CALL and the development of learner autonomy: an activity theoretical study

Transcription

1 CALL and the development of learner autonomy: an activity theoretical study Françoise Blin Licence M.A.S.S. (Université Paris X-Nanterre, France) Maîtrise M.A.S.S. (Université Paris X-Nanterre, France) Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Technology Institute of Educational Technology The Open University, March 2005

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3 Abstract The renewed interest of the last twenty years in learner autonomy among language professionals has been linked to technological developments in education. Yet, while the concepts and principles associated with learner autonomy underpin a broad range of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) applications and research projects, current research paradigms in CALL do not provide adequate tools and models to investigate in depth the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technologyrich language learning environments. This thesis proposes a conceptual framework, rooted in activity theory and substantiated by empirical evidence, for describing and analysing the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments. Through a particular focus on systemic tensions occurring as the activity unfolds, the dynamics between collective activity and individual actions are explored in the case of two reallife language courses. Bringing together the activity theoretical arguments and the empirical findings, it is proposed that: 1) The language curriculum promoting learner autonomy is object-centred; 2) Emerging systemic tensions are key factors potentially promoting or preventing the development and exercise of learner autonomy in language learning activities. The most important systemic tensions for the development of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments reside in the tool-object characteristics of language and technology and within the organisation of the division of labour; 3) The capacity to resolve contradictions is an observable attribute of learner autonomy. The potential for the development and exercise of learner autonomy is enhanced by the activity system capacity to resolve its systemic tensions in expansive ways, i.e. through the creation and adoption of new tools and procedures by the participants. Keywords: CALL, Learner Autonomy, Activity Theory i

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5 To Ronan and To my parents iii

6 Acknowledgements During the many years it took to complete this thesis, a great number of people have accompanied and supported me. They deserve my heartfelt gratitude. My deepest thanks go to my two supervisors from the Institute of Educational Technology, Dr Robin Goodfellow and Dr Ann Jones. Without your constant support through the good and bad times alike, your invaluable comments and constructive criticisms on my numerous drafts of drafts and your eternal patience, I doubt very much that this thesis would have ever been completed. I am forever grateful to you for giving me the opportunity to pursue my interest in activity theory and for helping me so well to shape and express my thoughts. I would also like to thank the many people in the Open University who provided support and encouragement throughout the years. In particular, I would like to thank Agnes Kukulska-Hulme for her professionalism and insights when conducting our third-party monitoring interviews. Many thanks also to Stephanie Taylor for making my visits to Milton Keynes such a treat. My colleagues from the School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies at Dublin City University have had to endure my bad temper in numerous occasions. Thank you so much for putting up with me all those years! Thank you to all of you in the Computer Services Department and in the Office of the Dean of Teaching and Learning for always doing everything you can to help me try out new technologies for teaching and learning. To my colleagues in Physics, Chemistry and Electronic Engineering for your unconditional support for my language teaching initiatives involving your students. Most of all, I am greatly indebted to Francine O Connell, an exceptional teacher, colleague and friend, who has always been willing to try and implement my latest idea, even when this involved unstable technologies and crazy set ups. I can never thank you enough for your support and dedication to our students. Without you, this project and many others would have never seen the light, let alone been successful. I am also indebted to all my past and present students, whether you took part in this particular project or not. You all have been a great source of inspiration and I have learned so much from you in the last twenty years. iv

7 Special thanks go to Christine Appel for her unfailing support and for listening endlessly to my activity theoretical arguments, without even looking bored! To Dorothy Kenny and Minako O Hagan for understanding so well what I was going through. Thank you to Mike Levy for all the stimulating discussions and arguments about theories of CALL and for your constant encouragement from down under. I can t thank enough the EUROCALL Executive Committee(s) and the ALSIC editorial committee for their friendship and their patience with my prolonged silence while I was finishing this thesis. Many more friends and colleagues in the CALL community and beyond have been a source of inspiration and strength. I can t thank you all here, there are too many of you. Closer to home, my utmost gratitude goes to Alice, Rosemary and Seamus for always being there when I needed it most. Thank you so much for everything. Thank you to my family for being who you are and most of all to my parents who gave me such a love for learning and for autonomy. To Antoine, Judith, Marion, Victor, Étienne and Rémi for being the best nephews and nieces ever. Your MSN messages and web cams were such a welcome break from all this thinking and writing! Knowing you were online kept me going, more often than you ll ever know. And last but not least, Ronan, who had to grow up with his mum s PhD always nearby. There will be no more plan postponed until après le PhD, I promise! You have always been and you will always be the most important thing in my life. v

8 Table of contents Abstract...i Acknowledgements...iv Table of contents...vi List of Tables... x List of Figures...xii List of publications and public talks...xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Research background Scope of the thesis Thesis outline... 9 CHAPTER 2 LEARNER AUTONOMY AND CALL: A LITERATURE REVIEW Self-access as a context for the exercise of learner autonomy Towards a definition of learner autonomy in language learning Learner autonomy: a complex and ambiguous concept The autonomous language learner learner: taking charge and in control Independence and interdependence CALL and learner autonomy Judgemental analyses of CALL and learner autonomy Empirical analyses of CALL and learner autonomy Summary and conclusion CHAPTER 3 ACTIVITY THEORY PERSPECTIVES ON CALL AND LEARNER AUTONOMY Vygotsky s legacy Private speech and self-regulation Activity theory and language learning Engeström s formulation of activity theory Activity systems as the prime unit of analysis Multi-voicedness Historicity vi

9 3.2.4 Contradictions Expansive cycles Towards an activity theoretical perspective on CALL and learner autonomy Chapelle s framework revisited Activity theory based principles for the study of CALL and learner autonomy Summary and conclusion CHAPTER 4 ACTIVITY THEORY BASED METHODOLOGIES: EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS The challenge of activity theory based educational research Defining the unit of analysis and delineating boundaries Working with multiple timescales Designing and conducting a developmental research programme Implications for this thesis Research questions Methodological requirements Defining the unit of analysis and delineating boundaries: the case of DCU Research design Epistemological assumptions Methodological choices Summary and conclusion CHAPTER 5 EMPIRICAL ANALYSES: CONTEXT AND METHODS Syllabi overview Module FR Module FR Continuous assessment Modelling the activity systems Subjects Community Object and desired outcomes Rules and division of labour Tools and artefacts Representing the activity systems under study Empirical analyses: methods Description of the selected data Data analysis Identification of the inner contradictions Summary and conclusion vii

10 CHAPTER 6 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS 1: FOCUS ON INDEPENDENCE Analysing and modelling the activity system from the students viewpoint The students bilans: overview Perceived outcomes Students actions Goals and Objects A preliminary representation of the language learning activity Contradictions and the development of learner autonomy Interdependence as a mediator of the language learning activity Independence as object of the language learning activity Resolving contradictions Revisiting the learner autonomy profiles The teacher s comments: overview Learner independence as the capacity to resolve contradictions Summary and conclusion CHAPTER 7 EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS 2: FOCUS ON INTERDEPENDENCE Analysing the activity system Collective and individual outcomes Team and individual actions The division of labour Mediating tools and artefacts Preliminary conclusions Contradictions and the transformation of the activity Emergence of expansive cycles Questioning the object and the established practice Formation and resolution of contradictions: the case of tools and artefacts Summary and conclusion CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS Research questions revisited Question Question Question Strengths and limitations of the thesis Directions for future work References Appendix A Aural comprehension task (FR130) viii

