ,16 3,42 8 White granulated sugar in bags 1 kg ,1 2,08 1 Pork spam turystyczna 300 g ,07 2,39 22 Source: Own elaboration based on data published by CSO References Boskin, M.J., E.R. Dulberger, R.J. Gordon, Z. Griliches, and D. Jorgenson Toward a More Accurate Measure of the Cost of Living. Final Report to the Senate Finance Committee from the Advisory Commission to Study the Consumer Price Index. Chiang, E.P., and G.W. Stone Core Macroeconomics. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Chisholm, H The Encyclopædia Britannica. The New Volumes, Constituting, in Combination with the Twenty-Nine Volumes of the Eleventh Edition, the Twelfth Edition of That Work, and also Supplying a New, Distinctive, and Independent Library of Reference Dealing with Events and Developments of the Period 1910 to 1921 Inclusive. 3 vols. London-New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Crawford, M., J. Church, and B. Akin CPI Detailed Report. Data for January Don t Lie to Me, Argentina The Economist, , 18. Filer, R.K., and J. Hanousek Inflationary Bias in Middle to Late Transition Czech Republic. Economic Systems no. 27 (4): doi: /j.ecosys Friedman, M., and R.D. Friedman Free to Choose. A Personal Statement. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Gordon, R.J., and T. vangoethem A Century of Housing Shelter Prices: Is There a Downward Bias in the CPI? NBER Working Paper (11776). Hałka, A., and A. Leszczyńska Wady i zalety wskaźnika cen towarów i usług konsumpcyjnych szacunki obciążenia dla Polski. Gospodarka Narodowa no. 80/81 (9):51 75.

133 Inflation, CPI, and Real Price Changes in Poland 133 Kamerschen, D.R., R.B. McKenzie, and C. Nardinelli Ekonomia. Gdańsk: Fundacja Gospodarcza NSZZ Niezależnego Samorządnego Związku Zawodowego Solidarność. Krugman, P.R., and R. Wells Economics. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Ley, E Whose Inflation? A Characterization of the CPI Plutocratic Gap Oxford Economic Papers no. 57 (4): Lindén, S Observations on Inflation Perceptions and Expectations in the EU. What Will They Tell Us? Paper read at 28th CIRET Conference, , at Rome. Mankiw, N.G Principles of Macroeconomics. 3rd ed. Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South- Western. Marini, G., A. Piergallini, and P. Scaramozzino Inflation Bias after the Euro: Evidence from the UK and Italy. Applied Economics no. 39 (4): Nordhaus, W.D Quality Change in Price Indexes. Journal of Economic Perspectives no. 12 (1): Pietrzak, M Badanie percepcji i oczekiwań inflacyjnych gospodarstw domowych w Polsce, Katedra Statystyki i Ekonometrii, Uniwersytet Warszawski, Warszawa. Pike, R., C. Marks, and D. Morgan Measuring UK Inflation. Economic & Labour Market Review no. 2 (9): Prais, S.J Whose Cost of Living? The Review of Economic Studies no. 26 (2): The Price of Cooking the Books The Economist, , Ruiz-Castillo, J., E. Ley, and M. Izquierdo The Laspeyres Bias in the Spanish Consumer Price Index. Applied Economics no. 34 (18): Sargent, T.J The Ends of Four Big Inflations. In Inflation, Causes and Effects, edited by R.E. Hall, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Satora, A Jak liczony jest wskaźnik cen towarów i usług konsumpcyjnych? stat.gov.pl. Sztąberek, P Czy rząd III RP kłamie w sprawie inflacji?, Trader Jaką mamy realną inflację w Polsce. mamy_realna_inflacje_w_polsce.html. Welcome To Chapwood Index. The Real Cost Of Living Increase Index [cited Available from Williams, J No. 515 Public Comment on Inflation Measurement and the Chained-CPI (C-CPI). Shadow Government Statistics. Analysis Behind and Beyond Government Economic Reporting, -measurement. Żak, A Jaka jest prawda o inflacji w Polsce?, -o-inflacji-w-polsce.

134 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

135 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 The Influence of Occupational Activity on Leisure Time of the Disabled People Who Live in the Rural Areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biała Podlaska, Poland Abstract In most societies disabled people constitute a group with the lowest level of activity of occupational activity as well as organization of leisure time. These two dimensions in a very essential way influence each other depending on socio-demographic characteristics. In the case of disabled people vocational activity fulfils not only an economic function but also holds essential functions of rehabilitation and integration. Making proper use of free time has even greater influence on progress in rehabilitation, especially in the social sphere. This study aimed at examining the participation in leisure activities among disabled people in Lubelskie Voivodship in the context of occupational activity. Keywords: leisure time, vocational activeness, disability Introduction One of the measures showing disabled people s situation is the evaluation of their socio-economic situation in a particular environment (Piątkowski and Ostrowska 1994). A highly important aspect of human existence is professional activity (Zawiślak 2011). It provides a feeling of power, being in control, being needed and independent (Garbat 2013). Disabled people s occupational activity is not only the way to achieve economic independence but also the factor which heightens the sense of self-esteem and self-realization and the way to social reintegration in a broad sense (Ostrowska 2006). Working strengthens the sense of self-esteem and utility in society, helps satisfy the need to contact other people and reduces the social barriers. It may also be an opportunity to improve health and thus a way of rehabilitation (Wasilewska 2010). The employment of disabled persons is a way of repealing the stigma of lesser value by enhancing financial and non-financial strength of the individual. In the case of disabled persons, employment is regarded as the best form of financial support and independence from social welfare. Employment evens out the status of disabled people. It makes them consumers and producers, and provides the sense of being an adult. It also attests to their ability of meeting the requirements of life (Żuraw 2008). The participation of disabled people in an open labour market contributes to changing the attitudes of disabled persons themselves, as well as employers and other employees. In the case of disabled people, it facilitates the realistic assessment of their potential and abilities, improvement * The research was conducted within a research project financed by the State Fund for Rehabilitation of People with Disabilities in the years : Determinants of professional activity of the disabled persons living in rural areas. Agreement No. 3/4/WRP/B/08. The project was implemented by Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala Podlaska. Project manager: assistant professor Jarosław Żbikowski, PhD. Project researchers: Marek Kuźmicki, PhD, assistant professor Tomasz Grudniewski, PhD, Dominik Dąbrowski, PhD, Agnieszka Siedlecka, PhD, Elżbieta Szczygielska, M.Sc., Wiesław Denisiuk, M.Sc. Eng.

136 136 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki of their self-esteem, and thanks to that, they function better in other areas. Employers and other employees, thanks to the contact with disabled people, have the opportunity to verify functioning stereotypes, recognize their potential and learn how to support disabled persons (Magnuszewska- Otulak 2009). A fact which is worth mentioning is that some people who become disabled (e.g., as a result of an accident) do not usually return to their previous work because of the lack of the possibility of performing it. Moreover, they are professionally inactive (Trzebińska and Dziewulska 2007). It can also be assumed that people who are on the margin of the labour market are discriminated against in economic, political and social spheres. The injustice of this division is generally felt by disabled people (Barnes and Oliver 1995). Exclusion of disabled persons from the community results in a loss of motivation for personal development and for working on themselves, which often also means the reduced participation in the mainstream of social life (Nowak 2002). The loss of a job is always a critical event in anyone s life: it disturbs the professed system of values, it s a divisive factor in the family, it results in reduction of social position and has a negative impact on lifestyle and well-being (especially, along with the prolongation of the state of professional inactivity); it may also generate the formation of pathological behaviours (Szczupał 2006). Disabled people who live in rural areas are in a particularly difficult situation which results from poor vocational education and low general level of education, social marginalisation, and insufficient support from both public and non-governmental organizations and institutions. Nowadays, one of the basic evaluation criteria of life quality is time management in daily life. A professionally active person pays a particular attention to leisure time, especially to its amount and form which depend largely on their lifestyle. Focusing more and more on the issues of leisure time, we should remember that leisure time is the time, excluding professional work, which should be spent on developing one s interests, fulfilling needs, having some form of entertainment and, above all, bringing benefit to mental and physical health. According to Bombol (2008) leisure time is an economic category which has its utility and is helpful in diagnosing the processes of development. Leisure time encourages and accompanies the processes of the individual and social development as well as economic. However, active and creative spending of free time requires proper preparation which is based on creating particular abilities and habits, evoking interests and introducing them within a particular lifestyle (Denek 2002). The forms of leisure time contribute to the disabled person s personality development which is reflected in more autonomy and independence and higher sense of self-esteem (Borzykowska 1993). Increasing the level of activity may become one of the most effective ways of improving functioning, thereby creating independence among disabled communities, which various authors of research have studied (Santiago and Coyle 2004; Terry 1995). In the case of people who live in high risk environments, i.e. an increased level of poverty, participation in organised recreational activity proved to decrease their emotional problems (Law et al. 2006). The disabled whose incomes are below the national average of the particular country have a considerably limited scope of spending free time (Martin, Meltzer, and White 1989). The study objective was to specify the ways of using leisure time in the context of the occupational activity by the disabled people who live in the rural areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship. The obtained results have also been compared to the Polish population in order to show the similarities and the differences in spending free time by the people taking part in the research. In the article the participants amount of free time on the weekdays as well as on the weekends and on holidays was evaluated. Subsequently, the focus was placed on the ways of spending free time by the respondents in consideration of the type of their occupational activity. The study is an attempt to respond to the question of the extent to which occupational activity influences activity (in order to avail oneself of the free time) and thereby, if active spending of free time by the disabled may have any connection with their entering the labour market.

137 The Influence of Occupational Activity on Leisure Time of the Disabled The methods and research material For the purposes of study s objective, from 30 June 2010 to 31 May 2011, the employees of Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala Podlaska performed survey research within the research project Determinants of professional activity of the disabled persons living in rural areas. This project was financed by State Fund for Rehabilitation of People with Disabilities (PFRON) funds in the years , as a research project. The survey technique was used for this research. The research sample s size in the country scale amounted to respondents aged Within the Lubelskie Voivodship, 543 people were studied. The selection of research sample for quantitative research was carried out using a randomized layer selection method. The layers of the research included: province, district, municipality, gender, and degree of disability. Age as a very significant factor of professional activity was weighed as a separate layer. Respondents were randomly selected in a separate manner from each layer. The sampling frame consisted of databases of Voivodship Disability Evaluation Boards, District Family Assistance Centres, Workshops of Occupational Therapy and/or database of the Office of Government Representative on Disabled People. In the case of lack of consent for the use of databases or when databases were incomplete, after randomly selecting main layers, which consisted of districts and municipalities, the quota sampling method was used for selecting cases for research (in terms of age, gender, degree of disability). The determination of its size in individual provinces was based on the number of disabled people in the general population, according to the results of the Census of The obtained results were statistically analyzed with the use of Statistica program. The detailed information about degree and conditions of professional activity of the disabled people in rural areas of the entire Poland has been presented in a separate publication (Dąbrowski, Żbikowski, and Szczygielska 2012). 2 The analysis of research results 2.1 The amount of free time vs. occupational activity The research facilitated gaining information about the amount of free time at the disposal of the disabled people in the rural areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship as well as in the whole country, diversified depending on the occupational activity level. On the weekdays, the disabled people who are professionally active most often have up to two hours of free time 58,6%( 1 ) of the participants. Approximately one out of four participants (23,6%) has between 2 and 3 hours of free time. Smaller groups of professionally active people have a greater amount of free time. Between 3 and 4 hours of free time is at the disposal of 11,4% of the participants and 5 hours and more 6,4% of the participants. Different results can be obtained when the unemployed disabled people in the Lubelskie Voivodship are considered. This group constitutes the respondents who have on average 5 hours and more of free time per day on the weekdays, which results in the highest percentage (71,1%) because of their occupational situation. The remaining participants have less free time, more precisely between 3 and 4 free hours are at the disposal of 17,8% of the participants; between 2 and 3 free hours are at the disposal of 4,4% of the participants, and up to two hours in the case of 6,7% of the participants. About half of the professionally inactive disabled people from the Lubelskie Voivodship has 5 and more hours of free time on the weekdays (46,8%). Between 3 and 4 hours of free time is at the disposal of 17,4% of the respondents and between 2 and 3 free hours in the case of 12,1%. About one out of four professionally inactive people(23,6%) has up to two hours of free time on the weekdays. The research results, in the regional and all-polish perspective, which refer to the disabled people s amount of free time on the weekdays, diversified because of their occupational activity level, have been presented in table 1. The research results allowed for the evaluation of the amount of free time on weekends and holidays at the disposal of the disabled people with different occupational activity levels who live 1. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

138 138 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki Tab. 1. The amount of free time vs. work activity (%) Work activity The amount Professionally active The unemployed Professionally inactive of free time a Total Lubelskie Total Lubelskie Total Lubelskie ,0 58,6 13,9 6,7 19,5 23, ,5 23,6 16,1 4,4 16,2 12, ,1 11,4 19,1 17,8 19,2 17,4 5 and more 18,4 6,4 51,0 71,1 45,0 46,8 a the average number of hours per day in the rural areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship and throughout Poland (tab. 2). One out of five participants from the Lubelskie Voivodship (20%) who is professionally active has on average up to two hours of free time. Similar to the previous group of respondents (21,4%) is the group in which people have between 2 and 3 free time hours, and about one out of three (30,7%) has between 3 and 4 free hours. Many participants (27,9%) declare that they have 5 and more hours of free time per day. Taking into consideration the work situation, the unemployed participants answers are significantly different from the ones presented above. In this case up to 2 free hours per day on the weekends and on holidays are declared by 4,4% of the participants. Between 2 and 3 hours of free time per day are declared by 4,4% of the unemployed respondents from the rural areas of Lubelskie Voivodship. One out of ten (10,0%) participants has between 3 and 4 free hours. The majority of the participants (81,1%) has an unlimited amount of time and has 5 and more free hours per day. One out of three professionally inactive disabled people in the Lubelskie Voivodship (66,2%) is in the similar situation. Almost seven times fewer participants (9,3%) comprise professionally inactive people who have on average up to 2 hours of free time per day. A smaller group of people has between 2 and 3 hours of free time on the weekends and on holidays (8,4%). The professionally inactive research participants from the Lubelskie Voivodship (16,1%) have between 3 and 4 free hours per day. Tab. 2. The amount of free time on the weekends and on holidays vs. occupational activity (%) Work activity The amount Professionally active The unemployed Professionally inactive of free time a Total Lubelskie Total Lubelskie Total Lubelskie ,2 20,0 6,2 4,4 5,4 9, ,2 21,4 4,9 4,4 6,2 8, ,0 30,7 12,7 10,0 11,7 16,1 5 and more 62,6 27,9 76,2 81,1 76,7 66,2 a the average number of hours per day 2.2 Use of free time The research provided specification of the ways of spending free time by the disabled people who live in the rural areas in Poland, including the Lubelskie Voivodship (tab.3). In the analysed voivodship most respondents spend their free time on the weekdays watching TV (89,3%). It is similar when we consider the whole country where 88,3% of the participants declare that form of spending free time. Over half of the participants (57,3%) listens to the radio or music in their free time from Monday to Friday. This percentage, when we take into account the whole country, is slightly higher (59,7%). Almost half of research participants in the analysed period reads books or magazines (44,6%). Many disabled people from the rural areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship use their free time on the weekdays in an active way because they go for a walk (52,5%) or work in the garden (39,9%). The percentage of the disabled people who live in the rural areas throughout Poland and use their free time in the active way is slightly lower and is respectively 47,7% and 31,1%. Unfortunately, only 6.1% of the participants from the Lubelskie Voivodship take up different

139 The Influence of Occupational Activity on Leisure Time of the Disabled 139 sport and recreation activities which is rather a poor result when compared all of Poland (13,0%) A small group of respondents from the Lubelskie Voivodship in their free time on the weekdays pursue their hobbies (16,2%). This percentage on the scale of the whole country is higher (22,7%). Tab. 3. Ways of spending free time on the weekdays (%) The ways of spending free time Poland Lubelskie Reading books and magazines ,9 44,6 Listening to the radio / music ,7 57,3 Watching TV ,3 89,3 Using the computer / Internet ,7 21,7 Going for a walk ,5 52,5 Doing different sport and recreation activities 13,0 6,1 Working in the garden ,1 39,9 Pursuing hobbies ,7 16,2 Watching TV is the most frequent form of spending free time on the weekends and on holidays by the disabled people who live in the rural areas of Lubelskie Voivodship (90,2%). In this case the result of the whole country is only slightly lower (89,5%). About one out of two surveyed people from the Lubelskie Voivodship points out listening to the radio and music as the way of spending free time on the weekends and on holidays (52,1%). More often it is indicated by the respondents from the whole country (59,1%). A similar percentage of the participants from the Lubelskie Voivodship go for a walk (45,8%) and spend their free time reading books or magazines (40,3%) on the weekends and on holidays. The results for the entire country are respectively 52,6% and 43,3%. Only one out of ten respondents who live in the rural commune and the urban-rural commune of Lublin spends free time on Saturday and Sunday pursuing their own interests (9,9%). In the whole country the results are better because more than twice as many disabled people do it (21,2%). Unfortunately, only 4,1% of people who live in the Lubelskie Voivodship and took part in research in this period take up some sport and recreation activities. Only 7,2% of them work in the garden. A significantly larger group of research participants in the area of Poland spend free time on the weekends and on holidays doing the last two of the mentioned ways of spending free time respectively 13,4% and 17,7%. Tab. 4. The ways of spending leisure time at weekends and bank holidays The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie Reading books or magazines ,3 40,3 Listening to music and radio ,1 52,1 Watching TV ,5 90,2 Using computer or the Internet ,6 19,3 Walking ,6 45,8 Practicing various sports and recreation activities 13,4 4,1 Gardening ,7 7,2 Pursuing hobbies ,2 9,9 2.3 Ways of spending leisure time at weekends and bank holidays by occupationally active disabled people Occupationally active disabled people inhabiting rural areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship during their leisure time on weekdays mostly choose to watch TV 87,1% and read a book or a magazine 66,4%. More than half of the respondents in this group listen to the radio and music 57,9%. A similar percentage of research participants from the professionally active group from Monday to Friday actively spend their free time on gardening 57,1% and walking 55,0%. Approximately one third of respondents use a computer and the Internet 37,9% and spend time on their own

140 140 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki hobby 34,3% during their leisure time. Only 11,4% of the occupationally active disabled persons practice sport and recreation. Results of research on ways of spending free time during weekdays by the occupationally active disabled people living in the Lubelskie Voivodship and across the country are presented in table 5. Tab. 5. Ways of spending leisure time on working days by occupationally active disabled people (%) The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie χ 2 Reading books or magazines ,4 66,4 7,54** Listening to music and radio ,6 57,9 0,27 Watching TV ,5 87,1 0,01 Using computer or the Internet ,3 37,9 0,11 Walking ,3 55,0 3,86** Practicing various sports and recreation activities 15,5 11,4 1,77 Gardening ,6 57,1 14,01*** Pursuing hobbies ,7 34,3 1,86 ** p < 0,05; *** p < 0,01 The popularity of leisure activities specified during the study is shaped slightly differently at weekends and on bank holidays among the occupationally active disabled people (tab. 6). In this regard, among the respondents from the Lubelskie Voivodship, watching TV is also the most popular 92,1%. More than half of the surveyed in their free time reads books or magazines 60,7% and listens to the radio or music 60,0%. More or less, every second respondent relaxes actively by walking 49,3%. On Saturdays and Sundays and during public holidays 19,3% of the occupationally active respondents spend their time on their hobby. Only one out of ten respondents at that time spends it in the garden or practices recreational and sport exercises 10%. Tab. 6. Ways of spending leisure time at weekends and on bank holidays by occupationally active disabled people (%) The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie χ 2 Reading books or magazines ,9 60,7 0,41 Listening to music and radio ,3 60,0 0,37 Watching TV ,3 92,1 0,53 Using computer or the Internet ,7 35,0 1,21 Walking ,9 49,3 3,88** Practicing various sports and recreation activities 17,7 10,0 6,06** Gardening ,8 10,0 16,21*** Pursuing hobbies ,7 19,3 4,83** ** p < 0,05; *** p < 0, Ways of spending leisure time by disabled unemployed people In the case of unemployed disabled people watching TV is also the most popular way of free time spending during weekdays 87,8%. Other commonly practiced forms of leisure activity include going for a walk 54,4%, as well as listening to the radio and music 51,1%. A much smaller group of unemployed respondents, in comparison to the occupationally active population, declared that they read books or magazines 36,7%, which may indicate an unwillingness of most of the surveyed unemployed to become involved in intellectual pursuits. In comparison to the occupationally active respondents, a much smaller percentage of unemployed respondents 6,7% spend their free time during weekdays developing their own passions and interests. The comparison of active leisure time spending looks unfavourable only 4,4% of the unemployed practice sports and recreation, and 26,7% take time to do gardening, on the weekdays. The percentage of unemployed