11 Appendix B Keeping a learner diary (extracts from FR130 course documents) Appendix C Assessing learner diaries Appendix D About TopClass Appendix E Questionnaires Appendix F Students results (Semester 1) Appendix G Team formation (guidelines FR140) Appendix H Coding scheme used in empirical analysis 1 (FR130) Appendix I Extracts from website Appendix J Examples of minutes Appendix K Individual Reports 2 (Team 1) Appendix L Individual Reports 2 (Team 4) Appendix M TopClass logfiles (26 /02/99-15/04/99) - Extracts Appendix N The Journal of the Project ix

12 List of Tables Table 2-1 Criteria for CALL tasks (from Chapelle, 2001b: 55) Table 2-2 CALL stages and learner autonomy (summarised from Benson, 2001) Table 3-1 Activity theoretical principles for CALL and learner autonomy Table 4-1 Sub-activity systems (AS) in Year Table 5-1 Assignments and breakdown of marks (FR130 and FR140) Table 5-2 Summary of learner autonomy profiles (levels of autonomy) Table 5-3 Class composition Table 5-4 Composition of mixed teams Table 5-5 Composition of content teams Table 5-6 Rules and division of labour (FR130 and FR140) Table 5-7 A taxonomy of mediating tools and artefacts Table 5-8 Examples of tagged and encoded segments Table 5-9 Examples of tagged and encoded segment (contd.) Table 5-10 Description of corpus Table 6-1 Number of segments per category (students bilans) Table 6-2 Language Outcomes Table 6-3 Detailed Consistency Analysis (WORDSMITH TOOLS) Table 6-4 Number of segments per category (teacher s feedback) Table 6-5 Level 2 Key Words (Students' bilans) Table 6-6 Level 2 Key Words (Teacher's evaluations) Table 6-7 Level 4 Key Words (Teacher's evaluations) Table 6-8 Level 4 Key Words (Students' bilans) Table 7-1 Statistical information (WordList) Table 7-2 Learning outcomes: language skills (OU1) Table 7-3 Learning outcomes: Transferable skills (OU2) Table 7-4 From collective activity to routinised operations in lab sessions (Stage 2) Table 7-5 Summary of teams meetings (extracted from the minutes) Table 7-6 Examples of themes and sub-themes (Content Teams) Table 7-7 Selected students' hits (TopClass, 24/02/99 15/04/99) x

13 Table 7-8 Number of messages created by students and teams xi

14 List of Figures Figure 3-1 Leontiev s model of activity theory Figure 3-2 Basic structure of an activity system (Engeström, 1987: 78) Figure 3-3 The work activity of a secondary school language teacher Figure 3-4 Activity sub-triangle addressed by Chapelle s (2001) criteria Figure 3-5 A new unit of analysis for CALL evaluation: the language learning activity system61 Figure 4-1 Language learning sub-activities Figure 4-2 The four phases of the research design Figure 5-1 Extract from the module descriptor for FR Figure 5-2 Learner autonomy as the underlying principle of the French course Figure 5-3 Distribution of students among the different levels of autonomy at the end of Semester Figure 5-4 Preliminary representation of activity system associated with FR Figure 5-5 Preliminary representation of activity system associated with FR Figure 5-6 Example of a bilan (Student S07) Figure 5-7 Teacher's comments on student S07 s diary Figure 5-8 Template for writing up individual reports Figure 5-9 Template for writing up minutes of team meetings Figure 5-10 Segmentation and categories derived from activity theory concepts and principles Figure 5-11 Stage 1: Raw bilan Figure 5-12 Stage 2: Segmentation and tagging of one bilan Figure 5-13 Stage 3: Comparing and assigning descriptors (OU1) Figure 5-14 Stage 4: Tagged and encoded bilan Figure 5-15 Decomposition of the main activity system (FR140) Figure 6-1 Actions and direct objects artefacts Figure 6-2 Independent Study in context Figure 6-3 Objects and Goals Figure 6-4 A preliminary representation of the FR130 activity system Figure 6-5 Aural comprehension sub-activity - Level 3 contradictions Figure 6-6 Aural comprehension sub-activity - Level 4 and Level 1 contradictions xii

15 Figure 7-1 The website: Salut les copains! Figure 7-2 Individual language performance as assessed by the teacher Figure 7-3 Group oral presentations as assessed by the teacher Figure 7-4 From collective activity to routinised operations Figure 7-5 Organisation of the division of labour (Technical Team minutes) Figure 7-6 Average number of logins and posting retrieve per student per team Figure 7-7 Number of messages created by each team Figure 7-8 Thread 1- Message Figure 7-9 Thread 1- Message Figure 7-10 Thread 1 - Message Figure 7-11 Thread 1 - Message Figure 7-12 Thread 1 - Message Figure 7-13 Thread 1 - Message Figure 7-14 The Journal Team s home page Figure 7-15 Transformation of the activity (with translated extracts from the Journal of the Project) Figure 7-16 Example of a technological breakdown (TopClass discussion list) xiii

16 List of publications and public talks List of publications, invited lectures or seminars, and conference papers which originated in the research carried out for this thesis. Chapters in books and refereed articles Blin F., 2004, CALL and the development of learner autonomy: Towards an activitytheoretical perspective, ReCALL, 16(2), pp Blin F., 2002, Mesurer l autonomie des apprenants: de la théorie à la pratique. In L. Vincent-Durroux et R. Panckhurst (eds.), Autoformation et autoévaluation: une pédagogie renouvelée? Montpellier: Collection Médiatic, Publications Montpellier 3. Blin F., 1999, 'CALL and the Development of Learner autonomy'. In R. Debski and M. Levy (eds.), WorldCALL: Global Perspectives on Computer-Assisted Language Learning, Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger, pp Blin F., 1998, 'Les enjeux d une formation autonomisante de l apprenant en environnement multimédia'. In T. Chanier & M. Pothier (eds.), Apprentissage des langues et environnements informatiques hypermédia, Etudes de Linguistique Appliquée, Numéro 110, avril-juin 1998, pp Book review Mozzon-Mc Pherson M. and Vismans R. (eds.), 2001, Beyond Language Teaching Towards Language Advising, London: The Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research (CILT). Review in ReCALL, 14(2), Invited Lectures and seminars Blin F., 2004, CALL Research methodologies: From design research to research design, 11 th International CALL Conference, Antwerp, 6 September Invited keynote speaker xiv

17 Blin F. 2004, Activity Theory based principles and criteria for the design of language learning environments. Invited lecture, post-graduate seminar, UMIST, 20 February 2004 Blin F., 2002, CALL and learner autonomy. OILTE Colloquium, University of Limerick, 13 September Guest speaker Blin F., 2002, Autonomisation de l'apprenant et utilisation des TICE, Université de Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France (31 May 2002). Guest Lecturer (Post-graduate seminar). Blin F., 2000, Mesurer l'autonomie de l'apprenant, University of Limerick, 14 November Guest lecturer (Master in French course). Blin F., 2000, Mesurer l'autonomie de l'apprenant: de la théorie à la pratique, Université Montpellier 3. Journée d'étude internationale: Une pédagogie renouvelée par l'autoformation et l'autoévaluation, (11 mai 2000). Invited speaker. Blin F., 2000, CALL and the development of learner autonomy, University of Abertay- Dundee, Dundee, Scotland (28 January 2000). Guest lecturer. Blin F., 1999, Learner autonomy and IT strategies, Institute of Technology Carlow, Carlow, 6 March 1999, International seminar. Invited keynote speaker. Blin F., 1998, ICT for Teaching and Learning: individual versus collaborative learning, ESF Training for Trainers/ DCU workshop for Physics Lecturers, Dublin City University, 16 December Invited speaker. Conference papers Blin F. 2003, Activity theory based principles for the design and evaluation of independent language learning environments, Independent Language Learning New research directions Conference, 4-5 December 2003, Department of Languages, Open University, UK. Blin F. 2003, Towards an activity-theoretical perspective on CALL and the development of learner autonomy, WORLDCALL 2003 Conference, CALL from the margins, 7-10 May 2003, Banff, Canada. xv