141 The Influence of Occupational Activity on Leisure Time of the Disabled 141 Tab. 7. Ways of spending leisure time on working days by disabled unemployed people (%) The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie χ 2 Reading books or magazines ,4 36,7 1,94 Listening to music and radio ,9 51,1 1,49 Watching TV ,9 87,8 0,05 Using computer or the Internet ,0 15,6 5,09** Walking ,2 54,4 0,00 Practicing various sports and recreation activities 15,1 4,4 9,56*** Gardening ,4 26,7 4,84** Pursuing hobbies ,9 6,7 14,11*** ** p < 0,05; *** p < 0,01 people with disabilities living in rural areas of the Lubelskie Voivodship and across the country in the use of the specified in the study leisure activities has been presented in table 7. Unfortunately, on weekends and holidays the surveyed unemployed more often chose passive ways of spending free time (tab. 8). These activities mostly involved watching TV 88,9%, and listening to the radio, music 38,9%. On Saturdays, Sundays and during public holidays even fewer unemployed read books or magazines 26,7% than on weekdays. The option of taking a walk is also less likely to be selected 44,4%, as well as in the case of gardening 3,3% and practicing sport or recreation 1,1%. In the case of the unemployed on weekends and holidays only 6,7% of the respondents pursue their own hobbies, which is similar to the results during weekdays. Tab. 8. Ways of spending leisure time at weekends and during bank holidays by disabled unemployed people (%) The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie χ 2 Reading books or magazines ,7 26,7 8,79*** Listening to music and radio ,4 38,9 7,64*** Watching TV ,5 88,9 0,14 Using computer or the Internet ,3 15,6 3,70* Walking ,6 44,4 7,37*** Practicing various sports and recreation activities 14,5 1,1 19,09*** Gardening ,9 3,3 21,88*** Pursuing hobbies ,9 6,7 12,79*** * p < 0,1; ** p < 0,05; *** p < 0, Ways of spending leisure time by occupationally inactive disabled people Occupationally inactive respondents from the Lubelskie Voivodship, similarly to occupationally active people and the unemployed, most often choose passive ways of spending free time 89,6% of them watch television, 58,5% listen to the radio, music and 46,1% read books or magazines during working days. The analysed group of disabled people quite often does not avoid exercise. The research results show that 52,1% of participants of the research who are occupationally inactive from Monday to Friday go for a walk and 42,6% of them engage in gardening during weekdays. At the same time, almost one in five of respondents are in their spare time engaged in their own hobbies 18,1%. The percentage of answers on the use of spare time during weekdays by the occupationally inactive respondents from the Lubelskie Voivodship and across the country is presented in table 9. The study also provided specification of the preferred forms of spending free time on weekends and holidays by occupationally inactive people with disabilities classified as the research sample (tab. 10). In general, the results of the study do not differ significantly from those relating to spending free time during weekdays, the only exception is the fact that on weekends and holidays a much smaller part of the occupationally inactive unemployed persons 10,6% spend time pursuing

142 142 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki Tab. 9. Ways of spending leisure time on working days by occupationally inactive disabled people (%) The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie χ 2 Reading books or magazines ,5 46,1 3,58* Listening to music and radio ,9 58,5 0,38 Watching TV ,5 89,6 0,54 Using computer or the Internet ,8 23,0 3,19* Walking ,5 52,1 5,11** Practicing various sports and recreation activities 12,7 6,4 17,73*** Gardening ,0 42,6 28,76*** Pursuing hobbies ,8 18,1 5,40** * p < 0,1; ** p < 0,05; *** p < 0,01 Tab. 10. Ways of spending leisure time at weekend and bank holidays by occupationally inactive disabled people (%) The ways of spending leisure time Poland Lubelskie χ 2 Reading books or magazines ,4 43,0 0,02 Listening to music and radio ,8 54,7 4,27* Watching TV ,7 90,5 0,26 Using computer or the Internet ,9 20,1 10,39*** Walking ,5 46,1 4,77** Practicing various sports and recreation activities 13,2 4,6 34,37*** Gardening ,2 7,9 30,36*** Pursuing hobbies ,3 10,6 33,21*** * p < 0,1; ** p < 0,05; *** p < 0,01 hobbies, in comparison to weekdays. In the case of gardening the situation is similar. On weekends and public holidays, only 7,9% of respondents practice this activity. The test result is probably related to the nature of those leisure activities, which is considered as not appropriate to be performed in the reported period for religious reasons. Summary Based on the survey it can be concluded that the amount of leisure time among people with disabilities in rural areas is related to the level of their professional activity. Those who do not engage in professional work generally have more free time. Its amount also depends on whether we consider the weekdays or weekends and holidays. Clearly, respondents declared having more spare time during this period. When analysing the ways of spending free time by research participants it should be noted that the selection of the most popular form watching TV is not determined by occupational activity. Both occupationally active and inactive people mostly spend their free time in this way. The same choice is made by unemployed respondents. The respondents, regardless of employment status, often choose listening to the radio or music, among different alternatives, as a way to spend free time. However, there is a wide variation in the interest in reading books and magazines. This form of leisure is preferred more often by occupationally active than inactive people, especially the unemployed. The situation may be connected with the desire and need for development, or intellectual training of employed persons who actively participate in social life. People who do not maintain their working life, are more often socially excluded, and quite frequently do not seem to feel the need to use the printed sources of knowledge. Fortunately, disabled people quite often choose the active forms of leisure, such as walking. On weekdays, a popular way of spending free time is gardening. Unfortunately, disabled people in rural areas generally rarely practice any sports. The particularly negative situation is observed in

143 The Influence of Occupational Activity on Leisure Time of the Disabled 143 the group of unemployed people who apparently do not feel the need to take care of their psychophysical condition. Exercises require systematicity and commitment, the lack of which is apparently common among the unemployed. In the case of organized activities the situation may be due to the technical limitations associated with disabled people s ability to reach the location where the sport classes are conducted. Occupationally active persons with disabilities in relation to the occupationally inactive especially in case of the unemployed more often have a passion or hobby they pursue and which they develop in their spare time. The pursuit of their own interests by a much larger group of occupationally active respondents is a sign that there is a link between the professional and private sphere. Occupationally active persons with disabilities are also more active outside their place of employment. Work seems to be the inspiration and has positive influence on the behaviour and attitudes of disabled people in their leisure time. In this situation, the actions of vocational activation of the unemployed persons with disabilities living in rural areas take on a new meaning. Getting a job is an event that changes the lives of people with disabilities not just vocationally, but in many dimensions. References Barnes, C., and M. Oliver Disability Rights Rhetoric and Reality in the UK. Disability & Society no. 10 (1): doi: / Bombol, M Czas wolny jako kategoria diagnostyczna procesów rozwoju społecznogospodarczego, Monografie i Opracowania/Szkoła Główna Handlowa. Warszawa: Szkoła Główna Handlowa. Oficyna Wydawnicza. Borzykowska, H Czas wolny osób niepełnosprawnych. In Edukacja osób niepełnosprawnych, edited by A. Hulek, Warszawa: Upowszechnianie Nauki-Oświata UN-O. Dąbrowski, D., J. Żbikowski, and E. Szczygielska Aktywność zawodowa osób niepełnosprawnych w Polsce na terenach wiejskich. In Problemy aktywności zawodowej osób z niepełnosprawnością zamieszkałych na obszarach wiejskich, edited by J. Żbikowski, D. Dąbrowski and M. Kuźmicki, Biała Podlaska: Państwowa Szkoła Wyższa im. Papieża Jana Pawła II w Białej Podlaskiej; Państwowy Fundusz Rehabilitacji Osób Niepełnosprawnych. Denek, K Poza ławką szkolną. Poznań: Eruditus. Garbat, M Aktywizacja zawodowa osób z niepełnosprawnością. Bariery i koszty. Zielona Góra: Oficyna Wydawnicza Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego. Law, M., T. Petrenchik, J. Ziviani, and G. King Participation of Children in School and Community. In Occupational Therapy with Children. Understanding Children s Occupations and Enabling Participation, edited by S. Rodger and J. Ziviani, Oxford: Blackwell. Magnuszewska-Otulak, G Uczestnictwo osób niepełnosprawnych w życiu społecznym. Zarys wykładu. Warszawa: Oficyna Wydawnicza Aspra-JR. Martin, J., H. Meltzer, and A. White Disabled Adults. Services, Transport and Employment, OPCS Surveys of Disability in Great Britain. London: H.M.S.O. Nowak, A Bezrobocie wśród osób niepełnosprawnych. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Ostrowska, A Problem integracji, wyrównywania szans i aktywizacji osób niepełnosprawnych w Polsce. edited by Biuro Informacji i Dokumentacji Kancelarii Senatu. Dział Informacji i Ekspertyz. Warszawa: Kancelaria Senatu. Piątkowski, W., and A. Ostrowska Niepełnosprawni na wsi. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Filozofii i Socjologii PAN Polskiej Akademii Nauk; Państwowy Fundusz Rehabilitacji Osób Niepełnosprawnych. Santiago, M.C., and C.P. Coyle Leisure-Time Physical Activity and Secondary Conditions in Women with Physical Disabilities. Disability and Rehabilitation no. 26 (8): doi: / Szczupał, B Psychospołeczne konsekwencje braku pracy dla kształtowania specyficznego obrazu siebie u bezrobotnych osób niepełnosprawnych. Aktywizacja Zawodowa Osób Niepełnosprawnych (1/2): Terry, T Universal Adventure Programming. Opening our Programs to People with Physical Disabilities. Journal of Leisurability no. 22 (2).

144 144 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki Trzebińska, E., and M. Dziewulska Uwarunkowania aktywności zawodowej osób chorych psychicznie. In Osoby z ograniczoną sprawnością na rynku pracy, edited by A. Brzezińska, Z. Woźniak and K. Maj, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Szkoły Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej Academica. Wasilewska, E Zróżnicowanie aktywności ekonomicznej osób niepełnosprawnych w Polsce i jej determinanty. Zeszyty Naukowe Szkoły Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie. Ekonomika i Organizacja Gospodarki Żywnościowej (86): Zawiślak, A Jakość życia osób dorosłych z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną, Engram. Warszawa: Difin. Żuraw, H Udział osób niepełnosprawnych w życiu społecznym. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Żak.

145 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Analysis of Differences in the Area of Forest Land Disclosed in the Local Data Bank and the Register of Land and Buildings Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland Abstract The aim of the study was to demonstrate differences in the areas of forest land disclosed in two registers. For the analysis four land registration units in two neighbouring administrative districts were adopted. Analysis of forest land area data compared in two databases showed significant differences. The comparison was made for the databases of the Local Data Bank of the Central Statistical Office of Poland (BDL) containing statistical data and for the land and buildings registry containing data that constitute the basis for tax calculation. Keywords: area of forests, Database of the Register of Land and Buildings (EGIB), Local Data Bank of Central Statistical Office of Poland (BDL), District of Łęczna, District of Świdnik Introduction The Act of 28 September 1991( 1 ) defines a forest as a ground with compact surface area of at least 0,1 ha, covered with forest vegetation (forest cultivations) trees and shrubs and vegetal cover or temporarily deprived of it, and land related to forestry, occupied by buildings and structures, melioration devices, spatial forest division lines, forest roads, areas under power lines, forest nurseries and timber yards used for the purposes of forest husbandry, as well as land used for forest car parks and tourist devices. Currently, the area of forests in Poland, according to the Central Statistical Office of Poland (GUS), amounts to 9 163,8 thousand ha (data for 31 December 2013), of which 579,4 thousand( 2 ) ha is in the Lubelskie Voivodship 3 (Rocznik Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej 2014; Rocznik Statystyczny Województw 2014). Poland is one of the leading countries in Europe when it comes to the area of forests. They occupy 29,2% of the territory of the country. A straight majority in total forest area is national forests. The Ministry of Environmental Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry has developed a Program to Increase Forest Cover (KPZL), adopted by a resolution of the Council of Ministers in 1995, which is one of the instruments of State forestry policy that provides for an increase of the share of forests in the land use structure up to 30% in 2020 and to 33% in the year 2050 (Konieczna 2012). The aim of the study was to examine and evaluate the differences between the two databases that contain numerical information on the area of forest lands. The comparison was made for the Local Data Bank Central Statistical Office of Poland (BDL) containing statistical data and for the Database of the Register of Land and Buildings (EGiB) containing information about the general area of lands covered by individual register units with division into land use types and soil quality 1. See: Ustawa z dnia 28 września 1991 r. o lasach. DzU z 1991 r. nr 101 poz [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.] 3. One of the 16 of Polish administrative regions on NUTS 2 level situated in the east part of Poland bordering Belarus and Ukraine.

146 146 Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek classes being the basis for tax calculations. In both cases, the data contained therein correspond to the definition of forests within the meaning of the law on forests. The comparisons were made on compilations of numerical and area data concerning forest lands at the level of two districts from which 4 communes were selected for detailed analysis. One of the most important source materials used in the study was the Database of the Register of Land and Buildings containing the areas of various plots and lands. The other source used was the Local Data Bank containing statistical data, available in on-line format, current for the day of 10th June, BDL is an essential component of the statistical information system, offering its users annual and short-term data for individual thematic areas. Figures from the BDL concerning the total area forest lands for all forms of ownership, including the area of the forests and forest lands, were used in the research. According to the BDL it is an area covered with forest vegetation (forested) or temporarily deprived of it (non-forested) and area related to forestry. It also includes the area of nurseries of forest trees founded on woodlands and used for own needs of agricultural farms (noncommercial use), and also the area of cultivation of trees and fast growing shrubs on agricultural lands. 1 Materials and methods The area of the study included 4 administrative units (communes) situated in two districts of the Lubelskie Voivodship: the districts of Łęczna and Świdnik. Both districts are situated in the central part of the Lubelskie Voivodship (fig. 1). They were created in 1999 within the framework of administrative reform. The total area of the district of Łęczna is 633,75 km 2 and consists of six communes: Łęczna, Cyców, Milejów, Ludwin, Puchaczów, Spiczyn. The district of Świdnik covers 468,97 km 2 and it consists of five communes: Świdnik, Piaski, Mełgiew, Rybczewice, Trawniki. For a detailed analysis of the area of forest lands in Łęczna district the communes of Puchaczów and Ludwin were chosen, and in Świdnik district Rybczewice and Piaski. The commune of Puchaczów is located in the central part of Łęczna district, while the commune of Ludwin in its northern part. In Świdnik district, the commune of Rybczewice is situated in the southern part, and that of Piaski in the centre of the district. Fig. 1. Map of the location of the research area districts of Łęczna and Świdnik

147 Analysis of Differences in the Area of Forest Land Disclosed in the Local Data Bank 147 The data contained in the records of lands and buildings, marked as classification plots Ls and land Lz, were analysed. In accordance with the regulation on land and buildings, 4 a classification plot is a continuous area of land separated as a result of soil classification of lands, covering lands in one soil quality class. The research material used in this paper was collected primarily in the aspect of the quality and accuracy of the data presented in research analyses. The Register of Land Database is a reference data set, maintained by the chief official of a district, where every change of plot contour or land use requires its registration in the surveying and cartography resource. The BDL database has on-line access for each user, so that it is possible to obtain statistical information for the particular categories with division into selected territorial units, classified on the basis of TERYT code. In accordance with the geodetic and cartographic laws, information included in the documentation of land registry is public. The chief official of a district makes it available in the form of extracts from land registry, card indexes and indexes of this documentation, extracts of a cadastral plan, copies of the documents justifying the entries in the documentation of land registry database, computer files that are formatted according to the current interchange standard data and spatial data services. 5 Taking into account the fact that access to data of interest for the ordinary user data is made easier through the use of forms proposed by BDL, an analysis of accuracy of the information contained therein was made. The work compares the existing data in the national register of land and buildings system which, in accordance with the geodetic and cartographic laws, 6 maintained in the whole country in a uniform way, regularly updated and reliable, is a public register that is a collection of information about lands, buildings, premises and their owners, and other natural or legal persons having control of the lands, buildings and premises. In order to determine the area of forests contained in EGiB, a vector-descriptive registry database for the four selected registry units and ArcGIS software were used. Using the structured query language (SQL), objects with ID symbol Ls were selected, separately for the classification contours and lands databases, and then their surface areas were aggregated as class-lands which, in accordance with regulation, 7 are common parts of the land use contour and classification land contour within the boundaries of a registry unit. In that manner an area statement with division for each commune was created. In addition, for the purposes of control, these operations were repeated for forest and shrub-covered lands with ID Lz. A compilation of forest area for the individual registry units with division into soil quality without aggregated items is shown in table 1. The responsibility of the institution which operates EGiB is to maintain the IT system hosting the registry databases in constant operating readiness, and current updating of the EGiB system on the basis of available documents and source materials. The updating of the EGiB database is effected by entering substantiated revisions to the registry database. 8 Therefore, it can be assumed that EGiB is the most reliable source of information about land contours and land use types. EGiB data sources are shown in figure 2. The data contained in the BDL relate to all forms of ownership. The sources of data for BDL are the following: report on forests owned by the State Treasury, report on forests owned by individual and legal persons, administrative data from the Agricultural Property Agency (ANR), commune statistics: forestry and environmental protection (fig. 3). The obligation to submit reports is the responsibility of the individual organizational units. The report on State Treasury forests, with annex, must be submitted by legal persons and organizational units without legal personality, management of State Treasury forests, or temporary users and users in perpetuity: forest inspectorates of State Forests, Directors of national parks, entities subordinated to ministers and Province Governors using these forests under article 40 paragraph 1 of the law on forests. Reports 4. See: Rozporządzenie Ministra Rozwoju Regionalnego i Budownictwa z dnia 29 marca 2001 r. w sprawie ewidencji gruntów i budynków. DzU z 2001 r. nr 38 poz See: Obwieszczenie Marszałka Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 8 października 2010 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia jednolitego tekstu ustawy Prawo geodezyjne i kartograficzne. DzU z 2010 r. nr 193 poz Ibidem. 7. See: Rozporządzenie Ministra Rozwoju Regionalnego i Budownictwa z dnia 29 marca 2001 r Ibidem.

148 148 Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek EGIB data sources Materials and information collected in national geodetic and cartographic resource Results of field measurements Results of photogrammetric measurements Data contained in the architectural-construction documentation, accumulated and stored by public administration Data contained in other records and registers, maintained on the basis of separate provisions by the courts, public administration or state and local organizational units Data contained in the documents provided by the interested persons, public administration and organizational units on forests owned by individual and legal persons (without State Treasury) with annex, are required to be made by boards of districts. Reports on commune-level statistics: forestry and environmental protection, are prepared by Heads of communes (mayors, presidents of cities). Those entities, in accordance with the law on the protection of agricultural land and forestry, 9 provide information on area of forest lands and their exclusion from production, species and age structure of forest resources, categories of protective forests, objects and areas under legal protection, health and sanitary status of forests, forest fires; protective forests according to threat category, and major protected animals. These data are submitted to the relevant authority (i.e., the Main Statistical Office) in the form of statistical questionnaires, from which BDL acquires data and publishes them on its web site. For each organizational unit transmitting the data to the GUS there is a separate deadline for their submission. The report on State Treasury forests must be submitted in electronic form once a year, by 5 February. Reports on forests owned by individual and legal persons are submitted in electronic form once a year by 20 February. Commune statistics are drawn up in electronic form once a year, by 20 February. ANR information system transmits the data in electronic form once a year, by 31 January. 2 Results Results of surveys Fig. 2. EGiB database sources According to the data from the EGiB database, analysed forest lands are located in the five soil quality classes (tab. 1). Class I soils of forest land do not appear on any of the test objects. The largest area of forests is situated on soils of class III. They occupy an area of 1 337,1950 ha, which represents 33% of the total forest area in the analysed area. Whereas, the smallest area of forest is situated on soils of class VI; this is an area of 20,1903 ha, which represents 0,5% of the total forest area in the study area. 218,7304 ha of forests situated in the commune of Rybczewice has no assigned soil quality class. The total area of forest under IP classification outline is 4 018,3172 ha. The largest size area is found in the commune of Piaski and it is 26,9% of the total area of the analysed forests. Further places are occupied by the communes of Rybczewice (25,5%), Puchaczów (23,8%), Ludwin (23,7%). Data specifying the soil quality classes on which forests are situated can be obtained only from the EGiB database, BDL does not provide such information. 9. See: Ustawa z dnia 3 lutego 1995 r. o ochronie gruntów rolnych i leśnych. DzU z 1995 r. nr 16 poz. 78.