18 Blin F., 2001, Language Learning Strategies and CALL: an Activity Theory perspective. E-learning: language learning and language technology, EUROCALL 2001 Conference, 29 Aug.-1 Sep. 2001, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands. xvi

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20 Chapter 1- Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction In recent years, universities and other Higher Education institutions throughout Ireland and the UK have heavily invested in technology to support teaching and to enhance students learning experience. Commercial Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs), such as WebCT or Blackboard, and more recently Open Source platforms such as Moodle 1, are being increasingly used by lecturing staff in all subjects. Many university students enjoy state-of-the art computing facilities, including access to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) artefacts and tools available in language centres or other self-access facilities. In the case of language learning, many institutions have reorganised the delivery of language instruction to maximise the use of these facilities, and in some cases, to reduce staffing costs. However, the learning experience and outcomes in such environments are not always as expected: students may fail to use the facilities available to them, language teachers may show some resistance towards new approaches to language teaching and learning, and university authorities may be reluctant to provide adequate support, technical or otherwise. Despite these difficulties, CALL is thriving and many enthusiast teachers continue to develop materials, which they then integrate into their everyday teaching practice. For many, the use of computers in language learning is linked, explicitly or implicitly, to the development and exercise of learner autonomy. Yet, while concepts and principles associated with learner autonomy underpin a broad range of CALL applications and research projects, CALL researchers do not always avail themselves of 1 1

21 Chapter 1- Introduction adequate tools and models to investigate the development and exercise of learner autonomy in all their complexity. At a time when the debate on CALL research methodologies is gaining momentum (Chapelle 1999, 2001a, 2002; Garrett, 1998; Harrington & Levy, 2001; Levy, 2000, 2002; Little, 1998; Salaberry, 1999) as reflected in the theme of the CALL 2004 conference, CALL and research methodologies this thesis proposes that cultural historical activity theory (Engeström, 1987, 1999a) provides CALL researchers and practitioners with a theoretical framework and a methodology to study the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments. It puts forward an activity theoretical framework, which is then applied to study the development and exercise of learner autonomy in a real-life educational setting at Dublin City University (DCU). The results of this investigation illustrate the complexity of learning environments aiming at fostering the development of learner autonomy and point to principles and criteria for the design and implementation of technology supported language curricula. This introductory chapter gives an overview of the background for this research project. It then briefly presents the scope of this thesis and its outline. 1.1 Research background The research reported in this thesis has its origin in a language teaching practice that had spanned two decades of rapid technological and educational changes in Irish higher education institutions. I have been involved in the teaching of French for Specific Purposes in the School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies (SALIS) at DCU since the mid-eighties. The early nineties were marked by profound changes in the DCU language teaching and learning environment. New science, engineering and computing 2

22 Chapter 1- Introduction degrees were launched, which required students to spend a period of residence abroad. Simultaneously, a substantial grant was received from the Higher Education Authority (HEA) to set up a Semi-Autonomous Language Learning Unit (SALLU) whose mission was to support the teaching and learning of languages across all faculties by providing self-access facilities to students. As the academic responsible for the design and delivery of the French for Science and Technology programme, my curriculum design and teaching activities were motivated by the need to enable students to become autonomous learners not only of French but also of their specialism through the target language so that they could function socially and academically in a French institution during their year abroad. As the project manager responsible for the setting up of SALLU and the development of materials and teaching strategies, my actions were motivated by the need to maximise the use of the new self-access facilities. The integration of CALL and the development of my students autonomy had become the focus of my teaching, development and research activities. It is also during this period that the CALL community engaged in a search for new research paradigms and methodologies applicable to CALL, as exemplified by Carol Chapelle s (1997) seminal article, CALL in the Year 2000: still in search of research paradigms?. Learner autonomy and educational technology The French Encyclopaedia Universalis offers two definitions 2 for the term autonomie. Autonomie is identified as the independence from external hierarchies but also as the distance travelled without refuelling. In its definition of autonomy, the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary first emphasises the right of self-government for communities and 2 autonomie: 1. indépendance vis-à-vis des hierarchies extérieures; 2. distance pouvant être parcourue sans ravitaillement en carburant. Encyclopaedia Universalis, DVD, version 7. See also Esch (1997: 166). 3

23 Chapter 1- Introduction then, personal freedom for individuals. In both languages, the first representation of autonomy conveyed by dictionaries or encyclopaedias is political: autonomy is the capacity to make one s own laws and to obey them. However, the notion of autonomy cannot be fully grasped just within the political domain. Many representations of autonomy can be found, which have their origins in different traditions, historical contexts, disciplines, or perspectives. Philosophers may discuss the notion of autonomy in relation to that of autarky or self-sufficiency while stressing the role of obedience in so far that law and freedom are but two sides of the same coin. Psychologists may view autonomy as a capacity for action without intervention from others. Educationalists may strive towards a system that allows learning to take place without the intervention of teachers or outside the limits of a fixed curriculum. Yet, central to the concept of autonomy in all its representations, and despite this apparent diversity of interpretations, are the notions of independence from external constraints and the capacity to make decisions. Autonomy is inherently ambiguous, if not paradoxical. Autonomy cannot be exercised outside boundaries that are externally determined by law, rules or constraints, autonomy is not anarchy. It is both a social and individual construct. Autonomy is a matter both for the community, whose laws have to be adhered to and a matter for the person who has to make choices and take responsibility within this community. Autonomy is both independence and interdependence. The second representation of autonomy given in the French definition above and quite specific to the French language 3 gives another dimension to our understanding of autonomy. This rather technical version is of particular value to those who are constantly on the lookout for tools, instruments, mechanical or electronic devices that 3 The second definition of autonomy commonly used in French does not appear in the English language. Yet, it is a powerful metaphor illustrating some of the beliefs and behaviours in relation to learner autonomy. 4

24 Chapter 1- Introduction can be operated without constant refuelling or recharging, and that are independent of other artefacts. The capacity for an instrument to be operated independently of an external power supply contributes to the user s personal freedom and independence from external constraints. It is also of particular value to the proponents of independent learning. Indeed, such a technical interpretation is not restricted to the world of engineering and technology. Foreign language teaching and learner autonomy have been linked to developments in educational technology, which facilitated the rapid development of language centres organised around the concept of independent learning (Benson & Voller, 1997a). In terms of curriculum design and pedagogical applications, learner autonomy has also been linked to cognitive approaches to language learning and in particular, to the large body of research on language learning strategies (e.g. Hsia & Oxford, 2002; O Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1981, 1987; Wenden, 1991; Wenden & Rubin, 1987), which has its origins in cognitive psychology (Mitchell & Myles, 1998). Cognitive psychology and in particular, cognitive information processing theories (Anderson, 1980) emphasises the independent or autonomous nature of individuals by focusing on the way they process information, on the way memory works, or on the transformation of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. Since the early 1990s however, the role of technology in education has increasingly been studied through the lens of learning theories and models that mark a departure from cognitive approaches, by locating knowledge not only in the mind of individual learners but also in the history, culture and communities that provide the context in which learning is taking place. Situated learning, ecological psychology, and distributed cognition are examples of theoretical foundations that constitute the most substantive 5