149 Analysis of Differences in the Area of Forest Land Disclosed in the Local Data Bank 149 BDL data sources on forests and forest lands Report on forests of the State Treasury L-01 Report on forests owned by individual and legal persons (without)-l-03 Administrative data from Agricultural Property Agency Commune statistics: forestry and environmental protection SG-01 Submitted by legal persons and entities without legal personality, management of State Treasury forests, or temporary users and users in perpetuity: Sate Forest inspectorates, Directors of national parks, entities subordinated to ministers and Province Governors using forests under art. 40 par. 1 of the law on forests Submitted by Councils of districts (cities on the rights of a district) Submitted by Agricultural Property Agency Submitted by Heads of communes (mayors, presidents of cities), District Councils of the Capital City of Warsaw Fig. 3. Data sources for BDL database Tab. 1. Area of forestland with division into soil quality classes (ha) Commune I II III IV V VI Without sqc a Total Ludwin , , ,3945 1, ,0218 Puchaczów 0 2, , , ,2802 1, ,8410 Piaski 0 300, , , , , ,0186 Rybczewice 0 110, , , , , ,4357 Total 0 413, , , , , , ,3172 a Without soil quality class Comparing the data contained in the BDL and the EGiB it can be concluded that the forest areas in the areas being compared are not identical (tab. 2). The smallest difference can be observed in the commune of Rybczewice, where it amounts to 1,9112 ha. In this case the forest area listed in the BDL database is smaller than that given in the EGiB. The biggest difference in forest area occurs in the commune of Puchaczów where it is 149,1263 ha. In the commune of Ludwin the difference is 119,7683 ha, and in Piaski 10,4810 ha. The observed discrepancies in three communes (Ludwin, Puchaczów, Piaski) have a greater surface area of forest land in the data obtained from BDL. Only in the case of the commune of Rybczewice the area obtained from BDL is smaller than that indicated in EGiB. Tab. 2. Comparison of forest land area Commune Area of forest land according to data from BDL (ha) Area of soil quality classes according to data from EGiB Difference (ha) Piaski 1 667, , ,481 Rybczewice 1 034, ,0512 1,9112 Ludwin 1 798, , ,7683 Puchaczów 1 106,98 957, ,1263

150 150 Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek 3 Discussion The differences observed on the basis of collected data and conducted research in the forest areas given in EGiB and BDL are considerable, the biggest in the communes of Ludwin and Puchaczów. In an attempt to make a comprehensive analysis of the data contained in BDL it was found that the information contained in that registry come from reports and data transmitted to GUS by legal persons, organizational entities without legal personality, District Councils, Agricultural Property Agency, Heads of communes (mayors, presidents of towns), while the data contained in EGiB are constantly updated by the institution maintaining that database. In the study an attempt was made to find the causes of such large discrepancies between the two major databases. Firstly, it was examined whether the forests data from the Local Data Bank take into account areas of wooded and bushy lands with index Lz. The values in table 3 show that the sum of Lz lands and those of the combined land contours Ls far exceed the data shown in the Local Data Bank. Tab. 3. Forest area (Ls) and wooded and bushy land (Lz) (in ha) Commune Lz Ls Total Ludwin 395, , ,8886 Puchaczów 169, , ,4889 Piaski 167, , ,0484 Rybczewice 430, , ,7031 Databases of classification contours in the communes under analysis do not coincide with the databases on land use type areas. This is also visible when comparing tables 1 and 2. In the case of the commune of Ludwin the area of lands of class Ls according to EGiB is 1 679,1317 ha, while the area of classification contour Ls is equal to 953,0218 ha. It is evident that in the land and buildings registry itself there are errors in the values of forest area. In addition, the database of the registry of land and buildings was analysed on the example of its graphic form. The results observed, presented in EWMAPA FB11 program, are shown in figure 4. Green characters X mean the description of land use Ls, and the red cross sign means the description of classification contour Ls. Here we can see a clearly presented situation in which there are shortages of the description of the contour Ls, while land use Ls is marked on an non-described classification contour. But not always these databases must overlap, because the classification contour Ls may include other types of land use (e.g., ditches). However, in this case the actual lack of this description was noted. Fig. 4. An excerpt from the a vector-descriptive analysis of database of land and buildings registry in the commune of Ludwin

151 Analysis of Differences in the Area of Forest Land Disclosed in the Local Data Bank 151 The analysis uses the integration of existing databases of grassland or forest, implemented in ArcGIS. Fig. 5 shows the surface contours of forest classification on the example of the commune of Ludwin. Figure 6 shows the forest lands in the same commune. One can see that the areas of the contours and of the forest lands differ. Figure 7 shows the differences between the two databases generated in ArcGIS. Fig. 5. Classification contours of forests in the commune of Ludwin Fig. 6. Forest lands in the commune of Ludwin Fig. 7. Differences in classification contour and forestland databases in the commune of Ludwin

152 152 Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek The analysis shows that in some places the area of the classification contours shown in EGiB does not coincide with the area of forestland. Differences in the areas may partly result from discrepancies in the dating of the data presented in both of the databases analysed. Data on forests in BDL are presented as up-to-date in December 2013, while EGIB data are current as of 30th April This difference is 4 months, therefore it was examined whether during that time any land classification was made in the individual communes. The interview at the appropriate District Centres of Geodetic-Cartographic Documentation shows that in recent years no comprehensive modernisation of the contours and forestland was performed in the analysed communities, nor any comprehensive consolidation of lands. Conclusions Comparison of selected data from both registries showed significant differences in the areas of the land use type studied. The observed discrepancies in three districts (Ludwin, Puchaczów, Piaski) have a greater surface area of forest land in the data obtained from BDL. Only one in the commune of Rybczewice the area obtained from BDL is smaller than that indicated in EGiB. It was noted that the BDL data are not updated directly on the basis of the database of the land and buildings registry. In addition, it has been shown that in the records of land and buildings registry there are errors related to the inconsistency of the positioning of classification contours and Ls lands. It seems necessary to achieve a uniform structure of both records. A proposal for changes that could cause an improvement of quality of the databases analysed would be comprehensive modernisation of the land and buildings registry, preferably preceded by a comprehensive consolidation of lands. This process would provide a way to determine the limits of standard plots and to perform new calculation of the surface area. References Konieczna, J Dane katastralne podstawą projektowania granicy rolno-leśnej. Infrastruktura i Ekologia Terenów Wiejskich (3/I): Rocznik Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny. Rocznik Statystyczny Województw Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny.

153 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Foreign Trade of Biomass for Energy Purposes in Poland in the Years Barbara Gradziuk University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland Piotr Gradziuk Institute of Rural and Agricultural Development Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, Poland Abstract The obligation of renewable energy production and the opportunities for additional large revenue from green certificates has led to an increased interest in biomass derived from imports. During the period under study, imports of biomass to Poland increased nearly eight times: from 423 thousand tons to thousand tons. Agro biomass imports showed higher dynamics (1160%), including in particular sunflower husks and sunflower and palm oil cake. During the same period, imports of forest biomass increased by 478%, of mainly firewood and wood chips. By 2007, the vast majority of imported biomass had come from the current European Union countries (nearly 50%, the highest amounts from Lithuania, Latvia, Slovakia and Germany), and the structure of imports was divided roughly evenly into agro and forestry sourced biomass. The introduction of mandatory restrictions on the use of forest biomass resulted in a significant increase in non-forest biomass share in the total imports of biomass, which have also significantly increased from year to year. In the last three years, agro biomass imports from the EU and Ukraine have accounted for almost 65% of total imports of biomass for energy purposes. A dramatic increase has also been observed in the imports of exotic biomass, although in relatively small absolute values: from 0 in 2009 to about 65 thousand tonnes in 2010 and 2011, and to more than 600 thousand tonnes in Keywords: renewable energy sources, biomass, foreign trade Introduction Energy is the main determinant force behind any economic activity and development of civilization. It is a driving force in all production and consumption processes. Alvin Toffler (1997) put it aptly saying that a necessary condition for any civilization to exist either old or new, is the availability of energy resources. Fritjof Capra (1987), when analyzing the causes for rises and declines of particular civilizations in the history of humanity pointed at the fact that access to energy resources coupled by abilities to use them effectively marked the beginning and end of any civilization. A human being, just to sustain basic physiological and metabolic processes, needs from 3 to 5 GJ of energy annually. However, with a rapid development of societies, energy consumption steadily increases, and in the second half of the 19th century, the amount was at the level of 38 GJ, and in 1985 it increased to 85 GJ per person. If this tendency of primary energy 1 demand is sustained, the world s population of 8 billion people will need an astonishing 630 billion GJ of energy (Czaja and Becla 2002). According to the International Energy Outlook 2002, a report prepared by the International Energy Agency, energy consumption in will increase from 382 to 612 quadrillion (1024) Btu 2 (by 60%). Fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal and natural gas are at present the major 1. It is the sum of energy contained in primary energy mediums. 2. British Thermal Unit, a unit of heat used in English speaking countries; it is the amount of heat needed to

154 154 Barbara Gradziuk, Piotr Gradziuk sources of primary energy. World deposits of these fossil fuels are still quite significant. Without negating the fact that such resources are in fact limited and in the long term will eventually run out, it is necessary to emphasize that thanks to geological research new deposits are being discovered, and the total increase in reserves is still higher than that of consumption (Gradziuk 2015). A study carried out by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) shows that there will be a decrease in the share of conventional fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal) in the overall consumption after 2020, as the natural reserves deplete and prices rise. In 2060 the last of operating nuclear power plants will be shut down. Such fuels are replaced by renewable energy sources, using in the conversion process the power of wind, solar, aerothermal, geothermal, hydrothermal, wave, tidal, fall of rivers energy; biomass, biogas derived from landfills, as well as biogas produced in the process of sewage disposal and treatment or decomposition of plant and animal remains. The Directive on the promotion of energy from renewable sources (2009/28/EC) shows that the most important role among renewable energy sources will continue to be played by biomass, although its share in final RES energy balance in 2020, as compared to 2010, will decrease from 62,9% to 60,7%. In Poland, the share of biomass was even higher, and in 2013 amounted to 95%. This follows from the fact that biomass is one of those renewable energy sources that do not require the maintenance of the so-called hot standby power available in the system, as in the case of wind or photovoltaic farms. The need to maintain hot standby energy has been a subject of disputes for many years in the energy sector and has led to legal solutions that are of key importance for the development of renewable energy sources, evident especially in the form of dedicated economic mechanisms (Żylicz 2012). In 2014, 30 of the 39 Polish coal power plants were co-incinerating biomass. The ecological criticism of this practice, however, increases. Most co-incinerating coal power plants do not use the emerging waste heat: about 75 per cent of the electricity from biomass is produced without using it. As a result of the booming co-incineration in Poland, prices for energetically used biomass have almost doubled since This demand has led to an increasing import of biomass. Therefore the main objective of the study is evaluation of foreign exchange biomass for energy purposes in Poland. 1 Material and methods Information on imports of biomass is based on the Foreign Trade Database of the Central Statistical Office of Poland (GUS) 3. The scope of research covered the years ; the adoption of such period resulted from the fact that in 2008 there was a significant increase in imports of biomass for energy. According to information obtained from the Polish Chamber of Biomass, energy imports encompassed the following types of biomass: cereal straw and husks, unprepared, not chopped, ground, pressed or in the form of pellets (Cn ) husks of sunflower, hazelnut, etc. (Cn ) bran, ground grain and other residues from the sifting, milling or other processing of wheat, including granulates or pellets (Cn ) oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils of palm nuts or kernels (Cn ) oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils, shea nut residues (Cn ) firewood, in logs, billets, twigs, fagots or in similar forms (Cn ) wood in chips or particles, coniferous (Cn ) wood in chips or particles, deciduous (Cn ) sawdust and wood waste and scrap, whether or not agglomerated in logs, briquettes, pellets or similar forms (Cn , ) heat 1 lb of water by 1 F (degree Fahrenheit) usually at a prescribed temperature i.e., Btu 39 amount of heat needed to heat 1 lb of water from the temperature of 39 F to 40 F, 1 Btu 39 = 1059,52 J; 1 Btu (average) = 1 055,06 J. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.] 3. In Polish: Główny Urząd Statystyczny.

155 Foreign Trade of Biomass for Energy Purposes in Poland in the Years Results The basic legal document regulating biomass consumption in Polish power plants is the ordinance of the Minister of Economy from 14 August 2008 on green certificates, payment of substitute fees, purchase of electricity and heat produced from renewable energy sources and the obligation to validate the data about the amount of electricity generated from renewable energy sources. This regulation defines biomass as: liquid or solid substances of plant or animal origin, agricultural, food industry or timber production wastes, biodegradable wastes and low quality cereal grains not covered by the State intervention purchase. In addition it defines which kind of biomass can be used in Polish power plants. Power plants are obligated to use a certain amount of agricultural biomass in their overall fuel balance. This amount is dependent on biomass combustion technology (co-firing, hybrid combustion or biomass dedicated boilers). The obligation of renewable energy production and the opportunities for additional large revenue from certificates of origin (green certificates) has led to an increased interest in biomass derived from imports. During the period under study, imports of biomass to Poland increased nearly eight times: from 423 thousand tones to thousand tons. During the same period exports of biomass from Poland increased about two times: from 459 thousand tons to thousand tons. Tables 1 and 2 show the detailed amounts of imports and exports, with prices applicable on the Polish border. Prices are calculated on the basis of the value of imports to the Polish port or the Polish border CIF (i.e., including the costs of transport and insurance to the Polish border). By 2007, the vast majority of imported biomass had come from the current European Union countries (nearly 50%, the highest amounts from Lithuania, Latvia, Slovakia and Germany), and the structure of imports was divided roughly evenly into agro and forestry sourced biomass. The introduction of mandatory restrictions on the use of forest biomass resulted in a significant increase in agro biomass share in the total imports of biomass. Agro biomass imports showed higher import dynamics (1 160%), including in particular sunflower husks and sunflower and palm oil cake. During the same period, imports of forest biomass increased by 478%, of mainly firewood and wood chips. Poland is mainly an exporter of wood biomass (in %). In 2014 among the imported agricultural biomass, by-products from the oil industry dominated: husks of sunflower, hazelnut, etc. (Cn ) thousand tons; oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of sunflower (Cn ) 487 thousand tones. Over 64% of imported agricultural biomass came from Ukraine, and they were the by-products from the processing of sunflower seed (cake or husk) in the loose form, briquettes or pellets (tab. 3). Significant amounts of this type of biomass were also imported from Russia (4,9%). The increase in demand for biomass for energy purposes has meant that importers began to search for markets outside Europe. By 2009, the imports of biomass from outside Europe had virtually been non-existent. It was only in 2010 that 63 thousand tonnes of biomass in the form of agro-cake were brought into the country; from Indonesia (34 thousand tonnes), Malaysia (20 thousand tons) and Tunisia (9 thousand tons). In 2014, agro biomass imports from outside Europe accounted for 26% of such imports into Poland. This group of resources in terms of volume were the by-products from processing of other oil crops (olives, palm nuts, etc.): oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils of palm nuts or kernels (Cn ) 630 thousand tons, oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils, (Cn ) 21 thousand tonnes. The largest supplies of such materials came from Indonesia (21.8%) and Malaysia (3,5%). More than 80% of forest biomass imports came from the countries of the former Soviet Union: Belarus (66,4%), Ukraine (7,6%), Lithuania (4.3%). A significant amount, of mainly wood pellets, was imported from Germany (6,6%) and Slovakia (3,5%). Since 2011, wood biomass has also been imported from Liberia (tab. 3).

156 Tab. 1. Biomass imports to Poland for energy purposes by import duty codes in the years Biomass Type Quantity in thousands of Mg Price in PLN/Mg Cereal straw and husks, unprepared, not chopped, ground, pressed or in the form of pellets (Cn ) Husks of sunflower, hazelnut, etc.(cn ) Bran, ground grain and other residues from the sifting, milling or other processing of wheat, including granulates or pellets (Cn ) Oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils of palm nuts or kernels (Cn ) Oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils, (Cn ) Total agro biomass Firewood, in logs, billets, twigs, fagots or in similar forms (Cn ) Wood in chips or particles, coniferous (Cn ) Wood in chips or particles, deciduous (Cn ) Sawdust and wood waste and scrap, whether or not agglomerated in logs, briquettes, pellets or similar forms (Cn , , ) Total forest biomass Total biomass Source: Own study on the basis of Foreign Trade GUS Database

157 Tab. 2. Exports from Poland and balance of trade biomass for energy purposes by import duty codes in the years Biomass Type Quantity in thousands of Mg Price in PLN/Mg Cereal straw and husks, unprepared, not chopped, ground, pressed or in the form of pellets (Cn ) Husks of sunflower, hazelnut, etc.(cn ) Bran, ground grain and other residues from the sifting, milling or other processing of wheat, including granulates or pellets (Cn ) Oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils of palm nuts or kernels (Cn ) Oil-cake and other solid residues, including ground state or in the form of pellets, resulting from the extraction of vegetable fats or oils, (Cn ) Total agro biomass Firewood, in logs, billets, twigs, fagots or in similar forms (Cn ) Wood in chips or particles, coniferous (Cn ) Wood in chips or particles, deciduous (Cn ) Sawdust and wood waste and scrap, whether or not agglomerated in logs, briquettes, pellets or similar forms (Cn , , ) Total forest biomass Total biomass Source: Own study on the basis of Foreign Trade GUS Database

158 158 Barbara Gradziuk, Piotr Gradziuk Country Tab. 3. Agro Biomass imports to Poland for energy purposes by import duty codes and countries Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Ukraine , , , , , , ,5 Indonesia 1 0,5 0 0,0 34 3,5 23 1, , , ,8 Russia 1 0,5 2 0,3 18 1,9 83 5, ,1 80 4, ,9 Malaysia 0 0,0 0 0,0 20 2,1 1 0,1 1 0,1 52 2,8 81 3,5 Spain 0 0,0 0 0,0 66 6, , ,4 30 1,6 20 0,9 Other 45 22, , , , , , ,4 Total , , , , , , ,0 Source: Own study on the basis of Foreign Trade GUS Database a in thousands Country Tab. 4. Forest Biomass imports to Poland for energy purposes by import duty codes and countries Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Mg a % Belarus 55 21, , , , , , ,4 Ukraine 68 26, , , , , ,6 95 7,6 Lithuania 8 3,1 22 8, , ,6 93 7,9 79 8,0 54 4,3 Germany 66 25, , , , ,2 74 7,5 82 6,6 Slovakia 51 19, , ,1 24 3,9 29 2,5 33 3,5 44 3,5 Other 13 5,0 23 8,6 28 7, , ,5 81 8, ,6 Total , , , , , , ,0 Source: Own study on the basis of Foreign Trade GUS Database a in thousands Conclusions About 50 per cent of the Polish electricity from renewable energies is produced from biomass and almost a third comes from co-incinerating biomass in coal-fired power plants. As a result of the booming co-incineration in Poland, prices for energetically used biomass have almost doubled since This demand has led to an increasing import of biomass, for instance husks of sunflower from Ukraine, wood from Belarus or oil-cake from Indonesia and Malaysia. The support schemes currently in force do not differentiate the place of origin of the biomass, whether it is produced locally or comes from overseas. There are serious doubts as to whether giving support to coconutshell co-firing serves economic and environmental purposes. Despite a number of voices raised at the European Union level, the import of biomass from remote regions of the world is completely unjustified, administrative restrictions on biomass imports to the EU cannot only be contrary to WTO rules, but also contribute to a significant increase in its prices in the Member States and more competition in relation to food production. However, one can expect that in a few years there will be restrictions introduced on the transportation of biomass over long distances due to the CO2 emissions in transport. Therefore, long-term investment strategies should not be built on the sourcing of biomass originating in remote places. References Capra, F Punkt zwrotny. Nauka, społeczeństwo, nowa kultura. Translated by E. Woydyłło, Biblioteka Myśli Współczesnej. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Czaja, S., and A. Becla Ekologiczne podstawy procesów gospodarowania. Wrocław: Wydaw. Akademii Ekonomicznej im. Oskara Langego. Gradziuk, P Gospodarcze znaczenie i możliwości wykorzystania słomy na cele energetyczne w Polsce, Monografie i rozprawy naukowe. Puławy: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Uprawy, Nawożenia i Gleboznawstwa; Państwowy Instytut Badawczy w Puławach.

159 Foreign Trade of Biomass for Energy Purposes in Poland in the Years Toffler, A Trzecia fala. Translated by E. Woydyłło. 2nd ed., Biblioteka Myśli Współczesnej. Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Żylicz, T Ekonomia wobec wspierania odnawialnych źródeł energii. In Generacja rozproszona w nowoczesnej polityce energetycznej. Wybrane problemy i wyzwania, edited by J. Rączka, Warszawa: Narodowy Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej.

160 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

161 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Assessment of the Ecological and Energy Awareness of the Citizens in Rural Communes Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko The University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland Bogdan Kościk Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biała Podlaska, Poland Abstract This study was performed due to a concept of building a biogas network connecting two agricultural biogas plants. It was concerned with the ecological and energy awareness amongst the citizens of two communes located in the Lubelskie Voivodship. Moreover, their interest in being connected to the local biogas network has been studied. The interviewees declared that they are familiar with different sources of energy. Solar energy was the most well-known. It has been noted that the level of information about how agricultural biogas plants operate is low, which is known both from verbal expressions and the responses to questions concerning inhabitants interest in becoming connected to the network. The citizens are afraid of burdens resulting from producing biogas, mostly the unpleasant smells. It has been noticed that most of the decisions upon which the environmental attitude may be assessed stem from the economic reasons. The need to raise the level of knowledge about producing biogas and using it as energy is very high. Keywords: biogas network, ecological awareness Introduction The environmental awareness is a construction composed of many elements, such as views, knowledge, notions about the environment as well as established attitudes and behaviour in relation to the natural surroundings. Three levels of ecological awareness analysis may be distinguished. The global one, which is shaped by the global economic and technical processes along with political decisions (international protocols, laws and environment pollution resulting from global economy) is first. The influence of individual people on these processes is very low. It remains in the hands of decision-makers and changes appear spontaneously, without anybody s intervention. The second level is created by an intermediate structure between the smallest unit and the highest level. It is composed of the environment which is closer to the given individual unit (neighbourhood, commune). It has a bigger influence on its ecological condition. The third level is the awareness of individuals (Sidorczuk-Pietraszko and Zawistowska 2011). Energy awareness, which is rarely a subject of separate research, is one of the components of ecological conscience. There is very little information on this matter, mostly coming from literature. It reveals that the knowledge of Poles about energy usage stems mostly from their everyday experience. Perception of more complex problems is stereotypical and based on common knowledge. Research carried out by TNS OBOP shows that Poles do have misconceptions of many cases connected with energy use. 1 The interviewees say, for instance, that industry uses more energy than 1. See: Badanie Polacy o oszczędzaniu energii [Poles on saving energy] przeprowadzone przez TNS OBOP na zlecenie Rockwool Polska na reprezentatywnej grupie 1005 mieszkańców Polski w wieku 15 i więcej lat, w dniach * The work has been prepared as a part of the project No/IS-2/45/NCBR/2015 Construction of the Polesie biogas network based on the model of citizens social participation.

162 162 Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko and Bogdan Kościk households. A large percentage is also wrong while estimating the share of energy costs in the total household expenses. Only a couple percent is correct in stating that heating is the biggest of all household costs. 25% cannot estimate at all how much energy is used in their homes. However, it is worth noting that nationwide research show that Poles see the improvement of the environment quality, which took place over the past years. 2 1 The concept of building a separate biogas network Thanks to a project of building a biogas plant using biomethane as an energy source in one of the farms, local authorities of two communes: Urszulin and Sosnowica, both located in the Lubelskie Voivodship, made a decision to build a network. This network was supposed to be created with active cooperation of the local community, which could participate in its building, managing and then benefit from it. The concept of such investment needs identification of the interest of potential recipients in becoming connected to the network and the interest of citizens in participating in its construction, management and financing. These issues should be considered taking into account the level of awareness of renewable energy sources of the citizens and their acceptance of the concept of building the biogas plant. An agricultural biogas plant is a complex of buildings and appliances used to produce biogas. It is a mixture of gases, with a domination of combustible methane. Sources needed for producing biogas come from agriculture and food processing (Kowalczyk-Juśko 2013; Podkówka 2012). Amongst 61 agricultural biogas plants functioning at present in Poland 3 every one exploits the produced biogas in cogeneration units producing energy (connected into the energy network) and heat, used for heating housing estates and utility buildings, as well as for different technological processes. There is a possibility to use biogas, after its purification, as car fuel or gas fuel introduced into the natural gas network. Powering the network is possible when such a system is available. In other cases it is justified to build a separate network, independent from the PGNiG (the leader on the Polish natural gas market). The concept of building a biogas network assumes that local resources of biomass will be processed by means of anaerobic fermentation to the form of biogas. Biogas, after its purification will be distributed as biomethane to individual recipients and institutions. Biomethane may be used in a similar way as natural gas for heating water, preparing meals, heating households and other buildings. It is also possible to install small cogeneration engines producing energy for individual recipients or public utilities. Both communes were assessed as areas with few capabilities of connecting to energy networks of large agricultural biogas plants. 4 2 The area of study The communes participating in the project are situated in the Lubelskie Voivodship, in Parczew country (the commune of Sosnowica) and Włodawa county (the commune of Urszulin). The area of both communes is hectares, out of which hectares is taken by Urszulin commune and by Sosnowica commune. Despite similar size, the specifics of the communes are very different. Urszulin is an agricultural commune, where farmlands make up 54,1% of the area, whereas the commune of Sosnowica has a 42,8% share of such areas. 5 Forests take up 44,9% of Sosnowica commune and 26,9% of Urszulin commune. Both units have many areas of environmental significance, 5 9 lipca 2007 r., [@:] 2. See: Ekologiczna świadomość Polaków. Komunikat z badań [The ecological awareness of Poles]. BS/161/2000, CBOS, Warszawa, [@:] 3. State for 30 June 2013, according to The registry of agricultural biogas producers, the Agricultural Market Agency. 4. See: Uwarunkowania lokalizacyjne i proces inwestycyjny budowy biogazowni rolniczych w województwie lubelskim [Conditions for localisation and investment process of building agricultural biogas plants in the Lubelskie province]. Wydanie trzecie zaktualizowane, Biuro Planowania Przestrzennego w Lublinie, Lublin, 2010, [@:] 5. [In the journal European practice of number notation is followed for example, ,33 (European style) = (Canadian style) = 36, (US and British style). Ed.]

163 Assessment of the Ecological and Energy Awareness 163 which are protected by various means. Protected areas take up 65,6% of Urszulin commune and 84,3% of Sosnowica commune. These conditions influenced the development of both areas. Urszulin is an agricultural commune with farms, 254 business entities and a population of Due to a large share of forest areas and a large percentage of low-class quality soils (mostly rye complexes), conditions for agriculture in Sosnowica commune are limited. This administrative unit is of more touristic character, there are 572 farms, 149 business entities and the population is Research methods The main source for assessing the environmental and energy awareness of the communes citizens, as well as their attitudes towards the construction of the biogas plant, were surveys carried out amongst the residents of settlements located along the proposed route of the biogas network. The amount of completely answered question sheets was 166, which is ca. 5% of the inhabitants of these settlements. Men composed 51,2% of the respondents and women 48,8%. The biggest share of the interviewees were owners of individual households (45,2%), then farm owners (28,9%), people living in block apartment complexes (13,8%), small business owners (10,2%) and the owners of summer houses (3,0%). The research has been carried out on adults, the youngest respondent was 18 years old, and the oldest 79. The biggest age group amongst the interviewees was (39,2%), then (29,5%). The youngest age group took 22,3% of the total number and the oldest 3,0%. The education of the respondents was varied. 35,5% had secondary education, 31,3% higher education, 28,3% vocational education and 4,8% primary education. Identifying the connection between stated opinions of the interviewees and their actual attitudes was a methodological problem. It is really important to reconstruct this relation in the case of a questionnaire being the main tool for the study. All the conclusions are drawn from the given responses, not from the direct observation of the respondents activities. Hence, there is an area of uncertainty as to whether the answers do reflect their actions. It is not assumed, however, that the interviewees gave untrue answers. What is questioned is how much the answers are influenced by the generally accepted standards and possible attempts to comply with them. 4 The outcome of the research 4.1 The ecological awareness of the citizens An assessment of the perception of the environmental state has been performed. It was connected with the pollution caused by low emissions, the attitude towards burning waste in heating boilers and knowledge of renewable energy sources. The air pollution caused by heating boilers has been estimated as high by a large share of respondents (39,2%). 28,9% declared it is low, 12,7% very low, 8,4% very high and 10,8% could not form an opinion (fig. 1). It is worthy mentioning that the issue of low emissions is noted in the strategic documents of the communes as an important problem, mostly in relations to the touristic and recreational functions of those areas and concerns very large 10% 30% 40% Fig. 1. The assessment of the air pollution level the quality of the environment, which is protected in many places. 7 large small very small do not know / hard to tell 6. Data published by Central Statistical Office of Poland at Local Data Bank site ( in This problem is noted in: The strategy of balanced development of the commune of Urszulin ; The strategy of developing tourism in the commune of Urszulin; The strategy of development of the commune of Sosno-

164 164 Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko and Bogdan Kościk A vast majority of respondents (70,5%) answered that they know it is illegal to burn waste in heating boilers. However, almost 20% see this activity as justified in some situations. Only three interviewees said that burning waste is always admissible. 7,8% did not have an opinion on this matter (fig. 2). This may mean that it is necessary to educate local societies, as the amount of the people accepting the procedure of burning waste in an illegal way shows that it is socially acceptable in some way. Additionally, the result of the answers to this question could be distorted because of its touchiness. Burning waste in boilers is not a socially accepted activity and many people are aware of this fact. The respondents, trying to show that they adhere to standards could have answered in line with the expectations, not with their actual behaviour. not acceptable acceptable in some situations always acceptable do not know / hard to tell 10% 20% 70% Fig. 2. Permissibility of burning waste in household heating The smoke from the household heating boilers is harmful to health according to 64,5% of the respondents. 45,8% noticed the decline of well-being and comfort because of this reason. 11,4% state that the smoke is not harmful and 40,0% that it does not affect their comfort. The opinions on the effect of the smoke on tourists interest in the region were very divided. 30,7% of the interviewees claimed it is a factor discouraging tourism, 27,1% did not see this kind of connection. 42,2% did not have any opinion (fig. 3). yes no do not know worsens well-being discourages tourists harmful for health % 50% 100% Fig. 3. Perception of the air pollution effects due to low emission Respective renewable energy sources were known to the respondents in a various degree. Most of them (86,1%) mentioned solar energy, 69,9% wind energy, 43,4% hydropower, 41,6% biomass energy and 31,9% geothermal energy. Such distribution of answers may stem from the fact that in both of the communes there are solar collectors and there are plans to apply for aid for further such investments. Knowledge of wind energy may be an effect of numerous discussions and broad range of information in the media. Hydropower is not currently used in two communes, however there are two structures raising the level of water in the commune of Urszulin, which have been chosen for potential energy usage. Biomass is relatively less well-known. However, this source of energy is said to be the most important one for Poland, both currently and in the future, according to many experts (fig. 4). other biomass solar geothermal water wind Fig. 4. Number of persons declaring knowledge of respective renewable energy sources wica ; Changes in the study of conditions and directions of spatial development in the commune of Sosnowica; A low emission economy plan for the commune of Sosnowica.

165 Assessment of the Ecological and Energy Awareness 165 One of the ways of converting biomass for energetic purposes is anhydrous fermentation. This process creates biogas, composed of combustible biomethane. 42,2% of the respondents said they know how biomethane is produced in an agricultural biomass plant. What is interesting is that some of the interviewees declared such knowledge, while at the same time did not indicate biomass when questioned about renewable energy sources. This could show that the knowledge of this subject is superficial and possibly based on not very credible sources. This is further evidenced by the fact that 67,5% of the respondents declared the need for raising the level of knowledge of biogas plants. The ecological awareness of the studied group has also been assessed in relation to the level of economic means. In one of the questions it was explained that biomethane is an ecological fuel, made from renewable sources. Next, a question was asked regarding whether the respondent would like to use biomethane, only because of environmental reasons, even though it would not lower the households costs. The dispersion of respondents confirming (31,9%), declining (32,5%) and not sure (35,5%) was very even. Most of the negative answers had a mostly economical basis. The causes for such answers were high costs, the risk of unstable costs, I cannot afford it and biogas may become more expensive. Two of the interviewees said they are against building the biogas plant, so the usage of this energy source does not interest them, irrespective of environmental effects. It is worth mentioning that these answers reflect a problem which is indicated in the methodology. It is a problem of confronting general questions concerning environmental awareness with specific behaviours. The percentage of pro-ecological answers declines as the questions move from the most theoretical aspects to personal ones, here the financial means of the respondents. A smaller group declares a pro-ecological stance when the questions mean that they have to face a situation when being pro-ecological means spending more money. Social psychology indicates that views on specific matters do not always reflect actual actions. This difference may be caused by a couple of reasons. First of all, it becomes greater when the questions refer to different levels of detail. Secondly, involvement, awareness and accessibility of a certain attitude is important. Being in an ecological organisation, knowing a lot about ecology, or even being interested in such matters makes it more probable that declarations will be followed by actions. One of additional important factors is the time between the assessment of the respondent s attitude and his/her behaviour. The longer it is, the greater the difference may be. Pro-ecological behavior is much more common amongst those people and societies which have satisfied their physical needs important for biological survival and development. Post-materialistic attitudes (including ecological stance which is opposed to consumption) are more apparent in wealthy countries already having a high level of life comfort. One of the examples are Scandinavian countries (Sidorczuk-Pietraszko and Zawistowska 2011). Amongst German society the level of ecological awareness is very high. It became even greater when the government declared discontinuing nuclear energy in favour of renewable energy. Because of this fact, Germans have become involved in renewable energy projects because of ideological reasons and are willing to accept minimum financial benefits as a result. Another one of the factors influencing the amount of prosumers in Germany is the level of wealth of the society. This means that there is a relatively large group who have sufficient means for investing in renewable energy. 8 In Poland post-materialistic stances are only beginning to form slowly, their range is spread thinly and are expressed only by a part of our society. The next question from the survey which could be categorised as a means of assessing the ecological awareness was the question of acceptance for building a biogas plant in a nearer or further distance from the respondent s surrounding. It was also directly connected to the concept of building the facility. The interviewees were strongly against building a biogas plant in their place of residence (fig. 5). The acceptance became greater as the distance of the investment from the respondent grew. Negative answers were explained by apprehension of odour, harmfulness to 8. See: Analiza mająca na celu wdrożenie instytucji spółdzielni energetycznej do polskiego systemu prawa w oparciu o najlepsze praktyki państw Unii Europejskiej [The analysis for introducing the institution of an energy cooperative into the Polish law system based on the best practices of the European Union countries]. Wierciński, Kwieciński, Baehr Spółka Komandytowa, 2014, available at

166 166 Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko and Bogdan Kościk the people and the environment, lowering life conditions, noise, traffic, water pollution, the necessity of protecting the environment and a high cost of the investment. yes no do not know / have an opinion in a di erent commune in the respondent's commune in the respondent's settlement % 50% 100% Fig. 5. The acceptance for the construction of the biogas plant, depending on its localisation These attitudes, displayed by most of the respondents, are typical for people who are against specific investments in their close surroundings, yet do not deny that they are needed. These people support building such facilities, but at a greater distance from their homes. This attitude has its special name NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) (Wawer 2014). 4.2 The interest in becoming connected to the biogas network Respondents did not report nuisances related to breaks of energy distribution. 6% of them said these periods are frequent and very frequent. Most of the interviewees (68,1%) claimed they happen rarely. A great deal of respondents (80,3%) were happy with the current system of energy distribution and heating. Some of those who were unhappy stated the following reasons: high costs, inconvenience, environmental pollution and fluctuations of temperature. Despite high level of satisfaction regarding the current way of receiving energy, 63,3% of the respondents declared their willingness for becoming connected to a biogas network. Biomethane would be used for heating households, cooking meals, or heating water (fig. 6). Four entrepreneurs declared its use in their businesses enterprises. no yes heating household cooking heating water business Fig. 6. Interest in becoming connected to a biogas network and biomethane use 36,7% of the interviewees were not interested in becoming connected to the network, Main reasons for this decision were economical. Respondents were afraid of high and fluctuating costs of biomethane, high cost of connection and the stability of producing gas. Denial was also justified by having one s own forest and access to cheap wood, low energy usage and lack of a need for gas fuel. Some other responses were I am against building the plant, The plant stinks and No information. Biomethane may be burned in cogeneration engines of various size and scale in order to produce energy and heat. The respondents were asked if they were interested in producing energy for their own means by a generator fueled with biomethane. 23,5% of the interviewees gave a positive answer, 33,1% a negative answer and the rest did not have an opinion. However, amongst people who answered negatively and then justified this answer some lack of knowledge has been revealed. They said that they did not know the technology, did not have any information regarding this issue, Nobody does that, I do not have a generator, etc. Apart from sporadic answers The plant stinks and I am against building the plant most of the people who gave a negative answer in reality were not sure of it. This is another evidence for the need to raise the level of knowledge of the issue in the studied area.

167 Assessment of the Ecological and Energy Awareness Interest in participating in building and using biogas network The project of building an independent biogas networks assumes that the citizens will participate in its creation, exploitation and management. Therefore it is important to assess the level of interest of the communes inhabitants in these issues. It is important that the respondents know they may have a financial share, both cost-side and profit-side. It is also essential to inform that the functioning of the network may be connected with a risk of losses. Readiness to take up this responsibility also has to be assessed. The respondents reported their biggest interest in consultations during the stage of planning the network, its constructing, usage and setting the conditions of biogas delivery (36,7%). Amongst the 21,7% of the respondents who were not interested in these activities, 6 persons explained it with lack of knowledge and lack of time. Other answers were: I am not interested, I am not an investor, I am against building the plant and Consultations do not matter, they will do whatever they want. 22,9% of the interviewees declared their willingness of financial participation in building the network and obtaining profits from its functioning. People who were against investing in the network (34,3%) justified it by economic matters, lack of interest in the network, lack of time, knowledge and their negative attitude towards the biogas plant. 24 persons (14,5%) declared willingness of participation in the management of the network. 31,9% said they did not want to take part in the managing because of their lack of knowledge, time, interest or general negative attitude towards the plant. It has also been suggested that specialists, not the citizens, should supervise the network. The option of taking responsibility for the effects of the functioning of the network caused the least interest. Only 11,5% of the respondents gave a positive answer to this question. Negative answers (45,8%) were explained by the apprehension related to the financial responsibility, lack of money, financial risk but also lack of knowledge, time and information and general negative attitude towards the plant. It is worth mentioning the fact that almost half of the interviewees chose the answer I do not know/i do not have an opinion in each of those questions (fig. 7). It is an evidence of a big possibility to increase the number of potential co-sharers of the network. It requires, however, creation of a plan for involving the local community in the energy policy of the commune and for establishing the rules of the citizens cooperation in the process of decision-making, financing and acquiring economic benefits from this project. An informative action concerning the concept of constructing the Polesie biogas network is also essential as some of the uncertain and negative answers stem from the lack of knowledge and information. yes no do not know participation in consultations and agreements bearing responsibility for the functioning of the network network management participation in the costs of building and future pro ts Fig. 7. Respondents interest in respective actions related to construction and functioning of the biogas network Germany is an example where energy communities function successfully. Local populations very often choose the form of co-op in order to accomplish prosumer projects. One of the reasons of such popularity of energy co-ops is a very high culture and tradition of cooperative movement. Co-ops are seen as a way of strengthening bonds within local communities and a means for achieving common goals, giving its members a sense of working for the mutual good. Energy co-ops involve not only their members directly, in this way lowering costs of undertaking projects, but also local businesses, which provide the necessary equipment and co-operative banks, which are the most frequent lenders. Due to this, energy co-ops help in the economic development of whole regions. Mutual forms of private persons investing in renewable energy sources are present in other European Union countries, such as Denmark, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Austria or Sweden See: Analiza mająca na celu wdrożenie... 0% 50% 100%

168 168 Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko and Bogdan Kościk Summary The ecological and energy awareness of the studied communes citizens is rather superficial. Inhabitants more often indicate pro-ecological attitude when asked for general matters. If the question relates to more detailed aspects, this behaviour becomes rarer. Confirming that one is interested in the state of the environment is not always reflected in everyday actions. This discrepancy stems from the fact that activities, unlike opinions, require bearing respective costs, both financial and non-financial ones. This may be especially burdensome for low-income inhabitants of small settlements. The participation of the local community in construction, functioning and management of the local biogas network requires preparing them for this role beforehand. With the current level of knowledge and involvement it is possible to include the residents in the process of local consultations. In the case of undertaking educational actions and creating clear rules of cooperation between all the participants of the project it is possible to include a part of the citizens in the investment process. Still, it is very difficult to predict the future development of the situation. From the inhabitants point of view, the most important aspect of cooperation is the financial one. Ecological matters are less important. It is essential to raise the level of knowledge of the functioning of agricultural biogas plants, the potential energy use of biogas and biomethane and the functioning of the biogas network. It is important to inform the local community about all the taken decisions, conditions of the residents cooperation and environmental, and the social and economic effects of building an independent biogas network. References Kowalczyk-Juśko, A Biogazownie szansą dla rolnictwa i środowiska. Warszawa: Fundacja na Rzecz Rozwoju Polskiego Rolnictwa. Podkówka, W Biogaz rolniczy. Odnawialne źródło energii. Teoria, praktyczne zastosowanie. Warszawa: Powszechne Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne. Sidorczuk-Pietraszko, E., and A. Zawistowska Stan gospodarowania energią w gminach w świetle wyników badań. Białystok: Wyższa Szkoła Ekonomiczna. Wawer, M Komunikacja społeczna jako element wspierający proces inwestycji w biogazownie. In Biogazownia rolnicza. Podręcznik dla samorządowca, edited by A. Grzybek. Warszawa: Fundacja na Rzecz Rozwoju Polskiego Rolnictwa.

169 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 The Balanced Scorecard for Higher Education the Case of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland Abstract The Balanced Scorecard originated by Kaplan and Norton translates strategy into tangible and measurable objectives in four perspectives: financial, customer, internal business process, learning and growth. These perspectives can be modified, extended and adapted to the specific characteristics of company. This popular and modern management tool is used to clarify strategy, vision, and mission. It enables executives to realize their strategy in the most effective way. In contemporary times, the Balanced Scorecard is gaining popularity and has an ever increasing number of applications in the areas of benchmarking, budgeting, Total Quality Management or cost management. Nowadays it is more and more often implemented in the management of universities. The article presents the example of developing the Balanced Scorecard model at Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin. Keywords: Balanced Scorecard, strategic planning, management, higher education Introduction Developing a winning strategy (whether it be for private sector organizations, government, or nonprofit organizations) has never been seen as a simple task. However, successful strategy implementation is far more important and it is an extremely daunting task. Niven (2002, 9 10) notes there are a number of barriers to strategy execution, such as: vision barrier only 5% of the workforce understands the strategy, people barrier only 25% of managers have incentives linked to the strategy, management barrier 85% of executive teams spend less than one hour per month discussing strategy, resource barrier 60% of organizations don t link budgets to strategy. The importance of strategy realization was noticed also by 2by2 Strategy Advisor, which performed 2013 strategy survey (Tulldahl 2013) targeted towards business executives. According to the results of this survey, strategy realization (70%) was considered one of the most significant strategy challenges. Other noted challenges are illustrated in figure 1. In response to these research results, 2by2 Strategy Advisor proposed five components for being able to realize the strategy in an effective way: the business plan, key performance indicators, individual incentives, change, and follow-up mechanisms. strategy realization identifying a competitive advantage strategy development process definition of strategy analytical 15% 30% 50% 70% Fig. 1. Challenges related to strategy Data scource: Tulldahl (2013)

170 170 Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa In accordance with surveys and analysis of new social and economic determinants, it is considered appropriate to find and implement such a strategy for profit and non-profit organizations (including universities) that would correspond to significant and constant changes in the socioeconomic environment. One effective and modern instrument of organizational management suggested by authors is the Balanced Scorecard allowing for effective implementation, monitoring and verification of developed strategies. The main aim of this article is to present the possibility of the Balanced Scorecard s practical use in higher education institutions based on the example of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University. The article verifies the hypothesis that the Balanced Scorecard accordingly modified enables comprehensive management of a university. 1 The Balanced Scorecard model the basics Today more and more higher education institutions search for some methods or instruments fundamental to realizing objectives connected with clear and effective strategy realization. One of the tools meeting these demands is the Balanced Scorecard. The Balanced Scorecard was introduced in a 1992 Harvard Business Review article (Kaplan and Norton 1992). After this publication, several companies efficiently and rapidly adopted the concept giving the authors deeper insights into its potential and power. During the next 15 years, as it had been implemented by thousands of public, private, non-profit companies around the world, Kaplan and Norton broadened the model into a management instrument for describing, communicating, and implementing strategy (Kaplan 2010, 2). This misleadingly uncomplicated methodology translates a company s strategy into performance objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives in four perspectives: financial, customer, internal business process, learning and growth (Niven 2002, 13 17). The Balanced Scorecard can be used to achieve the company s strategic goals, because apart from financial factors, it also considers non-financial factors (Pham-Gia 2009, 6). This model made it possible to measure the critical and crucial parameters representing an organization s strategy for long-term value creation (Kaplan and Norton 2004, 5). 2 The Balanced Scorecard in non-profit organizations The most significant role of the Balanced Scorecard is the ability to translate corporate strategy and mission into measurable and tangible objectives, focusing on the most meaningful measures. It is a popular management system which is used to clarify the organizations strategy and vision and translate them into action. Therefore it enables executives to accomplish their strategy in an effective way (Świerk and Mulawa 2014). Kaplan and Norton established five basic principles of the Balanced Scorecard as a part of the strategic core of an organization (Kaplan and Norton 2001, 9 17): translating the strategy to operational terms aligning the organization to the strategy making the strategy part of everyone s everyday job making strategy a continuous process mobilizing change through leadership The practical application of the Balanced Scorecard leads to improved business processes across the company, and increase of credibility and trustworthiness which may impact improvement in the entity s functioning. Even though the Balanced Scorecard is a new tool, it has an ever increasing number of applications. This is because of its applicability which make it possible to adapt this tool to the specific needs of any enterprise. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Balanced Scorecard grows in importance and popularity among universities (tab. 1). The main reasons (Farid, Nejati, and Mirfakhredini 2008, 35) for the Balanced Scorecard implementation by universities are: It is treated as a vital management tool (University of California at San Diego). It enables assessment of academic program and planning processes (Rossier School of Education at University of Southern California).