25 Chapter 1- Introduction and revolutionary changes in learning theory in history (Jonassen & Land, 2000: v). These emerging theories share some epistemological assumptions: [ ] learning is neither a transmissive or a submissive process. Rather learning is wilful, intentional, active, conscious, constructive practice that includes reciprocal intention action reflection activities. (Jonassen & Land, op. cit.) Drawing on Vygotsky s (1978, 1986) sociocultural and cultural-historical theories of learning and development, learning theorists in these traditions see knowledge as embodied in the physical artefacts that are constructed and used by communities, and in the tools (e.g. signs, theories, models, and methods) that have enabled the constructions of these artefacts. Individual learning is therefore mediated by tools and artefacts that are socially and historically constructed and transmitted (see for instance Diaz et al, 1990). Among these theories, cultural-historical activity theory (Engeström, 1987) is attracting considerable interest among the educational technology community. Cultural-historical activity theory is a multidisciplinary field originating in Marxist philosophy and in Vygotsky s cultural-historical psychology (Chaiklin et al, 1999). In particular, it draws on Vygotsky s (1978) concept of mediated action and on Leontiev s (1978) activity theory. According to Bødker (1996): Activity theory lets us study the relationship between the development of the individual and the society in which the person exists. Human activities are driven by certain needs where people wish to achieve a certain purpose. Activity is usually mediated by one or more instruments and is directed toward a certain object. (Bødker, 1996: 148) There are many approaches to activity theory as an object of study and to its use in trying to understand human and social practice. Two are particularly relevant to educational endeavours in general and to CALL in particular: activity-theoretical approaches to Human Computer Interaction (HCI) (see Nardi, 1996) and the use of 6

26 Chapter 1- Introduction activity theory principles to analyse organisations undergoing transformations as a result of technological innovations. The latter has been the focus of the research conducted by the Centre for Cultural Historical Activity Theory & Developmental Work Research (CHAT & DWR) led by Yrjö Engeström at the University of Helsinki. Sociocultural theories and cultural-historical psychology are increasingly considered by a number of Second Language Acquisition and CALL researchers (e.g. Salaberry, 1999; Donato, 2000; Lantolf, 2000; Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001; McCafferty et al, 2001; Thorne, 2003). To-date, the applications of activity theory to CALL remain however marginal. This thesis contributes to the development of activity theoretical frameworks and methodologies applicable to CALL and learner autonomy research. 1.2 Scope of the thesis This thesis set out to investigate the development and exercise of learner autonomy in CALL-mediated language learning environments so that principles for the design and implementation of such environments could be formulated. Drawing on the work of activity theorists such as Engeström (1987, 1991, 1999a) and Kuutti (1996), but also of CALL scholars such as Chapelle (1997, 2001b), an activity theoretical framework was developed, and used to investigate the following research questions: Question 1: What factors contribute to or prevent the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments? Question 2: What do learners do when in the process of becoming autonomous language learners? Is it possible to give a description of this process? Question 3: And finally, can we formulate principles and criteria for the design, implementation and evaluation of technology-rich language learning environments promoting the development and exercise of learner autonomy? 7

27 Chapter 1- Introduction The activity theoretical framework developed in this thesis advocates the study of CALL and learner autonomy at both the collective and individual levels, taking a whole language course as the unit of analysis. However, as remarked by Vygotksy (1978), the search for a suitable methodology and appropriate methods soon became a research project in itself: The search for method becomes one of the most important problems of the entire enterprise of understanding the uniquely human forms of psychological activity. In this case, the method is simultaneously prerequesite and product, the tool and the result of the study. (Vygotsky, 1978: 64-65) Indeed, as the research evolved, a number of epistemological and methodological issues arose, which had to be resolved if activity theory was to be used beyond the formulation of theoretical arguments on the development of learner autonomy, which seem to prevail in the literature as remarked by Benson (2001): A great deal of the research on autonomy to date has been based on reflection and reasoning. Often, researchers draw conclusions about the nature of autonomy and the practices associated with it from reflection on their own and others experiences of fostering autonomy. Far less research has been based on systematic analysis of data. (Benson, 2001: 182) A methodology enabling a systematic analysis of data is thus proposed and applied to the study of a real-life language learning environment. The adopted methodology allows for a description of the complexity of technology-rich language learning environments and for the identification of contextual factors that may contribute or prevent the development and exercise of learner autonomy. The dynamics between collective activity and individual actions are highlighted, along with the transformation of the language learning activity over time. New attributes of learner autonomy are identified, which can be empirically observed. 8

28 Chapter 1- Introduction Finally, the activity theoretical arguments developed in this thesis and the discussions emerging from the empirical investigation lead to the formulation of principles and criteria to assist in the design and implementation of technology-rich language learning environments, which aim at fostering the development and exercise of learner autonomy. 1.3 Thesis outline Chapter 2 discusses learner autonomy and its relationship to CALL as found in the literature. It highlights the individual and social dimensions of learner autonomy and argues that control over the learning process and content, but also independence and interdependence, are fundamental attributes of learner autonomy. CALL research paradigms and evaluation models are then assessed in terms of their potential to study the relationship between CALL and learner autonomy. In particular, the strengths and weaknesses of Chapelle s (2001b) model for CALL evaluation are discussed. In response to the limitations of the models discussed previously, Chapter 3 presents an activity theoretical framework applicable to CALL and learner autonomy research. Following a summary of some of the main tenets of Vygotsky s (1978) theories, it explicates the principles of activity theory as it was initially formulated by Leontiev (1978) and used by Second Language Acquisition researchers. The expanded activity theory concepts and principles enunciated by Engeström (1987) are then discussed and integrated into a theoretical framework, which provides the grounding for the methodology developed in subsequent chapters. Chapter 4 is the first of two methodological chapters. It considers the epistemological and methodological issues that arise when conducting an activity theoretical research programme. In particular, three challenges that are deemed particularly relevant to this 9

29 Chapter 1- Introduction thesis are discussed in detail: defining the unit of analysis and delineating boundaries, working across multiple timescales, and conducting a developmental research programme in real-life educational settings. The chapter discusses how these challenges were addressed by the research design chosen to study CALL and learner autonomy in the context of Dublin City University. Following a brief description of the syllabi, Chapter 5 proposes a model and a representation of the activity systems under study, as they have been designed. The methods of data collection and analysis are then described. The empirical analyses reported in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 aim to understand the language learning activities as they have been realised by the participating students. Chapter 6 focuses on independence and Chapter 7 is primarily concerned with the impact of interdependence on the development of learner autonomy. Chapter 6 provides a detailed description of the collective language learning activity and of students individual actions engaged in independent learning. The complexity of the language learning activity is unravelled through an activity theoretical analysis of learner diaries and of the feedback provided to students by their teacher. The findings of the study point to the definition of new attributes of learner autonomy and highlight some structural tensions thought to prevent its development. Chapter 7 examines group and individual actions in the context of a collaborative CALL project carried out by the same students. The dynamics between the collective activity, and group and individual actions are further explored and the mediating role of technology and language investigated. Finally, Chapter 8 brings together the theoretical and empirical findings of previous chapters and examines the trustworthiness of the study. A comparison between the 10

30 Chapter 1- Introduction results of the two empirical studies leads to the formulation of principles for the design and implementation of technology-rich language learning environments for learner autonomy. Plans for further research are also outlined. 11

31 12 Chapter 1- Introduction

32 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Chapter 2 Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Learner autonomy, defined by Holec (1981: 3) as the ability to take charge of one s own learning, has been the focus of renewed interest in the last decade, both in the area of educational research in general and in applied linguistics in particular. This renewed interest in learner autonomy has also been linked to technological developments in education. This chapter explores the concept of learner autonomy and its relationship to CALL as found in the literature. It attempts to provide a preliminary working definition of learner autonomy, which highlights its individual and social dimensions, and to assess the potential of current frameworks for understanding and analysing the relationship between CALL and the development of learner autonomy. Section 2.1 briefly looks at self-access, which provides the background to the current interest in learner autonomy among the language teaching community. Section 2.2 explores different representations of learner autonomy as found in the Applied Linguistics literature. It focuses more particularly on the notions of control, independence and interdependence, which are seen as essential attributes of learner autonomy. Section 2.3 then examines the relationship between CALL and learner autonomy as discussed in the literature to-date. The chapter concludes by highlighting the limitations of current frameworks. 2.1 Self-access as a context for the exercise of learner autonomy According to Benson and Voller (1997a: 5), the promotion of autonomy in language learning has links to developments elsewhere in the field of education [ ] and has been 13