171 The Balanced Scorecard for Higher Education 171 It allows use as a marketing tool to differentiate images in the higher education market (UK and South Africa universities). It is a tool for reinforcement of the importance of managing rather than just monitoring performance. It brings benefits to the accounting department heads they were supportive of the Balanced Scorecard applicability and benefits to accounting education programs (survey of 69 accounting department heads). Tab. 1. A list of universities that applied the Balanced Scorecard University Unit that implement the Balanced Scorecard Country University of California at San Diego Business Affairs USA University of California at Davis Division of Administration USA University of California at Berkeley Business and Administration Services Division USA University of California at Los Angeles Administrative Information System USA Business Administration Service University of California at Irvine Division of Business and Services Administration USA University of California at Santa Cruz Business and Administrative Service USA University of California at San Francisco Campus Auxiliary Service USA California State University at Northridge Administrative and Finance USA California State University at San Marcos Finance and Administrative Service USA California State University at San Bernardino Administration and Finance USA California State University at Pomona International PR, Communications USA Florida International University Entire university USA University of Louisville Entire university USA University of Vermont Entire university USA University of Akron Entire university USA University of Virginia Library USA University of Alaska Information Technology USA University of Denver Office of Research and Sponsored Programs USA University of Arizona Library USA University of Iowa Facilities Services Group USA University of Missouri Admin. & Finance USA University of North Carolina at Wilmington Business Affairs USA University of Northern Colorado USA University of St. Thomas International Management Program USA University of Vermont Financial Analysis & Budgeting USA University of Washington Administrative USA Fort Hays State University Entire university USA University of Florida Library USA Charleston Southern University Planning & Student Affairs USA Cornell University HR USA Illinois Benedictine College USA Indiana University Research & Academic Computing USA Pennsylvania State University Outreach USA University of Edinburgh Entire university UK Glasgow Caledonian University Entire university UK Deakin University Library Australia Bond University Entire university Australia Carleton University Finance and Administration Canada The University of the West Indies Entire university Jamaica Source: Own elaboration on the basis of own survey and Binden, Mziu, and Suhaimi (2014, 39)

172 172 Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa Private, Government & Non-Profit Organizations have different priorities, objectives, and missions. Consequently, it is necessary to change the architecture of the Balanced Scorecard (fig. 2). Non- profit organizations (including universities) as Niven emphasizes, have to elevate the role of the mission and customs, and reduce the influence of financial indicators (Niven 2002, 293). The Balanced Scorecard developed for universities illustrates how they achieve missions aimed at improving society. For comparison (tab. 2) the authors show examples of universities with different perspectives. Private Sector Organizations Government & Non-Profit Organizations The Strategy The Mission Financial Perspective If we succeed, how will we look to our shareholders? Support Perspective How do we attract resources and authorization for our mission? Constituent Perspective How do we have a social impact with our citizens/constituents? Customer Perspective To achieve our vision, how must we look t our customers? Internal Perspective To have a social impact and to attract resources and support, at which processes must we excel? Internal Perspective To satisfy our customers and shareholders, at which processes must we excel? Learning & Growth Perspective To excel at our critical processes, how must our organization learn and improve? Learning & Growth Perspective To excel at our critical processes, how must our organization learn and improve? Financial Perspective How should we manage and allocate our resources for maximum social impact? Fig. 2. The Balanced Scorecard Model of Value Creation Source: Presentation of R. S. Kaplan at conference [R]Ewolucja Balanced Scorecard: Budowanie organizacji skupionej na strategii [(R)Evolution of the Balanced Scorecard: Creating the Strategy-Focused Organization], organized by Institute for International Research in Warsaw, Tab. 2. Examples of perspectives included in Balanced Scorecards in different universities University Department/ Division Mission Statement/Vision Perspectives of Balanced Scorecard University of California at San Diego USA External & Business Affairs Mission: Raising financial support for University of California at San Diego s research, teaching, and patient care, while delivering superior service to our stakeholders in a responsive and cost-effective manner customer stakeholder/financial internal innovation & learning. (continues on next page)

173 The Balanced Scorecard for Higher Education 173 Tab. 2. (continued) University California State University USA Department/ Division Business and Finance Division Mission Statement/Vision Business and Finance supports the educational mission of the California State University through effective leadership, asset management, technology use, support services and governmental advocacy. Perspectives of Balanced Scorecard financial customer operational innovation & growth University of Virginia USA Library Mission: Enabling research, teaching, and learning through services, collections, tools, and spaces for the faculty and students of today and tomorrow. customers finance internal operations learning & growth The University of the West Indies Jamaica Entire university Mission: To advance education and create knowledge through excellence in teaching, research, innovation, public service, intellectual leadership and outreach in order to support the inclusive (social, economic, political, cultural, environmental) development of the Caribbean region and beyond. financial employee engagement and development internal operational processes, teaching, learning and student development research and innovation outreach (national and regional development; internationalisation; marketing and communication; and alumni engagement) As seen above, the Balanced Scorecard being a multi-dimensional instrument, can be adapted to every university-specific functional conditions. 3 Developing the Balanced Scorecard model the case of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University The work connected with developing and implementing a comprehensive strategy at Maria Curie- Skłodowska University was undertaken in 2011 (from March to December) and 2012 (from January to March). In view of the importance of this project, it was necessary to establish a steering committee consisting of university representatives and Ernst & Young consultants. 3.1 Maria Curie-Skłodowska University basic information Maria Curie-Skłodowska University is the largest university in Eastern Poland. It came into being in Its current strong established position has been developed over 70 years of teaching tradition. Since the beginning, the university has been perceived as a market leader in the education sector offering students first-class education. 1 The university consists of 11 faculties and employs around 1800 researchers who conduct projects under the responsibility of the National Science Centre, the National Centre for Research and Development, Minister of Science and EU programmes. Furthermore, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University has vast experience in relations with foreign research centres See: About UMCS. [@:] 2. See: Wiadomości uniwersyteckie 2014, no. 7/207, available at wu_208_net.pdf.

174 174 Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa 3.2 The process of the Balanced Scorecard development in Maria Curie-Skłodowska University The model of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Balanced Scorecard was developed in accordance with Kaplan and Norton methodology. The University is included in the group of government & non-profit organizations. For this reason the traditional Balanced Scorecard perspectives (including order) had to be amended. The basis for the mission and vision framework were the results of strategic analysis that included: analysis of external determinants important for Maria Curie-Skłodowska University development, and a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats). Thereafter, the steering committee framed a clear mission and vision (tab. 2). 3 The mission is treated like a description of university relevance and its main objective. The mission should focus academic efforts mainly on realizing the proposed action whereas the vision express efforts and aspirations. Tab. 3. Maria Curie-Skłodowska University mission and vision Mission Maria Curie-Skłodowska University s mission is to offer a high level of education, transfer of knowledge and skills necessary to enter the workplace or start a scientific work, conduct research contributing to the fields of science and economy development, support Lublin and the Lubelskie Voivodeship development thanks to educational, research and cultural activities, promotion of the region across borders and in the home country. Source: Misja, wizja, p. 2 Vision Maria Curie-Skłodowska University (by 2021) will become the largest and top-rated university in the East of Poland, amongst the top five best universities in Poland characterised by a stable financial background, attractive in the eyes of students (also foreign students), conducting high quality research, active in the area of knowledge commercialization and cooperation with socio-economic environment operators. The vision was made more specific thanks to five groups of university stakeholders (fig. 3). 4 Maria Curie Sklodowska University stakeholders University authorities Other employees Students Graduate students University teachers Fig. 3. Maria Curie-Skłodowska University stakeholders This well-developed long-term mission and vision gave rise to clarification of strategic areas of university development that include (fig. 4): recipients of services (students, academics, regional environment) internal processes development 3. See: Misja, wizja oraz cele strategiczne i operacyjne Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. Grudzień 2011, available at -i-wizja.pdf, p Misja, wizja

175 The Balanced Scorecard for Higher Education 175 Meeting expectations Student Education Science Research activity Environment Knowledge, culture, promotion Supporting Management, finance, administration Developing Resources People Relationships Fig. 4. Strategic areas of university development Source: Misja, wizja... Conclusions of the strategy analysis, and the mission and vision allowed the university to formulate strategic and operational objectives. Strategic objectives were developed in line with SMART (Nowak 2010, 335) criteria: Specific, Measurable, Appropriate, Realistic, Time-related. A further step was to present the established objectives in the form of the strategy map (fig. 5) which made it possible to view strategic objectives as a series of cause-and-effect linkages between them. Strategic objectives were grouped into five perspectives: Education, Research, Relations with environment, Internal processes, and Development. The strategy map analysis emphasizes activities that can contribute to achievement of precise strategic objectives. An Internal Processes perspective includes activities based on reorienting management process from a hierarchical to a process-based approach. It is essential for another three perspectives: research activity, relations with environment, and development which include activities connected with: activities aimed at university internationalization, initiatives aimed at promotion, improving long-term relationships with graduates, entrepreneurs, local government, and activities aimed at strengthening university employee identification with the developed mission and strategy. As a result, the university will achieve its main goals in the area of education, including its main strategy goals. The strategy map was one of the most important stages in the Balanced Scorecard design. It is extremely important in the university management. Such a perspective provides a clear link between objectives and impact on an overall strategy. In general, the strategy map detailed declarations included in the mission and vision. It contributed to improved understanding of relationships between university intellectual capital, implemented processes, relations with the environment and fulfillment of the mission by academics. Thereafter, the steering committee developed the university Balanced Scorecard. The scheme of the model is presented in figure 6. The model of the Balanced Scorecard for Maria Curie-Skłodowska University includes 5 perspectives, 15 strategic objectives, 47 operational objectives, measures and targets values. All objectives present aspects of what the university strategy tries to attain. Measures set out how performance against chosen objectives is regularly monitored. Target values show the level of necessary performance and also rate of some kind of improvement. Part of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Balanced Scorecard (Education Perspective) is presented in table 4. Selected measures had an essential role in the process of the Balanced Scorecard development. These measures are the quantitative criterion of assessment and objective achievement. It plays two roles: monitoring function (regular monitoring of objectives), and motivating function (comparing current and target state of objectives). Each measure was described in greater detail by units of measurement, sources of data, frequency of measurement, present and target values Maria Curie-Skłodowska University materials.

176 176 Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa The Mission of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Education Internationalisation Increase of competence Excellent study conditions Research activity Relations with environment Development Quality Long-term relationships Human capital Research revenue Image Fixed assets management Internationalisation Use of the regional economic potential Inter-university cooperation Internal processes Support processes Financial situation Strategic management Fig. 5. Strategy map for Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Perspective Strategic objectives Operational perspectives Measures Target values Summary Fig. 6. Balanced Scorecard for Maria Curie-Skłodowska University scheme Changes of external and internal determinants having a great influence on the functioning of higher education institutions, forces university authorities to formulate and implement a strategy which should be compatible with these demands. Maria Curie-Skłodowska University using the Balanced Scorecard model enabled a multi-aspect analysis of university operation. The traditional form of the Balanced Scorecard (including four perspectives: financial, customer, internal business process, learning and growth) was specially designed and modified for university characteristics. Consequently, it includes five perspectives Education, Research, Relations with environment,

177 The Balanced Scorecard for Higher Education 177 Tab. 4. The Balanced Scorecard for Maria Curie-Skłodowska University (education perspective) Strategic objectives Operational perspectives Measures Internationalizing of Education Quality of education improvement Study conditions improvement Increase foreign representation in the group of Maria Curie-Skłodowska University students. Increase foreign representation in the group of members of the academic staff. Improving the staff s capacities for the purpose of carrying out a teaching assignment in English. Increase the number of study fields conducted in English. Increase of student scientific activity abroad. Adapting the educational offer to the labor market needs. Increase effectiveness of the quality evaluation system. Increase practitioner representation in teaching. Increase opportunities for individualized studies. Improving quality of University s infrastructure. The increased use of modern forms of communication between university and students. Improving quality of student services provided by administrative employees. The proportion of foreigners in the students group. The proportion of foreigners in the academic staff group. The proportion of teaching assignments conducted in English in total teaching assignments. The proportion of study fields conducted in English in the total offered study fields. ECTS points acquired abroad per student. The assessment of employer preferences. Aggregated evaluation of the education quality. The proportion of classes taught by practitioners in total offered teaching assignments. The assessment of individualized study opportunities by students. Infrastructure investments. Student assessment of modern forms of communication development level. Student assessment of administrative services quality. Target values 0,9% growth growth growth growth 13,3 points growth growth growth growth 7 points 8 points Internal processes, and Development. Designed to enable multidimensional management, it facilitates monitoring and evaluating the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. The undisputable benefit of the Balanced Scorecard for Maria Curie-Skłodowska University is that it focuses on the most significant processes and key factors that contribute to the direction and success. Furthermore it improves internal and external communications and helps in monitoring university performance against strategic goals. Based on an example of the Balanced Scorecard application in Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, supported by other practical examples, surveys and a selection of specialized literature, it is possible to prove the hypothesis that the Balanced Scorecard accordingly modified enable comprehensive management of a university. Furthermore, the Balanced Scorecard may become an early warning system, providing a source of information about improving performance and the areas with a problematic impact on the overall university development. The article argues the case for a new approach to university management. The described model of the Balanced Scorecard (widely implemented) could be a decisive step for universities, helping to implement strategy that responds to constant changes in the economic, social and business environment. Prospective studies should be focused on identifying problems during implementation of the Balanced Scorecard in universities and solutions (such as those within information systems) which will facilitate resolution of potential implementation difficulties.

178 178 Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa References Binden, W., H. Mziu, and M.A. Suhaimi Employing the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) to Measure Performance in Higher Education Malaysia. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Research Management no. 4 (1): Farid, D., M. Nejati, and H. Mirfakhredini Balanced Scorecard Application in Universities and Higher Education Institutes: Implementation Guide in an Iranian Context. Annals of University of Bucharest, Economic and Administrative Series (2): Kaplan, R.S Conceptual Foundation of Balanced Scorecard. Working Paper/Harvard Business School, pdf. Kaplan, R.S., and D.P. Norton The Balanced Scorecard Measures That Drive Performance. Harvard Business Review no. 70 (1): Kaplan, R.S., and D.P. Norton The Strategy-Focused Organization. How Balanced Scorecard Companies Thrive in the New Business Environment. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press Strategy Maps. Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Niven, P.R Balanced Scorecard Step-by-Step. Maximizing Performance and Maintaining Results. New York: Wiley. Nowak, M Psychologiczne aspekty budżetowania. In Budżetowanie w przedsiębiorstwie. Organizacja, procedury, zastosowanie, edited by E. Nowak and B. Nita. Warszawa: Wolters Kluwer Polska. Pham-Gia, K Balanced Scorecard Solving All Problems of Traditional Accounting Systems?, Scholarly Research Paper. Munchen: GRIN Verlag. Świerk, J., and M. Mulawa IT Balanced Scorecard as a Significant Component of Competitive and Modern Company. In Human Capital without Borders: Knowledge and Learning for Quality of Life. Proceedings of the Management, Knowledge and Learning International Conference 2014, edited by V. Dermol, N.T. Širca and G. Dakovic, Portorož. Tulldahl, J Insight on Strategy: Strategy Realization. -strategy-strategy-realization/.

179 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy Jan Andreasik Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania w Rzeszowie, Polska Streszczenie W pracy przedstawiono koncepcję ontologii systemu zarzadzania bezpieczeństwem i higieną pracy (BHP). Przyjęto model funkcjonalny będący w analogii do modelu FRAM (Functional Resonance Analysis Method) opracowanego przez Erika Hollnagela. Zdefiniowano pięć typów funkcji: funkcja produkcji, funkcja informacji, funkcja sygnalizacyjna, funkcja obserwacyjna, funkcja reakcji systemu bezpieczeństwa. Zdefiniowano relacje pomiędzy poszczególnymi parametrami funkcji, które wraz z funkcjami tworzą sieć semantyczną systemu BHP. Słowa kluczowe: ontologia systemu BHP, funkcje systemu BHP Model funkcjonalny systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy w przedsiębiorstwie W normie PN-N-18001( 1 ) przyjęto model systemu zarządzania bezpieczeństwem i higieną pracy przedstawiony na rys. 1. Model ten tworzy cykliczny układ złożony z polityki BHP, która jest formułowana przez kierownictwo przedsiębiorstwa, etapu planowania i wdrażania, działań sprawdzających, korygujących i zapobiegawczych oraz z przeglądu systemu zarządzania. Cały cykl powtarza się tworząc pętlę ciągłego doskonalenia organizacji. W celu tworzenia systemu automatycznej identyfikacji charakteru niezgodności z wymaganiami potrzebny jest model, w którym jest możliwość reprezentowania wiedzy o powstałych niezgodnościach celem określenia nowych charakterystyk systemu BHP takich jak: charakterystyka zmienności czy charakterystyka odporności systemu na zagrożenia. Ciąłge doskonalenie Przegląd zarządzania Zaangażowanie kierownicze oraz polityka BHP Planowanie Sprawdzanie oraz działania korygujące i zapobiegawcze Wdrażanie i funkcjonowanie Rys. 1. Model systemu zarządzania bezpieczeństwem i higieną pracy przyjety w normie PN-N-18001: PN-N Systemy zarzadzania bezpieczeństwem i higieną pracy. Wymagania.

180 180 Jan Andreasik W niniejszej pracy przedstawiony jest model funkcjonalny reprezentacji systemu BHP. Funkcje definiowane są adekwatnie do stanowisk pracy (adresat), procesów oraz zestawu parametrów w następujących zakresach: Zakres 1: funkcje realizacji procesów technologicznych, logistycznych i obsługi serwisowej na stanowiskach pracy. Zakres 2: funkcje sygnalizacji na stanowiskach pracy, celem identyfikacji zagrożeń, identyfikacji stanów awaryjnych, generowania komunikatów ostrzegawczych, uruchamiania blokad, wyłączania urządzeń. Zakres 3: funkcje obserwacyjne dotyczące zachowania się pracowników, stanu porządku i jakości pracy na stanowiskach. Zakres 4: funkcje pozyskiwania informacji w procesach przeglądu, audytu, monitorowania aktywnego i reaktywnego. Zakres 5: funkcje reakcji systemu BHP odpowiadające analizie ryzyka (ocenie prawdopodobieństwa wystąpienia zdarzenia i wycenie jego konsekwencji), planowania audytów i przeglądu, planowania szkoleń, aktualizacja procedur, ewidencja zapisów, analiza niezgodności, działania korygujące, działania zapobiegawcze. Stanowisko pracy proces technologiczny/ logistyka/serwis Sygnalizacja Obserwacja Reakcja Funkcje produkcji/ logistyki/serwisu Funkcje sygnalizacji Funkcje obserwacji Funkcje reakcji Pozyskiwanie informacji Funkcje informacji Rys. 2. Zakresy funkcjonalności systemu BHP Funkcja jest definiowana jako przekształcenie wejścia funkcji X w wyjście funkcji Y. Dodatkowo określane są dla każdej funkcji parametry: W warunki początkowe, Z zasoby, T uwarunkowania terminowe harmonogramu, C procedury. Każda funkcja jest realizowana w ramach określonego procesu P oraz na wyznaczonym stanowisku S. Stąd też funkcję można ująć następująco: F: X Y; F(X) = X, Y, W, Z, C, T, P, S. Zgodnie z normą PN-N wyróżniane są następujące procesy: BHP: zarządzanie bezpieczeństwem i higieną pracy: BHP 01: Badanie przyczyn wypadków i chorób zawodowych (monitorowanie reaktywne) BHP 02: Identyfikacja zagrożeń BHP 03: Ocena ryzyka zawodowego (monitorowanie aktywne) BHP 04: Planowanie poprawy warunków pracy BHP 05: Pomiar czynników szkodliwych i uciążliwych (monitorowanie aktywne) BHP 06: Identyfikacja zdarzeń potencjalnie awaryjnych i wypadkowych BHP 07: Monitorowanie stanu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy

181 Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy 181 DSZ: doskonalenie systemów zarządzania: DSZ 01: Planowanie i przeprowadzenie audytów wewnętrznych DSZ 02: Przeprowadzenie działań korygujących i zapobiegawczych DSZ 03: Przegląd systemu zarządzania NDD: nadzorowanie dokumentacji i wymagań prawnych: NDD 01: identyfikacja zewnętrznych aktów prawnych NDD 02: Opracowanie i nadzorowanie zmian w dokumentacji systemu zarządzania ZZL: zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi: ZZL 01: rekrutacja pracowników ZZL 02: planowanie szkoleń wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych ZZL 03: realizacja i ocena szkoleń BHP 1 Definicje funkcji modelu systemu BHP 1.1 Główne elementy modelu Głównymi elementami modelu jest pięć typów funkcji: 1. Funkcja produkcji F(F-F) Obiekt fizyczny Obiekt fizyczny przetwarza, wymienia lub przemieszcza produkty, materiały lub towary, energię (wodną na elektryczną). Parametr funkcji: WEJŚCIE ujmuje te materiały, produkty lub towary, które są przetwarzane, przemieszczane lub wymieniane w odpowiednim procesie adekwatnym do danej funkcji. 2. Funkcja informacji F(D-D) Dokument Dokument przetwarza dane wejściowe na dane wyjściowe zgodnie z odpowiednimi procedurami. Dane są ewidencjonowane w odpowiednim formacie dokumentów. 3. Funkcja sygnalizacyjna F(S-K) Sygnał Komunikat przetwarza sygnały uzyskane z odpowiednich sensorów na sygnały lub komunikaty adresowane do użytkowników. 4. Funkcja obserwacyjna F(O-K) Obserwacja Komunikat przetwarza obserwacje stanowisk pracy na komunikaty ujęte w raporcie z obserwacji. 5. Funkcja reakcji systemu bezpieczeństwa, przetwarza F(D-Z) Dokument Realizacja zmian przetwarza komunikaty z obserwacji lub przeglądów i audytów na konkretne realizacje dt. zmian F(F-F) Funkcja Parametry F(D-D) F(D-Z) F(S-K) F(O-K) Wejście (I) Wyjście (O) Zasoby (R) Procedury (C) Czas (T) Warunki (P) Obiekt fizyczny Dokument Zmiana Sygnał Komunikat Obserwacja Pracownik Maszyna Sygnalizator Środek BHP Rys. 3. Podstawowe kategorie funkcji systemu bezpieczeństwa pracy

182 182 Jan Andreasik w procedurach lub instrukcjach, zmiany w zasobach, zmiany w uwarunkowaniach czasowych, zmiany w warunkach wstępnych. Każda z funkcji definiowana jest sześcioma parametrami: wejście (I), są to obiekty materialne (towary), sygnały, dokumenty, obserwacje, wyjście (O), są to obiekty materialne (towary), dokumenty, komunikaty, decyzje dt. zmian, warunki czasowe (T), są to zdarzenia określone w czasie, które inicjują rozpoczęcie lub zakończenie realizacji funkcji, zdarzenia określające priorytetowe wykonanie funkcji, zdarzenia określające przedział czasowy wykonania funkcji, zdarzenia inicjujące procedury bezpieczeństwa, itp., warunki wstępne (P), są to ograniczenia wykonania funkcji nałożone na zasoby, procedury i warunki czasowe, procedury (C), są to formalne zasady realizacji funkcji ujęte w regulaminach, instrukcjach i innych przepisach prawnych, wg których wykonywana jest funkcja, zasoby (R), są to zasoby ludzkie (pracownicy), maszyny i urządzenia, narzędzia, środki ochrony ciała, itp. 1.2 Typologia funkcji Funkcja produkcji F(F-F) Funkcja produkcji F(F-F) jest podstawową funkcją przedsiębiorstw, które zajmuje się produkcją maszyn i urządzeń oraz towarów w procesach chemicznych i biologicznych, tj. przetwarzaniem materiałów (surowców, półproduktów) w wyrób finalny. W przedsiębiorstwach usługowych następuje zamiana danych artefaktów na inne artefakty lub ich formy. Np. podczas remontu maszyn wymieniane są zużyte części, których resurs się zakończył na nowe. W przedsiębiorstwach logistycznych następuje przemieszczanie towarów wg zleceń przewozu z magazynów do odbiorców i od producentów do magazynów zgodnie z łańcuchem dostaw. Terminologię funkcji można ująć w postaci notacji BNF: <funkcja produkcji F(F-F)>:= <przetwarzanie> <zamiana> <przemieszczanie> <przemieszczanie>:= <transport_towarów> <przepływ mediów> <przepływ energii> <transport_towarów>:= <unoszenie> <podnoszenie> <układanie> <pchanie> <ciągnięcie> <przenoszenie> <przesuwanie> <przetaczanie> <przewożenie> unoszenie podnoszenie układanie pchanie Funkcja produkcji F(F-F) przetwarzanie zamiana przemieszczanie Transport towarów Przepływ mediów ciągnięcie przenoszenie przesuwanie Przepływ energii przetaczanie przewożenie Rys. 4. Hierarchia klas funkcji produkcji F(F-F) Parametryzacja funkcji <transport towarów>: I wejście: I1 towary wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie przyjęć I2 towary wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie składowania

183 Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy 183 I3 towary wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie kompletacji I4 towary wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie wydań O wyjście: O1 towary przemieszczone wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie przyjęć O2 towary przemieszczone wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie składowania O2 towary przemieszczone wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie kompletacji O3 towary przemieszczone wg polecenia (karty przewozu) w strefie wydań T uwarunkowania czasowe: T1 czas normatywny transportu, T2 moment rozpoczęcia transportu wg harmonogramu T3 moment zakończenia transportu wg harmonogramu T4 priorytet transportu A (natychmiastowe opróżnienie strefy przyjęć) T5 priorytet transportu B (natychmiastowe opróżnienie strefy kompletacji) T6 priorytet transportu C (natychmiastowe opróżnienie strefy wydań) P warunki początkowe: P1 uprawnienia operatora P2 warunki dopuszczenia sprzętu zmechanizowanego do eksploatacji P3 użycie środków profilaktycznych (środki ochrony indywidualnej) C procedury: C1 wpisy do Książki Pracy Sprzętu Zmechanizowanego C2 Dokumentacja Sprzętu Zmechanizowanego (Instrukcje obsługi, dokumentacja UDT) C3 instrukcja transportu wewnątrz-zakładowego R Zasoby: R1 operator sprzętu zmechanizowanego R2 pracownik do transportu ręcznego R3 wózki jezdniowe podnoszące R4 wózki naładowane (platformowe) R5 ładowarki łyżkowe R6 nośniki osprzętu R7 dźwignice R8 przenośniki R9 odzież i obuwie robocze R10 rękawice robocze R11 rękawice olejoodporne R12 hełm ochronny R13 kamizelka odblaskowa Funkcja informacji F(D-D) Funkcja informacji F(D-D) dotyczy aktualizacji dokumentów wymaganych w systemie BHP. Pojęcie <dokument> odnosi się do wszystkich form zapisów wykonywanych przez pracowników systemu zarządzania BHP. Funkcja F(D-D) na wejściu ma określone wzory dokumentów, które są wypełniane w ustalonym trybie i przekształcone na dokumenty, które są archiwizowane w bazach danych. Funkcja informacji F(D-D) obejmuje następujące rodzaje: planowanie, audytowanie, wykonywanie przeglądu, analiza ryzyka, identyfikacja zagrożeń, sprawdzanie, kontrolowanie, obserwacja, monitorowanie.

184 184 Jan Andreasik planowanie audytowanie wykonywanie przeglądu Funkcja informacji F(D-D) analiza ryzyka identyfikacja zagrożeń Rys. 5. Rodzaje funkcji informacji F(D-D) sprawdzanie, kontrolowanie obserwacja monitorowanie Parametryzacja funkcji: Wejście (I): wzory dokumentów wg poniższej klasyfikacji Wyjście (O): wypełnione dokumenty przez uprawnione osoby i wprowadzone do systemu ewidencji dokumentów <dokument>:= <rejestr> <program> <plan> <karta> <raport> <protokół> <rejestr>:= <rejestr zdarzenia potencjalnie wypadkowego> <rejestr audytów wewnętrznych systemu zarzadzania BHP> <rejestr kart działań korekcyjnych, korygujących, zapobiegawczych, doskonalących> <rejestr kart z obserwacji> <program>: <program audytów wewnętrznych na rok > <plan>:= <plan audytu wewnętrznego nr > <karta>:= <karta niezgodności> <karta obserwacji> <karta działań korekcyjnych, korygujących, zapobiegawczych, doskonalących> <karta oceny ryzyka zawodowego> <raport>:= <raport z audytu wewnętrznego nr > <protokół>:= <protokół z przeglądu systemu zarządzania BHP> <protokół powypadkowy> Uwarunkowania czasowe (T): planowane terminy odpowiednio przeglądów, audytów, kontroli, obserwacji itp. Warunki początkowe (P): zatwierdzone plany audytowania, kontroli, przeglądu zawiadomienia Procedury (C): <procedura>: = <instrukcja> <wymaganie> <normy> <regulaminy> <komunikaty> <instrukcja>: = <instrukcja BHP maszyny lub urządzenia> <instrukcja transportu wewnątrzzakładowego> <wymagania>:= <deklaracja polityki BHP> <procedury postepowania, gotowości, reagowania na wypadki> <zapisy wymagane przepisami> <karty oceny ryzyka zawodowego> <normy>:= <rejestr norm> <rozporządzenia ministerstw> <wytyczne urzędów> <wytyczne stowarzyszeń> <regulaminy>:= <schematy organizacyjne> <zarządzenia wewnętrzne> <postepowania w przypadkach awarii, pożarów, wypadków> Zasoby: <osoba odpowiedzialna>:= <pełnomocnik zarządu ds. SZ BHP> <pracownik zespołu ds. SZ BHP> <audytor wewnętrzny> <członek zarządu kierownictwa> <kierownik jednostki organizacyjnej> <Społeczny Inspektor Pracy> <członek Komisji BHP> <pracownik>

185 Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy Funkcja sygnalizacyjna F(S-K) Funkcje sygnalizacyjne obejmują predyspozycje do poprawnej realizacji wymagań systemów ochrony przeciwpożarowej, wspomagania ruchu w transporcie wewnętrznym, systemów utrzymywania odpowiednich parametrów środowiska pracy (temperatury, czystości powietrza, hałasu, wilgotności, itp.), systemów transportu i składowania wyrobów toksycznych. Funkcje te przetwarzają sygnały z czujników (sensorów) akustycznych, optycznych, termicznych, czujników dymu i substancji toksycznych, czujników zbliżeniowych na komunikaty ostrzegawcze i alarmujące według PN EN 60849( 2 ). Komunikaty mogą być w postaci komend głosowych, napisów ostrzegawczych na monitorach, lamp ostrzegawczych, syren itp. Innym rodzajem komunikatów, są komunikaty umieszczone na tablicach i znakach ostrzegawczych. Tego typu komunikaty przetwarzane są przez funkcje systemu BHP, które wynikają z przepisów, instrukcji lub zaleceń inspektorów BHP lub audytorów. Można wyróżnić następujące rodzaje funkcji sygnalizacyjnej F(S-K): sygnalizacja zagrożenia pożarowego, sygnalizacja zagrożenia skażenia atmosfery, sygnalizacja zagrożenia w obsłudze maszyn i urządzeń, sygnalizacja zagrożenia akustycznego, sygnalizacja przekroczenia parametrów normatywnych powietrza, sygnalizacja przekroczenia ładowności, sygnalizacja nieprawidłowego oświetlenia. Parametryzacja: Wejście (I): sygnały z czujników/sensorów monitorujących Wyjście (O): komunikaty <komunikat>:= <komunikat informujący> <komunikat ostrzegawczy> <komunikat alarmowy> <komunikat informujący>:= <status maszyny, procesu, procedury testowej> <brak wstępnego materiału/zagrożenie zaopatrzenia w materiał> <wada jakościowa> <zakończenie procesu> <wyświetlenie błędu> <stan zajętości sektora> <stan zajętości drogi transportowej na odcinku..> <komunikat ostrzegawczy>:= <uwaga: stan krytyczny, należy zachować ostrożność> <gotowość do działania> <konieczne zachowanie uwagi> <możliwość wystąpienia niebezpiecznych sytuacji> <konieczna ingerencja w odpowiednim czasie> <ostrzeżenie przed szkodami materialnymi i zdrowotnymi> <proces jest poza normalnym zakresem działania, ale jeszcze w akceptowalnym zakresie błędu> <należy przeprowadzić dodatkowa zmianę>, <reakcja użytkownika: nadzór i/lub ingerencja> <komunikat alarmowy>:= <wystąpiła niebezpieczna sytuacja> <zachodzi niebezpieczeństwo dla zdrowia i życia> <aktualne zagrożenie środowiska> <nienormalny stan procesu> <przekroczone wartości graniczne> <konieczna niezwłoczna reakcja użytkownika> Warunki wstępne (P): atestacja urządzeń sygnalizacyjnych i komunikujących, Uwarunkowania czasowe (T): czas reakcji między sygnałem a edycją komunikatu, Procedury (C): procedury sygnalizacyjne zgodne z normami Funkcja obserwacyjna F(O-K) Funkcje obserwacyjne stanowisk pracy dotyczą audytu zachowań, który odpowiada na pytania: Czy warunki, w jakich praca jest wykonywana są bezpieczne a stanowisko pracy dobrze zorganizowane i uporządkowane? Czy pracownik posiada i stosuje odpowiednie dla wykonywanej pracy środki ochrony osobistej? Czy maszyny i narzędzia stosowane przez pracownika spełniają wymogi bezpieczeństwa? Czy pracownik koryguje sposób wykonywania pracy? 2. PN-EN Dźwiękowe systemy ostrzegawcze.

186 186 Jan Andreasik Sygnalizacja zagrożenia pożarowego Sygnalizacja zagrożenia skażenia atmosfery Sygnalizacja zagrożenia w transporcie wewnątrzzakłdowym Funkcja informacji F(D-D) Sygnalizacja zagrożenia w obsłudze maszyn i urządzeń Sygnalizacja zagrożenia akustycznego Sygnalizacja zagrożenia przekroczenia parametrów powietrza Sygnalizacja przekroczenia ładowności Rys. 6. Rodzaje funkcji sygnalizacyjnej F(S-K) Funkcje obserwacyjne stanowisk pracy dotyczą: obserwacji stanowisk stacjonarnych, obserwacji stanowisk mobilnych (wózki widłowe w fazie transportu towaru), obserwacji stref (strefa składowania, strefa rozładunku, strefa kompletacji, itp.), obserwacji infrastruktury (drogi transportowe, system klimatyzacji, system oczyszczania powietrza, system zaopatrzenia w środki ochrony indywidualnej itp.). Każda z funkcji obserwacyjnych posiada odpowiedni kontekst obserwacji składający się z następujących elementów: obserwator, sytuacja (wzorzec sytuacyjny, odstępstwa od wzorca sytuacyjnego, tendencja odstępstwa od wzorca sytuacyjnego). Funkcja obserwacji stanowisk stacjonarnych Funkcja obserwacji F(O-K) Funkcja obserwacji stanowisk mobilnych Funkcja obserwacji stref Funkcja obserwacji infrastruktury Obserwacja reakcji ludzi Obserwacja zagrożenia dla pracowników pracownik obserwator obserwacja Obserwacja stosowania środków ochrony indywidualnej audytor inspektor BHP wzorzec sytuacyjny sytuacja komunikat Ocena procedur Obserwacja systemów infrastruktury kierownik jednostki niezgodności tendencja Rys. 7. Klasyfikacja funkcji obserwacji F(O-K)

187 Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy 187 Komunikaty mogą mieć następujące treści: <komunikat>:= <postępowanie pracowników> <skutki zagrożeń> <stosowanie środków ochrony indywidualnej> <postępowanie pracowników>:= <nie stosują środków ochrony indywidualnej> <zmieniają sposób pracy> <nie przestrzegają przepisów ruchu drogowego> <nie respektują sygnałów ostrzegawczych> <skutki zagrożeń>:= <uderzenie o coś> <uderzenie przez coś> <upadek> <zła pozycja> <przekraczanie limitów obciążeń> <stosowanie środków ochrony indywidualnej>:= <brak ochrony głowy> <brak ochrony oczu i twarzy> <brak ochrony słuchu> <brak ochrony rąk i ramion> <brak ochrony kończyn dolnych> <brak ochrony układu oddechowego> <brak odzieży ochronnej> <brak elementów odblaskowych na odzieży> Funkcja reakcji systemu BHP (D-Z) Można wyróżnić następujące rodzaje funkcji reakcji systemu BHP: funkcje dt. poprawy stanu pracowników, funkcje dt. zmian na stanowiskach pracy, funkcje dt. zmian w infrastrukturze BHP, funkcje dt. zmian w przepisach. Funkcja poprawy zdrowia pracowników Funkcje dt. poprawy stanu pracowników Funkcja podniesienia poziomu wykształcenia Funkcja wprowadzenia i wymiany środków ochrony Funkcje reakcji systemu BHP F(D-Z) Funkcje dt. zmian na stanowiskach pracy Funkcje dt. zmian w infrastrukturze BHP Funkcja wprowadzenia barier ochronnych Funkcja wymiany zużytych elementów maszyn i urządzeń Funkcja korekty sygnalizacji statycznej Funkcje dt. zmian w przepisach Funkcja korekty sygnalizacji dynamicznej Funkcja zmiany instrukcji i procedur Funkcja korekty planów, przeglądów i audytów Rys. 8. Klasyfikacja funkcji reakcji systemu BHP F(D-Z) Parametryzacja funkcji reakcji systemu BHP: Wejście (I): Wejścia funkcji F(D-Z) stanowią dokumenty przygotowane w ramach funkcji informacji F(D-D), funkcji obserwacyjnej F(O-K), funkcji sygnalizacji (S-K). Wyjście (O): O1 wnioski dt. zmian technologicznych (przeprojektowanie procesów) O2 wnioski dt. zmian w procedurach obsługi urządzeń

188 188 Jan Andreasik O3 wnioski dt. zmian w technicznych dt. wprowadzania barier ochronnych O4 wnioski dt. zmian w stosowaniu środków ochrony indywidualnej O5 wnioski dt. zmian w alokacji pracowników O6 wnioski dt. szkoleń O7 wnioski dt. zmian w instrukcjach O8 wnioski dt. zmian w procedurach O9 wnioski dt. działań prewencyjnych Uwarunkowania czasowe (T): T1 zmiany w harmonogramie przeglądów T2 zmiany w harmonogramie audytów T3 zmiany w planie obserwacji Warunki początkowe (P): P1 Przekroczenie parametru zmienności funkcji informacji F(D-D), P2 Przekroczenie parametru zmienności funkcji sygnalizacyjnej F(S-K), P3 Przekroczenie parametru zmienności funkcji obserwacyjnej F(O-K). Procedury (C): Procedury wprowadzania zmian Zasoby: Zasoby pracowników BHP odpowiedzialnych za analizę sytuacji i podejmowanie decyzji. 2 Relacje pomiędzy funkcjami Relacje pomiędzy funkcjami F(F-F), F(D-D), F(S-K), F(O-K), F(D-Z) tworzą sieć semantyczną. Relacje między funkcjami obejmują kanały przesyłu informacji, które mają kluczowy wpływ na poziom bezpieczeństwa pracy. Stąd też funkcją wynikową jest funkcja produkcji F(F-F), która w systemie bezpieczeństwa powinna być wykonywana prawidłowo. W systemie zarzadzania BHP następuje identyfikacja zmienności funkcji produkcji (funkcji następstwa) jako następstwo zmienności w realizacji funkcji informacji, funkcji sygnalizacji, funkcji obserwacji i funkcji reakcji systemu BHP (które są funkcjami wpływu). Wyróżnia się następujące relacje wiążące wyjścia (O) poszczególnych funkcji wpływu z parametrami funkcji następstwa F(F-F): Relacja korekty instrukcji i procedur na podstawie wniosków R1 {O[F(D-D)] C[F(F-F)]} jest relacją uwzględnienia wniosków z planowania, audytowania, wykonywania przeglądu, analizy ryzyka, identyfikacji zagrożeń, sprawdzania i kontrolowania oraz obserwacji bieżącej przez pracowników na danym stanowisku pracy. Relacja zmiany warunków początkowych przez komunikaty R2 {O[F(S-K) P[F(F-F)]} jest relacją uwzględniania komunikatów w warunkach początkowych realizacji funkcji produkcji F(F-F). Zmienność w wysyłaniu komunikatów o treści ostrzegawczej ma duże znaczenie w bezpiecznym wykonywaniu funkcji produkcji. Relacja zmiany priorytetów na podstawie komunikatów R3 {O[F(S-K) T[F(F-F)]} jest relacją zmiany priorytetów w wykonywaniu funkcji na podstawie komunikatów, np. ograniczenie prędkości wózka widłowego na zakrętach, itp. Relacja zmiany instrukcji i procedur na podstawie komunikatów z obserwacji R4 {O[F(O-K) C[F(F-F)]} jest relacją uwzględniającą zmiany w przepisach konkretnych instrukcji obsługi maszyn i urządzeń oraz w procedurach postępowania na podstawie komunikatów z obserwacji. Relacja zmiany warunków początkowych R5 {O[F(D-Z) P[F(F-F)]} jest relacją uwzględniania zmiany warunków początkowych realizacji funkcji produkcji, np. wprowadzanie dodatkowych barier (np. osłon). Relacja zmiana zasobów R6 {O[F(D-Z)] R[F(F-F)]} jest relacją uwzględniania zmiany w zasobach funkcji produkcji, np. zmiana typu wózka widłowego z napędem spalinowym na wózek z napędem elektrycznym wynikającym z analizy zagrożeń.