33 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review sustained and nourished by innovative work in the field of self-directed learning and self-access. In turn, self-access and self-directed language learning, which is sometimes called independent learning, has been encouraged by the growing role of technology in education (Benson & Voller, 1997a: 6). Throughout the world, independent learning, which involves learners taking responsibility for their own learning and developing effective learning strategies (Sheerin, 1997: 54), is perceived by many researchers and language teachers as providing a context within which autonomy can be promoted and supported (Mozzon-McPherson, 2001: 9). The expression independent learning has almost become synonymous with learner autonomy. Independent language learning environments present language learning opportunities that do not require the constant intervention of a teacher or that can be pursued outside the framework of an educational institution. In the mid-1990s, state-of-the art selfaccess facilities were therefore seen by many higher education authorities as the ultimate answer to the ever-increasing cost of language teaching and learning. Language centres were set up whose mission was to deliver University Wide Language Programmes (UWLP), also known as Languages for All. New teaching methodologies emerged that integrated face-to-face teaching and independent learning (e.g. Demaizière & Foucher, 1998; Mozzon-McPherson & Vismans, 2001; Vincent-Durroux & Poussard, 2002). While the first generation of language centres relied mainly on traditional technologies (e.g. print, audio- and video-tapes), subsequent generations have attempted to integrate computer-based technologies as essential resources to be made available to language learners. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) and multimedia were soon said to open new doors to pedagogical innovation and to enhance the language learning 14

34 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review experience. Indeed, at the turn of the millennium, telecommunication technologies were finding their way into foreign language teaching, thus enabling remote access to resources, teachers or peers (see for example Appel, 1999; Little & Brammerts, 1996; Shield et al, 2000). However, self-access centres largely remained underused as it soon became evident that the vast majority of students were unable to cope with the demands of independent learning (Mozzon-McPherson & Vismans, 2001: 2). Benson (2001) further argues that many self-access language centres have been established without any strong pedagogical rationale and [that] it is often assumed, without any strong justification for the assumption, that self-access work will automatically lead to autonomy. According to him, self-access may even be counter-productive: One of the important lessons of the spread of self-access over the past three decades, however, is that there is no necessary relationship between self-instruction and the development of autonomy and that, under certain conditions, self-instructional modes of learning may even inhibit autonomy.(benson, 2001:9) One of the reasons for the difficulties met by approaches based on self-access could be related to the actual understanding of learner autonomy that is being implemented in relation to language learning. It is thus necessary to clarify what is meant by learner autonomy in the context of language learning. 2.2 Towards a definition of learner autonomy in language learning Some authors, whether from the field of language learning or that of education in general, view the development of autonomous individuals as the long term goal of most, if not all, educational endeavours an educational goal (Candy, 1988: 59). Autonomous individuals exhibit the qualities of moral, emotional and intellectual 15

35 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review independence (Littlewood, 1997: 81) and are able to make their own decisions about what they think and do (Boud, 1988a: 18) Learner autonomy: a complex and ambiguous concept As seen in the introduction of this thesis however, autonomy is a semantically complex term (Little & Dam, 1998), if not ambiguous. It encompasses concepts from different domains such as politics and education, philosophy and psychology. It includes both notions of individualisation and socialisation. Benson and Voller (1997a) suggest that: In philosophy and psychology, autonomy and independence have come associated with the capacity of the individual to act as a responsible member of society.[ ] In education, autonomy and independence are associated with the formation of the individual as the core of a democratic society. (Benson & Voller, 1997a: 4) According to them, philosophy and psychology are concerned with individual autonomy, which implies both responsibility and freedom from constraint. (Benson & Voller, 1997a: 4). Political autonomy and independence, on the other hand, are not conditional upon responsibility. They are rights rather than capacities. (Benson & Voller, 1997a: 4). In western democracies, political views of autonomy and independence are primarily concerned with the autonomy of individuals as they are constituted within social groups (Benson & Voller, 1997a:5). The purpose of western education is to develop responsible individuals who are able to think and to decide for themselves, while behaving as accountable, moral and unselfish citizens (which are ideal attributes of individuals within a democratic society ) 4. Terms representing apparently conflicting concepts such as individual and social, independence and 4 We cannot ignore, however, that the purpose of Western education may also be to develop autonomous citizens that are able to take their place in and to serve a national, even global, economy 16

36 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review interdependence, responsibility and freedom from constraint thus feature prominently in the autonomy discourse. Such ambiguities or tensions often characterise the implementation of language teaching approaches (Benson & Voller, 1997) as illustrated by the variety of terms and concepts associated with the notion of autonomy. For example, Dickinson (1987) included terms such as self-instruction, self-direction, self-access materials and individualised instruction. A decade later, Little and Dam (1998) include such terms as humanistic language teaching, collaborative learning, experiential learning and the learningcentred classroom. The contrast between Little and Dam s and Dickinson s lists is striking and clearly illustrates the fact that, over the years, different authors have attributed different meanings to the one term, thus reflecting a change in the educational climate and discourse. For Dickinson, autonomy is an extreme form of self-instruction, which involves students working without the direct control of the teacher (Dickinson, 1987:11), and includes self-direction, where the learner accepts responsibility for all the decisions concerned with his learning (ibid). By contrast, Little and Dam (1998) view autonomy as a capacity rather than a situation or mode of learning. For them, this capacity can be developed within the constraints imposed by classrooms, which are physical environments where teachers and learners have the opportunity to become a learning community (Little & Dam, 1998). Whereas Dickinson appears to emphasise the notion of independence, and thus of individual autonomy, Little and Dam attempt to reconcile the tension between the individual and the social. Both approaches are still apparent in the literature (Benson, 2001: 13) and in teaching practices, even if a shift of emphasis from individual to social features of learner autonomy has become predominant in recent years (see for instance Schwienhorst, 2003). 17

37 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Defining learner autonomy in the context of language learning may thus prove to be a difficult endeavour. In order to simplify this task, some authors make a distinction between different types of autonomy. Macaro (1997: 168), for example, views autonomy as an ability which is learnt through knowing how to make decisions about the self as well as being allowed to make those decisions (italics in original). He emphasises the developmental nature of autonomy and identifies three different functional divisions of autonomy: autonomy of language competence, autonomy of language learning competence and autonomy of choice and action (Macaro, 1997: 170). Littlewood (1997) proposes similar categories, which are interrelated. Learners, according to him, can demonstrate three types of autonomy: autonomy as a communicator, autonomy as a learner and autonomy as a person (Littlewood, 1997: 81-83). For instance, the autonomous communicator is able to express personal meanings through linguistic creativity and through the use of effective communication strategies. The autonomous learner takes responsibility for his or her own learning, has developed useful and effective learning strategies and is able to work independently. Finally, the autonomous person, who has the ability to express personal meanings, can create personal learning contexts which in turn will help her to take charge of her own learning (Littlewood, 1997: 83). Esch (1997) prefers to highlight frequent misconceptions about autonomy that need to be avoided: the reduction of autonomy to a set of skills, the avoidance of languagelearning specific issues and the belief that autonomous learning means learning in isolation. (Esch, 1997: 165). Little (1990:7) makes similar arguments and emphasises that autonomy is neither a teaching method nor a steady state achieved by learners. This last point is shared by G. Ellis (1994) who defines learner autonomy in terms of potential behaviour and further argues that individuals may show different levels of 18