189 Koncepcja ontologii systemu bezpieczeństwa i higieny pracy 189 Relacja zmiany instrukcji i procedur na podstawie planowych audytów i przeglądów R7 {O[F(D-Z)] C [F(F-F)]} jest relacją wprowadzającą zmiany w instrukcjach i procedurach obsługi maszyn i urządzeń na podstawie planowych przeglądów i audytów. T C I F(D-D) O T C P R I I F(S-K) P R T C F(O-K) O O I T C F(F-F) P R O P R T C I F(D-Z) O P R Rys. 9. Sieć semantyczna w zarządzaniu bezpieczeństwem pracy Zakończenie W pracy przedstawiono koncepcję ontologii systemu BHP autora. Jako podstawowe ontologie użyte do modelowania przedsiębiorstwa w aspekcie BHP przyjęto następujące: Model FRAM (Functional Resonance Analysis Model) 3 model analizy funkcjonalnego rezonansu opracowany przez Hollnagela, Ontologię BFO (Basic Functional Ontology) 4 w wersji 2.0 opartą na teorii opracowanej przez przez Barry Smith i Pierre Grenon, The theory behind BFO was developed first by Barry Smith and Pierre Grenon and presented in a series of publications listed here. 3. Zob. E. HOLLNAGEL (2012): FRAM, the Functional Resonance Analysis Method. Modelling Complex Socio-Technical Systems. Farnham, Surrey, UK England Burlington, VT, Ashgate. 4. Zob. The Basic Formal Ontology 2.0. [@:]

190 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

191 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Streszczenia artykułów Joanna Rakowska Pozyskanie i kierunki inwestycji funduszy strukturalnych UE (2015) przez samorządy województw Celem artykułu jest określenie wartości, struktury i kierunków wykorzystania dofinansowania unijnego pozyskanego przez władze regionalne, tj. samorządy wojewódzkie z programów operacyjnych według stanu na 31 grudnia 2014 r. Słowa kluczowe: programy operacyjne , Polska, samorządy województw JEL: R500, R530, R580 Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk Europejska integracja Ukrainy: perspektywa Ukraińców i Polaków Pomimo faktu, że wszystkie dyskusje zostały skoncentrowane na sprawie umowy o stowarzyszeniu i kwestii rozwiązania konfliktu zbrojnego na wschodzie Ukrainy jako punkt zwrotny w stosunkach UE Ukraina, proponujemy spojrzeć na integrację europejską Ukrainy z perspektywy opinii publicznej. Jest to ważne, ponieważ opinia publiczna jest jednym z najważniejszych unijnych czynników, które mogą mieć wpływ na integrację europejską i europeizację procesów w krajach UE. Artykuł stanowi odpowiedź na następujące pytania: Co sądzą na temat integracji europejskiej Ukrainy Ukraińcy i Polacy? Jakie są pozytywne i negatywne skutki integracji Ukrainy do UE, w opinii polskich przedsiębiorców? W poszukiwaniu odpowiedzi na wyznaczone pytania zaprezentowane zostały wyniki badań opinii publicznej przeprowadzonych na Ukrainie i w Polsce oraz wyniki badań prowadzonych wśród polskich przedsiębiorców, którzy współpracują z ukraińskimi partnerami. Słowa kluczowe: Ukraina, Unia Europejska, europejska integracja, przedsiębiorczość JEL: F02, F15, N44, L26 Piotr Zawrotniak Transgraniczne przemieszczanie dóbr kultury zabytków w Unii Europejskiej Zabytki i pamiątki dóbr kultury otaczane są specjalną troską potomnych spadkobierców, jako wyraz dziedzictwa narodowego. Konwencja Haska z 1954 r. podnosiła regulacje w dziedzinie definicji dóbr kultury. Konwencja sporządzona w Paryżu, w 1970 r. rozszerzyła zakres ochrony prawno-międzynarodowej na wypadek konfliktów i zbrojeń oraz rozszerzyła pojęcia regulujące status m.in. rzadkich zbiorów. W 1976 r. Konwencja podpisana w Paryżu, doprecyzowała określenie zarówno identyfikacji, definicji, jak i wyznaczyła granice wszelkiego rodzaju dóbr państw będących stroną umowy. Kraje członkowskie UE, w swoim porządku prawnym kierują się przepisami prawa UE i krajowego. Polska po wstąpieniu do Wspólnoty przejęła unijny dorobek prawny z obowiązkiem jego bezpośredniości i nadrzędności w stosunku do regulacji krajowych. Unijne i krajowe regulacje prawne odnoszące się do problematyki przemieszczania dóbr kultury zabytków w obrocie wewnątrzwspólnotowym i obrocie z państwami trzecimi mają zastosowanie zarówno do ich wywozu do innych państw członkowskich Unii Europejskiej oraz w obszarze nieuregulowanym na poziomie wspólnotowym, również do państw trzecich. Słowa kluczowe: dobra kultury, Konwencja Haska 1954, dziedzictwo kulturowe narodu, zabytki, Konwencja Paryska 1970, rzadkie zbiory, Konwencja Paryska 1976, prawo Unii Europejskiej, urząd Konserwatora Zabytków, obrót dobrami kultury, handel dziełami sztuki w UE, Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, Wspólnotowy Kodeks Celny JEL: K39, Z11

192 192 Streszczenia Izabela Dąbrowska Napływ migrantów z nowych państw członkowskich do Wielkiej Brytanii a perspektywa wycofania się tego kraju z Unii Europejskiej Od momentu, gdy Unia Europejska rozszerzyła swe struktury o osiem krajów z Europy Środkowej w 2004 r., a następnie o kolejne dwa w 2007 r., migracja wewnętrzna stała się jednym z ważniejszych zagadnień społeczno-politycznych, szczególnie w Wielkiej Brytanii, która jest jednym z głównych celów migracji. Prezentowany artykuł na podstawie danych przedstawianych przez instytucje brytyjskie, analizuje zamierzenia królestwa dotyczące rewizji własnej umowy z Unią Europejską w kwestii polityki migracyjnej. Artykuł przedstawia niepokoje związane ze skalą napływu ludności z nowych państw członkowskich na wyspy, ale w szerszej perspektywie złożonej i kontestowanej relacji Wielkiej Brytanii z Unią Europejską. Głównym celem artykułu jest jednak ukazanie, czy kwestionowanie istniejących zasad wspólnotowych, w tym zasady swobodnego przemieszczania, jest uzasadnione czy stało się jedynie dogodnym tematem w dyskusji nad ewentualnym wystąpieniem Wielkiej Brytanii ze struktur Unii Europejskiej w 2017 r. Słowa kluczowe: Unia Europejska, podstawowe swobody, migracja do Wielkiej Brytanii, wyjście Wielkiej Brytanii ze struktur Unii JEL: J6 Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel Fundusze unijne perspektywy finansowej w procesie budowania konkurencyjności gmin województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego W artykule przedstawiono fundusze UE jako jedno ze źródeł, które może być wykorzystane do budowania potencjału konkurencyjności polskich regionów. Na podstawie badania ankietowego przeprowadzonego wśród gmin województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego zaprezentowano preferencje tych jednostek dotyczące wyboru programu operacyjnego, w ramach którego gminy zamierzają ubiegać się o dofinansowanie przedsięwzięć inwestycyjnych w perspektywie finansowej oraz efekty, jakie spodziewają się uzyskać po ich realizacji. Przedstawiono także opinie gmin o znaczeniu środków finansowych UE dla realizacji celów zapisanych w ich strategiach rozwoju. Słowa kluczowe: konkurencyjność regionu, fundusze unijne, perspektywa finansowa , gminy województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego JEL: R110 Andrzej Miszczuk Turystyka jako czynnik rozwoju pogranicza polsko-ukraińskiego w nowym okresie programowania UE ( ) w świetle regionalnych dokumentów planistycznych Celem artykułu jest ukazanie stanu oraz kierunków rozwoju turystyki na pograniczu polsko-ukraińskim, obejmującym swym zasięgiem województwa: lubelskie i podkarpackie oraz obwody: lwowskim i wołyński w świetle przygotowanych w ramach nowej perspektywy UE na lata regionalnych dokumentów strategicznych. Pomimo braku jednolitego dokumentu strategicznego dla potrzeb rozwoju całego pogranicza w latach , jego obszar jest uwzględniany w strategiach rozwoju polskich województw oraz dokumentach z nimi powiązanych, którymi są w przypadku województwa lubelskiego strategia współpracy transgranicznej, a podkarpackiego subregionalne programy strategiczne. We wszystkich tych dokumentach uwzględniona jest turystyka, z wyodrębnieniem celów, priorytetów i kierunków działań, a nawet proponowanych projektów. Treść tych dokumentów może być dobrą podstawą do formułowania nowoczesnych produktów turystycznych na poziomie lokalnym, regionalnym i transgranicznym, które mogą zdynamizować ruch turystyczny na obszarze pogranicza. Nie bez znaczenie w tego typu działaniach jest możliwe wsparcie ze środków UE w nowej perspektywie finansowej Słowa kluczowe: pogranicze polsko-ukraińskie, turystyka, strategia rozwoju JEL: R58

193 Abstracts 193 Stanislaw W. Ceran Znaczenie technologii informacyjnych dla rozwoju niektórych regionów Polski (w ocenie) metodą analizy hierarchicznej problemu Artykuł omawia rolę technologii informacyjnych w rozwoju słabych gospodarczo regionów Polski. Stan i dynamika procesu informatyzacji w powiązaniu z trendem cyfryzacji, mobilności i przetwarzania w chmurze, zarówno w obszarach administracji publicznej, gospodarki jak i funkcjonowaniu gospodarstw domowych wykazuje znaczne zróżnicowanie tych obszarów. Celem jest uzyskanie odpowiedzi na pytanie o skuteczność wdrażanych rozwiązań w administracji publicznej i poziom informatyzacji podstawowych działań gospodarczych oraz usług świadczonych mieszkańcom. Zarówno stopień realizacji programów regionalnych, strategii krajowych dotyczących informatyzacji oraz europejskiej Agendy Cyfrowej jak i inwestycje infrastrukturalne są celem poddanym ocenie z wykorzystaniem metody analizy hierarchicznej problemu (AHP ). Istotną rolę, jak wykazała analiza porównawcza spełnia w tym procesie element gotowości użytkowników do adaptacji technologii, umiejętności i kompetencje do efektywnego ich wykorzystania. Słowa kluczowe: informatyzacja, cyfryzacja, analiza hierarchiczna, regiony słabe gospodarczo JEL: C44, A32, R11 Tomasz Szul Porównanie metod wyznaczania charakterystyki energetycznej budynku mieszkalnego w kontekście dyrektyw Unii Europejskiej Oszacowano charakterystykę energetyczną dla przykładowego budynku mieszkalnego jednorodzinnego w oparciu o cztery metody obliczeniowe (zgodne z Dyrektywą 2010/31/UE w sprawie charakterystyki energetycznej budynków), takie jak: metoda oparta na faktycznie zużytej ilości energii, metoda oparta na faktycznie zużytej ilości energii, przeliczona na warunki sezonu standardowego oraz metoda obliczeniowa zgodna z metodologią z 2009 r. a także z jej najnowszą wersją z 2014 r. Następnie przeprowadzono analizę porównawczą metody opartej na faktycznie zużytej energii z metodami obliczeniowymi dla standardowych warunków klimatycznych. Przy porównaniu zapotrzebowania na energię końcową do ogrzewania budynku można zauważyć dużą rozbieżność między wartościami względnych błędów oszacowania. Wartość błędu oszacowania przy porównaniu całkowitego zużycia energii na ogrzewanie i przygotowanie ciepłej wody użytkowej wynosi blisko 70% jeżeli porównuje się metodę obliczeniową (według metodologii z 2014 r.) z faktycznym zużyciem energii, natomiast 36% jeżeli odniesiemy to do warunków przeliczeniowych. Lepsze wyniki daje zastosowanie modeli obliczeniowych zawartych w metodologii z 2008 roku, ponieważ błąd oszacowania wynosi od 38% (porównanie z faktycznym zużyciem energii) do 11% (porównanie do rzeczywistego zużycia w przeliczeniu na warunki standardowe). W zależności od tego według jakiej metody zostanie sporządzona charakterystyka energetyczna budynku, będzie zależało czy budynek spełni kryteria zapisane w przepisach odnośnie minimalnych wymagań dotyczących wskaźnika jednostkowego zapotrzebowania na energię pierwotną EPmax.. Jeżeli świadectwo charakterystyki energetycznej zostanie wykonane w oparciu o metodę opartą na faktycznym zużyciu energii spowoduje to, że budynek będzie spełniał wymagania, natomiast w przypadku gdy charakterystyka energetyczna zostanie sporządzona w oparciu o metodę obliczeniową zgodną z metodologią z roku 2014 budynek nie spełni wymagań i nie będzie mógł być odebrany. Aby za obiektywną można było uznać zaproponowaną w metodologii sporządzania świadectw energetycznych metodę wyznaczania charakterystyki energetycznej opartej na faktycznie zużytej ilości energii powinna ona być uzupełniona o zapis o konieczności przeliczenia uzyskanych wyników na warunki sezonu standardowego. Słowa kluczowe: metodologia wyznaczania charakterystyki energetycznej, faktyczne zużycie energii, energia końcowa, stopniodni sezonu grzewczego JEL: R15, Q47 Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska Europejska Konwencja Krajobrazowa jako narzędzie ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazów Ochrona krajobrazu i jego świadome kształtowanie są przedmiotem wzmożonego zainteresowania specjalistów wielu dziedzin. Powodem tego zainteresowania jest pogarszanie się stanu otoczenia, a co za tym idzie jakości życia. Niekorzystne zmiany krajobrazu są spowodowane głównie rozwojem cywilizacyjnym i niewłaściwym gospodarowaniem przestrzenią. Przeciwdziałanie dalszym negatywnym przekształceniom

194 194 Streszczenia krajobrazu powinno być przedmiotem zainteresowania władz na poziomie lokalnym, regionalnym i krajowym. 24 czerwca 2004 roku Polska ratyfikowała Europejską Konwencję Krajobrazową (EKK) sporządzoną w 2000 roku we Florencji. Władze zobowiązały się do dbałości o jakość rodzimego krajobrazu, stanowiącego część dziedzictwa kultury europejskiej. Pomimo kilkukrotnych prób, w wyniku których powstały wstępne opracowania analityczne konwencja nie została w Polsce wdrożona. Wdrażanie zapisów konwencji wymaga identyfikacji krajobrazów na obszarze Polski i określenia ich wartości. Działania te wymagają usystematyzowanego podejścia do przeprowadzenia oceny krajobrazów będącej podstawą do opracowania mapy krajobrazowej. Praca prezentuje wybrane założenia metodyczne typologii krajobrazu i oceny jego jakości w aspekcie ich przydatności do implementacji Europejskiej Konwencji Krajobrazowej. Przedstawiona w pracy propozycja metodyki oceny walorów estetycznych krajobrazu wpisuje się w aspekt uregulowań prawnych jakim jest konieczność wprowadzania audytu krajobrazowego. Jednym z etapów tego audytu jest określenie lokalizacji krajobrazów szczególnie cennych (priorytetowych) ze względu na wartości estetyczne. Słowa kluczowe: krajobraz, ochrona krajobrazu, kształtowanie krajobrazu, audyt krajobrazowy, Europejska Konwencja Krajobrazowa JEL: Q51 Marcin Połom Fundusze unijne jako stymulanta wzrostu elektromobilności na przykładzie miejskiego transportu elektrycznego w Polsce Elektromobilność miejska (urban electromobility) staje się istotną ideą w zakresie kształtowania systemów transportowych, w szczególności miast i aglomeracji. Rozrost obszarów zurbanizowanych i brak możliwości rozwijania infrastruktury drogowej w tym samym tempie oraz wpływ transportu na środowisko nakładają na władze krajowe i samorządowe obowiązek świadomego regulowania zasad rozwijania transportu z ukierunkowaniem na zbiorowy transport elektryczny. Praca przedstawia przestrzenne zróżnicowanie podziału funduszy unijnych na zelektryfikowany transport miejski w podziale na miasta i województwa. Przedstawione zostały sposoby wydatkowania środków z projektów unijnych na transport elektryczny. Słowa kluczowe: transport miejski, elektromobilność, fundusze unijne, rozwój zrównoważony JEL: R42 Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański Wpływ występowania prawnych form ochrony przyrody na gospodarowanie przestrzenią w gminie Celem opracowania była analiza zależności między występowaniem form ochrony przyrody a stopniem pokrycia planistycznego oraz ocena wpływu obszarów chronionych na sposób prowadzenia gospodarki przestrzennej w gminie. Materiałem badawczym były miejscowe plany zagospodarowania przestrzennego, decyzje o warunkach zabudowy i zagospodarowaniu terenu oraz decyzje o lokalizacji celu publicznego wydane w latach Na przykładzie gminy Mosina (województwo wielkopolskie) przeprowadzono analizę powierzchni przeznaczanych w dokumentach planistycznych pod poszczególne formy użytkowania a także ich rozmieszczenia względem istniejących powierzchniowych form ochrony przyrody. Podjęto próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie czy przy aktualnym podejściu planistycznym na poziomie gminnym pełne pokrycie planistyczne terenów w granicach obszaru chronionego zapewnia racjonalne gospodarowanie przestrzenią. Słowa kluczowe: planowanie przestrzenne, obszary ochrony przyrody, gmina JEL: R58, K32, Q56 Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz Propozycja metodologii oceny wpływu funduszy pomocowych z Unii Europejskiej na zmiany warunków życia mieszkańców gminy W artykule zaproponowano dwuetapową metodologię oceny wpływu funduszy pochodzących z Unii Europejskiej na warunki życia mieszkańców gminy. W pierwszym etapie obliczane są wartości syntetycznych mierników warunków życia w gminie w analizowanym okresie, natomiast w drugim etapie budowane są ekonometryczne modele logitowe zależności zmian syntetycznych mierników od wartości zaangażowanych

195 Abstracts 195 w gminie środków pochodzących z funduszy europejskich. Opracowana metodologii została zilustrowana obliczeniami dla małej gminy wiejskiej z województwa podkarpackiego Zarzecze w latach Słowa kluczowe: Syntetyczny i cząstkowe indeksy warunków życia, fundusze europejskie, ekonometryczne modele warunków życia JEL: C22, H72, I38, R51 Jarosław Bielak Inflacja, CPI i realne zmiany cen w Polsce (w szczególności w województwie lubelskim) w latach Stopa inflacji, wskaźnik cen towarów i usług konsumpcyjnych, realne zmiany cen oraz rzeczywiste koszty utrzymania są czasami postrzegane przez ludzi jako znacząco różniące się od siebie. W artykule została przeprowadzona analiza zmian cen towarów i usług w Polsce (i w województwie lubelskim) na tle wskaźnika CPI, w latach , oraz omówiono problemy związane z szacowaniem wielkości inflacji. Praca została oparta o dane publikowane przez Główny Urząd Statystyczny oraz Narodowy Bank Polski. Pokazano, że inflacja odczuwana przez ludzi, głównie przez pryzmat wysokości ich wydatków na dobra podstawowe, jest wyższa niż publikowany wskaźnik cen towarów i usług konsumpcyjnych. Słowa kluczowe: inflacja, CPI, Polska, lubelskie, nastroje konsumentów JEL: E31 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki Wpływ aktywności zawodowej na wykorzystanie czasu wolnego niepełnosprawnych zamieszkałych tereny wiejskie województwa lubelskiego Osoby niepełnosprawne w większości społeczeństw stanowią grupę o najmniejszym poziomie aktywności, tak w obszarze aktywności zawodowej, jak i wolnoczasowej. Te dwa obszary w sposób istotny wpływają na siebie i w zależności od cech społeczno-demograficznych, determinują się nawzajem. W przypadku osób niepełnosprawnych aktywność zawodowa spełnia nie tylko funkcję ekonomiczną, lecz pełni również istotną funkcję rehabilitacyjną i integracyjną. Jeszcze bardziej na postępy rehabilitacji, szczególnie społecznej, wpływa właściwe wykorzystanie czasu wolnego. Celem pracy było zbadanie uczestnictwa w czasie wolnym niepełnosprawnych województwa lubelskiego w kontekście ich aktywności zawodowej. Słowa kluczowe: czas wolny, aktywność zawodowa, niepełnosprawność JEL: E24, I1, J2, L82, L83 Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek Analiza różnic powierzchni gruntów leśnych ujawnionych w Banku Danych Lokalnych oraz Ewidencji Gruntów i Budynków W pracy dokonano oceny i analizy dwóch rejestrów zawierających dane liczbowe i powierzchniowe odnoszące się do powierzchni gruntów leśnych. Badania zostały przeprowadzone na dwóch rejestrach zawierającym dane statystyczne rejestrze Banku danych Lokalnych prowadzonym przez Główny Urząd Statystyczny oraz na rejestrze ewidencji gruntów i budynków prowadzonym przez starostę. Obszarem badań objęto 4 jednostki ewidencyjne położone w dwóch sąsiadujących ze sobą powiatach województwa lubelskiego: łęczyńskim oraz świdnickim. Obszar badań położony jest w środkowej części województwa lubelskiego. Badania obejmowały analizę powierzchni konturów klasyfikacyjnych i użytków Ls będących lasem w rozumieniu ustawy o lasach z 1991r. Analiza danych uzyskanych z obu rejestrów pozwoliła na ocenę ich dokładności i kompletności. Porównanie wybranych danych z obu rejestrów wykazało znaczące różnice w powierzchniach badanego użytku. Zaobserwowane rozbieżności w trzech obrębach (Ludwin, Puchaczów, Piaski) posiadają większą powierzchnię gruntów leśnych w danych uzyskanych z BDL. W jednym tylko obrębie Rybczewice powierzchnia uzyskana z BDL jest mniejsza od powierzchni uwidocznionej w EGiB. Wykazano, że dane Banku Danych Lokalnych nie są aktualizowane bezpośrednio w oparciu o bazę Ewidencji Gruntów i Budynków. Dodatkowo wykazano, że w bazie Ewidencji Gruntów i Budynków występują błędy związane z niespójnością położenia konturów klasyfikacyjnych i użytków Ls. Propozycją zmian, które mogłoby wpłynąć na poprawę jakości analizowanych baz jest proces kompleksowego scalenia gruntów, bądź kompleksowej modernizacji ewidencji gruntów i budynków. Proces ten pozwoliłby na ustalenie granic działek ewidencyjnych i ponowne obliczenie powierzchni.