38 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review autonomy at different times and for different reasons (G. Ellis, 1994: 8, my translation) 5. In any case, two issues are central to our understanding of learner autonomy. The first one concerns what is understood by taking charge of one s own learning. The second one relates to the notions of independence and interdependence that are now widely recognised as being subsumed in the overall concept of autonomy. These issues will be examined in turn The autonomous language learner learner: taking charge and in control Responsibility and control are at the core of all representations of learner autonomy see for example Little, 1990; Kenny, 1993). Many authors (e.g. Wolff, 1998; Hoven, 1997 & 1999; Stickler, 2001) base their understanding of autonomy on Holec s initial definition, i.e. the ability to take charge of one s own learning (Holec, 1981: 3), or use it as a convenient starting point (Dam, 1994: 504). However, showing an ability to take charge of one s own learning is not enough. For Holec (1981), the autonomous learner is willing to and capable of setting aims and objectives, identifying strategies to reach the latter, and finally choosing criteria and using them for self-evaluation. This is echoed by Wenden (1991), who describes the autonomous learner as one who has acquired the strategies and knowledge to take some (if not yet all) responsibility for her language learning and is willing and selfconfident enough to do so (Wenden, 1991: 163). Ability and willingness to take responsibility for one s own learning also feature in Macaro s (1997) definition: 5 "Les individus peuvent faire preuve de différents degrés d autonomie à des moments différents et pour des raisons différentes." (G. Ellis, 1994:8) 19

39 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review [Autonomy] is an ability to take charge of one s own language learning and an ability to recognise the value of taking responsibility for one s own objectives, content, progress, method and techniques of learning. It is also an ability to be responsible for the pace and rhythm of learning and the evaluation of the learning process. (Macaro, 1997:168) Benson (2001) prefers to adopt a simple and concise definition centred on the notion of control, which according to him, is easier to observe and to measure. He therefore defines autonomy as the capacity to take control of one s learning (Benson, 2001: 47). Cotterall (1995: 195) takes a similar view when she defines autonomy as the extent to which learners demonstrate the ability to use a set of tactics for taking control of their learning. This capacity to take control of one s learning is multidimensional and can be translated into three interdependent levels of control: control of learning management, control of cognitive processes, and control over learning content (Benson, 2001: 48-50). The first two levels of control have their origin in Holec s and Little s respective approaches to autonomy. For Benson (2001: 49), Holec s definition, as it has been recalled earlier, is somewhat restrictive, in that it does not take into account, or at least it does not make explicit, the cognitive aspect of the development of learner autonomy. Little s approach, on the other hand, while being complementary to Holec s, can be described as being psychological in essence as it defines autonomy precisely in terms of control over cognitive processes (Benson, 2001: 49): [ ] autonomy is a capacity - for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action. It presupposes, but also entails, that the learner will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of his learning. The capacity for autonomy will be displayed both in the way the learner learns and in the way he or she transfers what has been learned to wider contexts. (Little, 1991:4) If the two previous levels of control (i.e. control of learning management and control of cognitive processes) have their origins in early works by Holec and Little, the third level of control, i.e. that of control over the learning content, has been emphasised by Benson himself as an important attribute of learning autonomy. For him, autonomous learners 20

40 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review should, in principle, have the freedom to determine their own goals and purposes if the learning is to be genuinely self-directed (Benson, 2001: 50). He further argues that definitions of autonomy that focus on the individual capacities of the learner ignore the essentially political and transformative character of autonomy (Benson, 2001: 50). Control over the learning content cannot be seen as individualistic. According to Benson, control over learning necessarily involves actions that have social consequences (Benson, 2001: 49): Greater learner control over the learning process, resources and language cannot be achieved by each individual acting alone according to his or her own preferences. Control is a question of collective decision-making rather than individual choice. (Benson, 1996: 33, cited in Benson, 2001: 49). These three levels of control identified by Benson are still in line with an earlier and increasingly cited 6 article where he outlines three major versions of learner autonomy for language learning (technical, psychological and political) (Benson, 1997: 18). In the technical version, autonomy is defined as the act of learning a language outside the framework of an educational institution and without the intervention of a teacher. The psychological version sees autonomy as a capacity a construct of attitudes and abilities which allows learners to take more responsibility for their own learning and the political one emphasises learner control over the process and content of learning (Benson, 1997: 19). Therefore, the technical version of autonomy requires learners to take control of the management of their learning, the psychological version implies that learners will demonstrate their ability and capacity to control their cognitive processes and the political version gives learners the opportunity to exercise control over the learning content. 6 See for example Mozzon-McPherson, 2001: 7-22 and Schwienhorst,

41 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Benson acknowledges the fact that this framework is tentative since, as an essentially political concept imported into applied linguistics, autonomy is a highly flexible notion that is easily adapted to different approaches (Benson, 1997: 23). The value of his effort, however, lies in his emphasis on the political implications of learner autonomy and on the interdependence between the different versions of autonomy. A political version of learner autonomy integrates the notion of self-government, and a psychological approach includes the concept of self-regulation (see Benson, 2001: 40-41). Self-government is generally seen from the point of view of social groups or communities. Self-regulation on the other hand is often seen from the individual learner s perspective. Benson s arguments imply that social control over the learning process and content, or collective decision-making, influences and is being influenced by the individual learner s capacity to control and manage her own learning. Consequently, taking charge of one s own learning, or being in control of one s learning, is both a social and an individual construct. The next section will further examine the interrelationship between social and individual control by discussing the notions of independence and interdependence as implied by autonomy Independence and interdependence Benson (2001: 14) points out that the terms autonomy and independence are often used interchangeably, which can create difficulties in discussing autonomy: When independence is used as a synonym of autonomy, its opposite is dependence, which implies excessive reliance on the direction of teachers or teaching materials. One problem with the use of this term, however, is that it can also be understood as the opposite of interdependence, which implies working together with teachers and other learners towards shared goals. Many researchers would argue that autonomy does imply interdependence. (Benson, 2001: 14) 22

42 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review It is indeed generally assumed that the learner is independent to the extent that she is capable of working on her own without help or direction from the teacher or tutor, and dependent otherwise. Such a definition of independence is connected to the notions of self-access and independent learning (see Section 2.1) which in turn brings us to the concept of individualisation of the learning process. The latter can be achieved through the implementation of learner-centred methodologies (see Tudor, 1992 & 1996). Learning how to learn becomes an integral part of the curriculum and various methodologies, inspired by findings from research on learning strategies (see for example Wenden, 1991; Wenden & Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1990; Nunan, 1988; Dickinson, 1987), can be put in place. Such interpretations of autonomy as independence and individualisation can be problematic in at least two ways. Firstly, they constitute a reductive view of autonomy and secondly, they downplay the role of socialisation and interaction in the learning process, which are central to many modern learning theories. As indicated earlier on (section 2.2.1), Esch warns against reducing learner autonomy to a set of learning skills leading to the display of autonomous behaviour (Esch, 1997: 165). By focusing on the individual learner learning a language independently, decision-makers and teachers run the risk of promoting a technical version of autonomy (Benson, 1997), thus favouring the development of learner control of the management of learning over other aspects. Brookfield (1986) takes this view even further. For him, interpretations of autonomy that are reduced to such technical approaches often centre on the idea that the learner is particularly skilled at setting objectives, locating resources, and designing learning strategies. It is a conception that equates autonomy with methodological expertise (Brookfield 1986: 56). He then argues that: It is quite possible to exhibit the methodological attributes of self-directed learning in terms of designing and executing learning projects but to do so within a framework of 23