196 196 Streszczenia Słowa kluczowe: powierzchnia lasów, Ewidencja Gruntów i Budynków (EGIB), Bank Danych Lokalnych (BDL), powiat łęczyński, powiat świdnicki JEL: Q23 Barbara Gradziuk, Piotr Gradziuk Handel zagraniczny biomasą na cele energetyczne w Polsce w latach Obowiązek produkcji energii odnawialnej i możliwość dodatkowego dużego przychodu z tytułu zielonych certyfikatów spowodowały wzrost zainteresowania biomasą pochodzącą z importu. W badanym okresie import biomasy do Polski zwiększył się blisko ośmiokrotnie: z 423 tys. ton do tys. ton. Wyższą dynamiką charakteryzował się import biomasy agro (1160%), w tym przede wszystkim łuski słonecznikowej oraz makuchów słonecznikowych i palmowych. Do 2007 r. zdecydowana większość importowanej biomasy pochodziła z krajów obecnej Unii Europejskiej (prawie 60%, najwięcej z Litwy, Łotwy, Słowacji i Niemiec) i dzieliła się mniej więcej po połowie na biomasę agro i leśną. Wprowadzenie ograniczeń wymuszających wykorzystanie biomasy nieleśnej spowodowało znaczny wzrost udziału biomasy agro w całkowitym imporcie biomasy, który również znacząco rośnie z roku na rok. W ostatnich trzech latach import biomasy agro z krajów UE i Ukrainy stanowi prawie 66% całego importu biomasy na cele energetyczne. Skokowy jest również przyrost importu biomasy egzotycznej, choć w stosunkowo niewielkich wielkościach bezwzględnych: od 0 w 2009 przez ok. 65 tys. ton w 2010 i 2011 do ponad 600 tys. ton w 2014 r. Słowa kluczowe: odnawialne źródła energii, biomasa, handel zagraniczny JEL: Q42, Q47 Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko, Bogdan Kościk Ocena świadomości ekologicznej i energetycznej mieszkańców gmin wiejskich W związku z koncepcją budowy sieci biogazowej, łączącej dwie biogazownie rolnicze, przeprowadzono badania dotyczące świadomości energetycznej mieszkańców dwu gmin położonych w woj. lubelskim oraz ich zainteresowania przyłączeniem do lokalnej sieci biogazowej. Respondenci deklarowali znajomość różnych źródeł energii, przy czym najbardziej znaną była energia słoneczna. Stwierdzono niski poziom wiedzy o funkcjonowaniu biogazowni rolniczych, zarówno wyrażany werbalnie, jak i pośrednio wynikający z odpowiedzi na pytania dotyczące zainteresowania przyłączeniem do sieci. Mieszkańcy badanych gmin obawiają się uciążliwości wynikających z produkcji biogazu, głównie nieprzyjemnego zapachu. Stwierdzono, że większość decyzji, na podstawie których można ocenić postawę ekologiczną, ma podłoże ekonomiczne. Istnieje duża potrzeba podnoszenia wiedzy o produkcji biogazu i jego energetycznym wykorzystaniu. Słowa kluczowe: biogazownia, sieć biogazowa, świadomość ekologiczna JEL: Q42, Q56, R22 Joanna Świerk,Magdalena Mulawa Strategiczna Karta Wyników w szkolnictwie wyższym przykład Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie Strategiczna Karta Wyników opracowana przez Kaplana i Nortona przekłada strategię na wymierne i mierzalne cele pogrupowane w czterech perspektywach: finansowej, klienta, procesów wewnętrznych, wiedzy i rozwoju. Zaproponowane perspektywy mogą być modyfikowane, sukcesywnie rozbudowywane o kolejne oraz dostosowywane do specyfiki konkretnego podmiotu. Popularne narzędzie jakim jest Strategiczna Karta Wyników tłumaczy i ułatwia zrozumienie strategii, a tym samym również misji i wizji. Strategiczna Karta Wyników zyskuje obecnie coraz większą popularność i zainteresowanie. Liczba i obszary jej wdrożeń stale rosną, o czym świadczą jej liczne zastosowania m.in. w benchmarku, budżetowaniu, w zarządzaniu przez jakość czy zarządzaniu kosztami. Uniwersalność Strategicznej Karty Wyników umożliwia również jej przystosowanie do potrzeb szkół wyższych. Artykuł prezentuje implementację modelu Strategicznej Karty Wyników na przykładzie Uniwersytetu Marii Curie Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. Słowa kluczowe: Strategiczna Karta Wyników, planowanie strategiczne, zarządzanie, szkolnictwo wyższe JEL: O21

197 Abstracts 197 Jan Andreasik Ontology Concept of Occupation Health and Safety System The article presents an ontology concept of occupation health and safety system (OHS). The functional model has been chosen which is analogical to FRAM model (Functional Resonance Analysis Method) designed by Erik Hollangel. Five types of functions has been defined: information function, signalling function, observation function, reaction of safety system function. Relations between parameters of functions has been defined, which with the functions create a semantic web of occupational health and safety system. Keywords: ontology of occupational health and safety system, functions of occupational health and safety system, Occupational Health and Safety (OHS), Workplace health and safety (WHS) JEL: D8

198 Analizy i Prognozy Rok 2015

199 Barometr Regionalny Tom 13 nr 3 Table of Contents / Spis treści Joanna Rakowska Pozyskanie i kierunki inwestycji funduszy strukturalnych UE (2015) przez samorządy województw Anna Lewandowska, Elżbieta Inglot-Brzęk Europejska integracja Ukrainy: perspektywa Ukraińców i Polaków Piotr Zawrotniak Transgraniczne przemieszczanie dóbr kultury zabytków w Unii Europejskiej Izabela Dąbrowska Napływ migrantów z nowych państw członkowskich do Wielkiej Brytanii a perspektywa wycofania się tego kraju z Unii Europejskiej Włodzimierz Karaszewski, Małgorzata Jaworek, Maria Kola-Bezka, Marcin Kuzel undusze unijne perspektywy finansowej w procesie budowania konkurencyjności gmin województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego Andrzej Miszczuk Turystyka jako czynnik rozwoju pogranicza polsko-ukraińskiego w nowym okresie programowania UE ( ) w świetle regionalnych dokumentów planistycznych Stanislaw W. Ceran Znaczenie technologii informacyjnych dla rozwoju niektórych regionów Polski (w ocenie) metodą analizy hierarchicznej problemu Tomasz Szul Porównanie metod wyznaczania charakterystyki energetycznej budynku mieszkalnego w kontekście dyrektyw Unii Europejskiej Adam Senetra, Monika Wasilewicz-Pszczółkowska, Elżbieta Grzelak-Kostulska Europejska Konwencja Krajobrazowa jako narzędzie ochrony i kształtowania krajobrazów Marcin Połom Fundusze unijne jako stymulanta wzrostu elektromobilności na przykładzie miejskiego transportu elektrycznego w Polsce Adam Zydroń, Anna Zbierska, Piotr Szczepański Wpływ występowania prawnych form ochrony przyrody na gospodarowanie przestrzenią w gminie Mieczysław Kowerski, Małgorzata Wolańczyk, Mariusz Poninkiewicz Propozycja metodologii oceny wpływu funduszy pomocowych z Unii Europejskiej na zmiany warunków życia mieszkańców gminy Jarosław Bielak Inflacja, CPI i realne zmiany cen w Polsce (w szczególności w woj. lubelskim) w latach

200 Dominik Dąbrowski, Marek Kuźmicki Wpływ aktywności zawodowej na wykorzystanie czasu wolnego niepełnosprawnych zamieszkałych tereny wiejskie województwa lubelskiego Justyna Gabryszuk, Żanna Król, Paweł Postek, Heronim Olenderek Analiza różnic powierzchni gruntów leśnych ujawnionych w Banku Danych Lokalnych oraz Ewidencji Gruntów i Budynków Barbara Gradziuk, Piotr Gradziuk Handel zagraniczny biomasą na cele energetyczne w Polsce w latach Alina Kowalczyk-Juśko, Bogdan Kościk Ocena świadomości ekologicznej i energetycznej mieszkańców gmin wiejskich Joanna Świerk, Magdalena Mulawa Strategiczna Karta Wyników w szkolnictwie wyższym przykład Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie Jan Andreasik Ontology Concept of Occupation Health and Safety System Streszczenia artykułów / Abstracts of Articles

201 Profil Barometru Regionalnego Barometr Regionalny. Analizy i prognozy poświęcony jest teoretycznym i empirycznym pracom z zakresu ilościowych badań regionalnych, a zwłaszcza analiz i prognoz rozwoju gospodarczego oraz ocen koniunktury gospodarczej, przedsiębiorczości, innowacji, kapitału intelektualnego, rynku pracy na poziomie regionalnym a także współpracy międzyregionalnej i transgranicznej. W kwartalniku prezentowane są artykuły i komunikaty z badań z zastosowaniem metod analizy statystycznej, opracowywania badań ankietowych, modelowania ekonometrycznego, taksonomii, klasyfikacji oraz pozyskiwania wiedzy. Zapraszamy do współpracy i nadsyłania propozycji artykułów, opracowań oraz sprawozdań. Materiały prosimy przesyłać na podany niżej adres. Ewentualne pytania dotyczące tematyki proponowanych artykułów prosimy kierować do Redaktora Naczelnego, pytania dotyczące przygotowania technicznego materiałów prosimy kierować do Sekretarza Redakcji na adres poczty elektronicznej: [email protected] Uwagi dla autorów dotyczące przygotowania i nadsyłania artykułów Objętość artykułu nie powinna przekraczać 3/4 arkusza autorskiego, tj. 30 tys. znaków (łącznie ze spacjami). Publikacje artykułów o większej objętości wymagać będą indywidualnej zgody Kolegium Redakcyjnego. Tytuły rozdziałów i podrozdziałów wyróżnione, numerowane (numeracja cyfrowa wielorzędowa, maksymalnie do poziomu trzeciego). Jeśli jest to możliwe, prosimy o dołączenie osobno plików źródłowych do rysunków zamieszczonych w artykule (np. w formatach: Excel, Statistica, Mathematica) lub rysunków w oryginalnych formatach graficznych (np. bmp, jpg, psd, wmf, cdr, ai), ewentualnie o udostępnienie wydawnictwu grafik, map i zdjęć do zeskanowania. Rysunki, tabele i mapy numerowane, numerowanie ciągłe jednolite w całym artykule (Tab. 1., Rys. 1., Mapa 1.) Wzory wystawione wyrównane do środka strony, opatrzone numerami w nawiasach z lewej strony. Przypisy rzeczowe numerowane, na dole strony. Przypisy bibliograficzne w tekście w układzie nazwisko/data, np. (Green 2002, s. 45). W przypadku powoływania się na publikacje elektroniczne w Internecie prosimy podać autora i tytuł artykułu (lub incipit jeśli brak tytułu/autora), datę dostępu i dokładny adres internetowy, np. M. Kowal: Gospodarka naszego regionu po rozszerzeniu UE. [dostęp: ], [@:] Literatura na końcu artykułu, pozycje bibliograficzne uporządkowane alfabetycznie, nienumerowane, np. Maddala G.S. (2006): Ekonometria. Warszawa, WN PWN. Nazwy autorów w oryginale pisane innymi alfabetami niż łaciński prosimy podawać w ogólnie przyjętej transliteracji (nazwy pisane cyrylicą prosimy dołączyć). Dla autorów przygotowujących artykuł w języku angielskim szczegółowe wskazówki znajdują się na stronie 203. Do artykułu powinny być dołączone streszczenia w języku polskim i angielskim (wraz z angielskim tytułem) około wierszy, słowa kluczowe (w języku angielskim) oraz klasyfikację artykułu według Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) Classification System. Prosimy również o podanie afiliacji autora (z adresem pocztowym) oraz adresu . Do pracy należy dołączyć pisemne oświadczenie, że artykuł nie był dotąd publikowany drukiem i nie został złożony do druku w innej redakcji. Jeśli w artykule zostały użyte zdjęcia, grafiki itp. nie będące własnością autora, prosimy dodatkowo o dołączenie pisemnego oświadczenia, że autor uzyskał zgodę na ich publikację.

202 Artykuły prosimy nadsyłać w formie wydrukowanej (1 egzemplarz) i elektronicznej na adres: Mieczysław Kowerski ul. Akademicka Zamość [email protected] Na wersji drukowanej prosimy zaznaczyć ołówkiem miejsca, w których została użyta niestandardowa czcionka (np. specjalne znaki matematyczne, litery greckie). Zasady recenzowania nadesłanych materiałów Do oceny każdej publikacji powołuje się dwóch niezależnych recenzentów. W przypadku tekstów powstałych w języku obcym, co najmniej jeden z recenzentów jest afiliowany w instytucji zagranicznej innej niż narodowość autora pracy. Autor(zy) i recenzenci nie znają swoich tożsamości (double-blind review proces). Recenzja posiada formę pisemną i kończy się jednoznacznym wnioskiem co do dopuszczenia artykułu do publikacji lub jego odrzucenia. Formularz recenzencki można pobrać ze strony internetowej ( Nazwiska recenzentów poszczególnych publikacji/numerów nie są ujawniane; raz w roku czasopismo podaje do publicznej wiadomości listę recenzentów współpracujących. Ghostwriting* i guest authorship** Czytelnicy powinni mieć pewność, iż autorzy publikacji w sposób przejrzysty, rzetelny i uczciwy prezentują rezultaty swojej pracy, niezależnie od tego, czy są jej bezpośrednimi autorami, czy też korzystali z pomocy wyspecjalizowanego podmiotu (osoby fizycznej lub prawnej). Dowodem etycznej postawy pracownika naukowego oraz najwyższych standardów redakcyjnych powinna być jawność informacji o podmiotach przyczyniających się do powstania publikacji (wkład merytoryczny, rzeczowy, finansowy etc.). Aby przeciwdziałać przypadkom ghostwriting, guest authorship Redakcja czasopisma wprowadza następujące rozwiązania: wymagamy od autorów publikacji ujawnienia wkładu poszczególnych autorów w powstanie publikacji (z podaniem ich afiliacji oraz kontrybucji, tj. informacji kto jest autorem koncepcji, założeń, metod, protokołu itp. wykorzystywanych przy przygotowaniu publikacji), przy czym główną odpowiedzialność ponosi autor zgłaszający manuskrypt. staramy się uzyskać informację o źródłach finansowania publikacji, wkładzie instytucji naukowo-badawczych, stowarzyszeń i innych podmiotów ( financialdisclosure ). dokumentujemy wszelkie przejawy nierzetelności naukowej; wykryte przypadki ghostwriting, guest authorship będą demaskowane, włącznie z powiadomieniem odpowiednich podmiotów (instytucje zatrudniające autorów, towarzystwa naukowe, stowarzyszenia edytorów naukowych itp.). * Z ghostwriting mamy do czynienia wówczas, gdy ktoś wniósł istotny wkład w powstanie publikacji, bez ujawnienia swojego udziału jako jeden z autorów lub bez wymienienia jego roli w podziękowaniach zamieszczonych w publikacji. ** Z guest authorship ( honorary authorship ) mamy do czynienia wówczas, gdy udział autora jest znikomy lub w ogóle nie miał miejsca, a pomimo to jest autorem/współautorem publikacji.

203 Profile of Regional Barometer The Regional Barometer is dedicated to the theoretical and empirical works in the regional quantitative studies, especially the analysis and prognosis of economic development and business conditions, enterprise, innovativeness, intellectual capital, employment market on a regional level, as well as interregional and trans-border cooperation. We look forward to cooperation and invite all interested to send their suggestions for articles, compilations and reports. The materials should be sent at the address given below. Any requests concerning article topics should be sent to Editor-in-Chief and inquiries relating to technical preparation of materials should be sent to Editorial Assistant at address given below. Notes on preparation and submission of articles Article should not exceed 3/4 of standard text lenght unit, roughly equivalent to 30 thousand characters (with spaces). Publication of a longer article demands individual decision of the Editorial Board. European practice of number notation should be followed for example, ,33 (= Canadian style; = 36, US and British style). Notice, that in the International System of Units (SI units), fixed spaces rather than commas are used to mark off groups of three digits, both to the left and to the right of the decimal point. Translation of Polish voivodships names is not allowed. Polish word województwo should be translated as 'voivodship' (not voievodship or voivodeship) following names of Polish administrative division used by Commission on Standardization of Geographical Names Outside the Republic of Poland and practice of Central Statistical Office of Poland (GUS) e.g, Mazowieckie Voivodship further: powiat = county, gmina = commune. Chapter and subchapter headings should be boldfaced and numbered (digital multi line numbering; level 3 maximum). Graphs/charts and drawings in colour (and shades of grey because of black and white print). If pos sible, please attach source files to drawings (e.g., Excel, Statistica, Mathematica) or drawings in their original format (e.g., bmp, jpg, psd, wmf, cdr, ai), or make drawings, maps, pictures available to the publisher for scanning purposes. Illustrations and tables numbered consecutively throughout the article (Fig. 1., Tab. 1.). Inserted formulae (if displayed) aligned to centre and provided with numbers enclosed in parentheses at the left margin. Numbered notes for the substantive comments should appear at the foot of a page. References in text should be marked in the author-date system, a citation includes only the author and the year of publication with no intervening punctuation; a page number or other locator may be added, following a comma for example, (Green 2002, 45). In the case of referring to the Internet publications, please give the name of an author and an article title (or the first line of a text if there is no title/author), access date and URL address (e.g., M. Kowal: Gospodarka naszego regionu po rozszerzeniu UE. accessed July 15, 2009, In alphabetized reference list entry, the year of publication is the second element, following the author's name. The elements are separated by periods, and the first-listed author's name, should be inverted (last name first). Titles are capitalized headlinestyle unless they are in a foreign language; titles of larger works such as books and journals are italicized; and titles of smaller works such as journal articles are presented in roman and enclosed in quotation marks. For further details see Chicago Manual of Style, 16th ed. Please, add the original (non-romanized) authors names if they are written in cyryllic. An article should be supplied with a verse summary in English and Polish (if possible), keywords (in English) and article classification according to Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) Classification System.

204 Please, provide us with authors affiliation with correspondence address and address. Also enclose a written statement that a given article has never been published before or has not been submitted for publishing with a different editorial office. If an article contains pictures or illustrations which are not an author s property, please enclose a written statement that an author has obtained permission for publishing them. An article in a paper version (1 copy) and electronic one should be sent to: Mieczysław Kowerski ul. Akademicka Zamość [email protected] All places in text where non-standard fonts have been used (special mathematical symbols, Greek letters, etc.) should be marked in pencil on a paper version. Rules for reviewing submitted materials There are appointed two independent reviewers to assess each publication. In the case of texts in a foreign language, at least one reviewer is affiliated with a foreign institution which is different from an author s. Authors and reviewers do not know each other s identities (double-blind review proces). A review is made in writing and ends up with a proposal to authorize publication of an article or reject it. The review form can be downloaded from Journal's website ( Names of reviewers of individual publications/issues are not disclosed; once a year the magazine makes a list of cooperating reviewers public. Ghostwriting* and guest authorship** Readers should be certain that published authors present their work results in a clear, reliable and honest way, irrespective of whether they are direct authors or they were assisted by a specialized entity (a natural or legal person). To prove a good standing of a researcher and the highest editorial standards, the information about entities assisting the publication (factual, in-kind, financial contribution, etc.) should be made open. To prevent ghostwriting and guest authorship the magazine Editorial Office introduces the following solutions: Authors of publications are required to disclose the contribution of individual authors (by providing information about their affiliation and contribution (i.e., information about who is an author of concepts, assumptions, methods, protocol, etc. used during preparation stage), whereas an author submitting a manuscript is held responsible for his publication We make efforts to obtain information about publication financial sources, contribution of research and development institutions, societies and other entities ( financial disclosure ) We record all signs of scientific unreliability. Detected cases of ghostwriting or guest writing will be exposed and competent entities (institutions employing authors, scientific societies, associations of scientific editors, etc.) will be informed * Ghostwriting is a situation when someone contributed substantially to a publication without disclosing their participation as one of authors or without being mentioned in acknowledgments placed in a publication. ** Guest authorship ( honorary authorship ) is a situation when an author s involvement is insignificant or none but still they are authors/coauthors of a publication.

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