43 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review narrow and unchallenged assumptions, expectations, and goals. Learning to be a good disciple, to be an efficient bureaucratic functionary, or to be an exemplary party member are all examples of projects in which the techniques of self-directed learning may be evident. In none of these projects, however, is there exhibited critical thought concerning other alternatives, options or possibilities. (Brookfield 1986: 57-58) It is indeed important to distinguish between activities that have been designed to promote learner autonomy and independence and those whose effect is to increase control over the learner (Macaro, 1997: 86). For Brookfield, the most fully adult form of self-directed learning [...] is one in which critical reflection on the contingent aspects of reality, the exploration of alternative perspectives and meaning systems, and the alteration of personal and social circumstances are all present (Brookfield 1986:59). The alteration of such circumstances cannot be done in isolation from those who share them and will more than likely entail some interaction with others. In other words, here again, autonomy cannot be conceived in independent and technical terms only. A political dimension, sometimes called radical (Esch, 1997: ), must underlie any attempt to foster learner autonomy, even in its most simplistic or technical form. Furthermore, concurring with Benson s view presented earlier on (see p. 21), the recognition of the political nature of learner autonomy implies an acceptance of the social consequences of its exercise, i.e. the possible transformation of the social structure of the learning context, in terms of control and power, as well as the transformation of the content of learning. A corollary of a reductionist view of autonomy as independence is that autonomous learners learn in isolation. According to Esch (1997), this is the result of research on individual differences (e.g. Larsen-Freeman, 2001) and of the popularisation of personal computers which gave independence to a generation brought up to think of Computing Centres and Language Laboratories as buildings where one had to go if one wanted to use a computer and/ or practice languages (Esch, 1997: 167). For her, 24

44 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review equating autonomy to individualisation and isolation is misleading. Indeed, it has been argued by others that learner autonomy is rooted in our interactions with others and with the knowledge domains which are our concern. For Boud (1988a: 28-29), the exercise of autonomy has a social context. For Candy (1988: 74), knowledge is socially constructed and consequently learning is a social process. According to Little (1994), [ ] all learning is the product of interaction: learner autonomy does not arise spontaneously from within the learner but develops out of the learner s dialogue with the world to which he or she belongs [...] total independence of other people is the hallmark not of autonomy but of autism, a defining feature of which is the inability to form normal social contacts. (Little, 1994: 431) Basing his argument on Vygotsky s sociocultural theory of learning and development, Little (1994) further claims that [ ] Learner autonomy is the product of interdependence rather than independence [ ] Learners will not develop their capacity for autonomous learning within formal contexts by simply being told that they are independent: they must be helped to achieve autonomy by processes of interaction similar to those that underlie developmental and experiential learning. (Little, 1994: 435) According to this view, learner autonomy is conditional on interdependence. Independence and interdependence are two interrelated facets of autonomy. Autonomy must therefore be understood in both its social and individual dimensions. 2.3 CALL and learner autonomy Computers are often said to support learner independence and interdependence while facilitating and enabling the construction of knowledge about the target language and the development of language skills (see Wolff 1997 & 1998). However, language no longer exists independently of the computer as suggested by Warschauer who claims that learning to read, write, and communicate in the electronic medium [is seen by language learners] as valuable in its own right (Warschauer, 2000: 46). Chapelle 25

45 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review (2001b) stresses that the notion of communicative competence has changed over the years: Language learners are entering a world in which their communicative competence will include electronic literacies, i.e. communication in registers associated with electronic communication. Chapelle (2001b: 2) Shetzer and Warschauer (2000) go even further (see also Warschauer, 2002). Arguing that flexible, autonomous, lifelong learning is essential to success in the age of information (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000: 176), they redefine learner autonomy in terms of an electronic literacy approach to language learning: Autonomous learners know how to formulate research questions and devise plans to answer them. They answer their own questions through accessing learning tools and resources on-line and off-line. Moreover, autonomous learners are able to take charge of their own learning by working on individual and collaborative projects that result in communication opportunities in the form of presentations, Web sites, and traditional publications accessible to local and global audiences. Language professionals who have access to an Internet computer classroom are in a position to teach students valuable lifelong learning skills and strategies for becoming autonomous learners. (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000: 176) Benson argues, however, that claims made for the potential of new technologies in regard to autonomy need to be evaluated against empirical evidence of the realisation of this potential in practice (Benson, 2001: 141). Indeed few studies give a thorough description of what learners do when they are in the process of becoming autonomous language learners and fewer still give a detailed description of the development or exercise of learner autonomy in a technology supported language environment. The relationship between CALL and learner autonomy is either discussed at a theoretical level (e.g. Levy, 1997) or remains a starting point on which design principles and decisions are based (see for example Ingraham & Emery, 1991; Kaltenböck, 2001; Groß & Wolff, 2002; Schwienhorst, 2003). 26

46 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Similarly, CALL has often been criticised for the relative lack of empirical research on the impact of CALL on language learning or acquisition (Benson, 2001: 141). Chapelle (2001b: 51) points out that CALL has always been viewed by some as an experiment requiring scrutiny and justification beyond what is expected of evaluation of other classroom activities. Arguing that an evaluation has to result in an argument indicating in what ways a particular CALL task is appropriate for particular learners at a given time (Chapelle, 2001b: 53), she identifies three levels of analysis for CALL evaluation: CALL software, teacher-planned CALL activities and learners performance during CALL activities. She also suggests that CALL evaluation should entail both judgemental and empirical analyses: These two methods provide different and complementary information both of which are relevant to CALL task evaluation [ ]. The judgemental analysis should examine characteristics of the software and task in terms of criteria drawn from research on SLA. The empirical analyses address the same criteria but through data gathered to reveal the details of CALL use and learning outcomes. (Chapelle, 2001b: 54) Chapelle then outlines a set of six criteria for evaluating CALL tasks that are reproduced in Table 2-1 below: Table 2-1 Criteria for CALL tasks (from Chapelle, 2001b: 55) Language learning potential Learner fit Meaning focus Authenticity Positive impact Practicality The degree of opportunity present for beneficial focus on form. The amount of opportunity for engagement with language under appropriate conditions given learner characteristics. The extent to which learners attention is directed toward the meaning of language. The degree of correspondence between the learning activity and target language activities of interest to learners out of the classroom. The positive effects of the CALL activity on those who participate in it. The adequacy of resources to support the use of the CALL activity. Learner autonomy does not figure explicitly in her model but appears to be subsumed across a number of criteria such as authenticity, practicality, and more specifically, 27

47 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review positive impact, which she defines in terms of the development of metacognitive, intercultural and pragmatic competence (Chapelle, 2001b: 57). The questions proposed by Chapelle (2001b) to assist both judgemental and empirical analyses of the positive impact of CALL tasks mainly relate to the development of language learning strategies enabled by the task (Chapelle, 2001b: 68). Her model thus falls short of providing a framework to fully evaluate the impact of CALL on the development of learner autonomy. More specifically, it does not address the tension between the individual and the social highlighted in previous sections. Nevertheless, Chapelle s distinction between judgemental and empirical evaluation, along with her suggested evaluation and research questions, constitutes a useful starting point for examining the relationship between CALL and learner autonomy Judgemental analyses of CALL and learner autonomy Benson (2001) offers a judgemental analysis of the potential of CALL for the exercise and development of learner autonomy. Starting from Warschauer and Healy s (1998) classification of CALL applications and artefacts, Benson (2001: ) assesses technology-based approaches to language learning with respect to their potential for the exercise of learner autonomy in terms of control over the learning content and process (Table 2-2). From the beginning, CALL applications have been designed to give learners some level of control over some aspects of their language learning. While earlier applications mainly allowed control over the pace of learning and a limited choice over the mode of interaction with the program (e.g. instructional, practice or testing mode), more recent CALL applications, such as the use of Internet, offer much broader opportunities for the exercise of learner autonomy. 28

48 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Table 2-2 CALL stages and learner autonomy (summarised from Benson, 2001) CALL applications and artefacts (from Warschauer & Healy, 1998) Drills, vocabulary and grammar Text reconstruction, games, simulations (problemsolving, cognitive engagement, spoken communication with peers) Word processors, desktop publishing packages, concordancers and databases (Computer tool used to facilitate linguistic processes involved in achieving non linguistic goals or to achieve linguistic goals that could not otherwise easily be achieved) Multimedia, hypermedia and interactive technologies promoting integration of skills (CD-ROMs) (Rich linguistic and non-linguistic input, new language presented through a variety of media, branching options) Internet: , on-line discussion, web authoring Large collaborative projects (opportunities for collaborative learning) Potential for learner autonomy (Benson, 2001) Control over pace of learning; Control over mode (e.g. instruction, practice or testing); Control over path taken Control over text creation and interpretation; Control over process of learning; Development of metacognitive skills and metalinguistic awareness (i.e. cognitive and metacognitive autonomy). Control over the selection of materials and over strategies of interpretation. Control over access Control over learning content; Control over interaction. However, the relationship between the use of CALL and the exercise of learner autonomy may not be as straightforward as Table 2-2 above may suggest. For example, Benson (2001), following Kenning (1996), remarks that, as in the case of self-access, it may be that learners require a degree of autonomy in advance in order to use new technologies effectively (Benson, 2001: 140). This view is reinforced by Schwienhorst s (1998) account of the development of learner autonomy in the context of tandem learning, which is based on two principles: reciprocity and learner autonomy (Schwienhorst, 1998: 119). Describing the potential of desktop-based Virtual Reality (or MOOs) to support tandem learning, Schwienhorst (1998: 125) argues that multi-user Virtual Reality can support the development of autonomous language use as well as learner autonomy. Yet, according to Little (1996a), learner autonomy is a necessary condition if tandem learning is to be successful: 29

49 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review Unless they are given a great deal of guidance and support, learners who have not already achieved a significant degree of autonomy are likely to find tandem-learning difficult to cope with and almost impossible to sustain. (Little, 1996a:28) The above example would thus suggest that some CALL applications may promote the development and the exercise of learner autonomy, provided that learners are already significantly autonomous Empirical analyses of CALL and learner autonomy The views expressed so far are the results of judgemental evaluations based on experience, intuition or theoretical reasoning. Few studies however provide the empirical analyses that are called for by Chapelle (2001b) and Benson (2001). Some studies examine the development of learner strategies in a computer supported language learning environment (see for instance Atlan, 2000), others look at CMC activities and focus on the potential for reflection on both language and language learning process (e.g. Lamy & Goodfellow, 1999). One study, however, explicitly addresses the development of learner autonomy. Murray (1999a) examined how the application of simulation technology might foster both language acquisition and learner autonomy (Murray, 1999a: 296). Murray studied a group of learners of French working on their own i.e. situational autonomy with À la rencontre de Philippe (Furstenberg, 1993), a videodisc program for language learning inviting learners into a fictional community where they can be immersed in the target language and actively participate in its culture (Murray, 1999a: 296). The program also requires learners to work on their own and thus to demonstrate self-discipline and the desire to learn (Murray, 1999a: 300). The starting point of Murray s research is thus a definition of learner autonomy derived from Holec s (1981) original approach, and focusing on control and independence (see section 2.2). Using a variety of qualitative 30

50 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review research techniques (e.g. video ethnography, diary study, interviews, etc.), Murray examines the nature of the learners relationship to the materials offered by the videodisc program. Murray s (1999a) findings are significant in so far that they illustrate a number of tensions that may further inform our understanding of learner autonomy. The first one concerns the relationship between learner autonomy and motivation. Murray s study points to the fact that external pressures arising from learners multiple identities (e.g. spouse, parent, worker, student, etc.) interfere with their desire to learn and leads them to prioritise certain areas. The second point relates to the tension between learners needs for both structure and freedom, which points to a challenge for designers (Murray, 1999a: 301) who thus need to integrate a wide range of choices in their design. Choice is seen by Murray as the backbone of interactivity (Murray, 1999a: 301). In the case of À la rencontre de Philippe, interactivity appears to be much more than allowing learners to control their own interaction with the materials. Interactivity also controls and structures learners experience: [ ] interactivity acted as a control mechanism, not unlike final examinations, to ensure a certain degree of comprehension. As in any learning situation, the participants wanted and needed structure. Interactivity served to structure the learners experience as well as enable them to structure their experience within this framework. [ ] Because autonomy is a highly personal and individual construct, the challenge facing program developers is to enable learners to operate at the degree of autonomy with which they are comfortable. (Murray, 1999a: 301) Finally, Murray emphasises learners engagement as a significant aspect of the impact of the program on learners experience. His results suggest that self-discipline and the desire to learn which he had identified as pre-requisite to successfully complete the program are reinforced by the learners engagement, and more specifically, by their 31

51 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review emotional involvement, which is induced by the structure and the narrative of the program (Murray, 1999a: ). Murray s study is valuable in so far as it contributes to a deeper understanding of learner autonomy by highlighting some of the issues at stake and by proposing ways of counteracting some of the difficulties met by learners. In his study however, learners are already autonomous, both situationally (they work through À la rencontre de Philippe on their own) and psychologically (they already have a capacity to learn on their own, including a strong motivation and self-discipline). Therefore, Murray s study does not fully address the social dimension of the learning context. 2.4 Summary and conclusion This chapter started with a brief overview of self-access as a context for the development and exercise of learner autonomy. It then recalled some representations of learner autonomy found in the earlier language teaching literature: an autonomous language learner takes responsibility for her own learning and can do so without teacher intervention. Such a conception was thought to constitute a reductive definition of learner autonomy. Following Benson (2001), it was argued that autonomy was a complex multidimensional concept, which could be defined in terms of individual and social control over the learning process and content. It was further argued that these social and individual dimensions of learner autonomy were interrelated and influenced each other over time. The last section highlighted the lack of empirical studies concerning the development and exercise of learner autonomy in language learning environments supported by technology, even though learner autonomy underpins the work of many CALL authors 32

52 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review and developers. It also highlighted the limitations of current research and evaluation paradigms with respect to the study of learner autonomy in such language learning environments. In order to fill this void, a new approach to CALL and learner autonomy is required, which integrates individual and social perspectives on learner autonomy while providing a basis to conduct empirical studies in CALL supported environments. The next chapter will propose that cultural historical activity theory provides a suitable framework. 33

53 Chapter 2 -Learner autonomy and CALL: a literature review 34

54 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Chapter 3 Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Chapter 2 highlighted the tensions between social and individual perspectives on learner autonomy. It also highlighted the limitations of dominant CALL evaluation paradigms (e.g. Chapelle, 2001) with respect to learner autonomy research, and the need for empirical analyses. This chapter proposes that cultural-historical activity theory provides a suitable theoretical framework to study the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments. Contemporary activity theory has its origins in Vygotsky s (1978) cultural-historical psychology and Leontiev s (1978) activity theory. Vygotsky s legacy is discussed in Section 3.1 with a particular focus on its contribution to second language learning and learner autonomy research. Section 3.2 then explicates the concepts and principles of activity theory as formulated by Engeström s (1987, 1999a, 2001). Finally, section 3.3 discusses the potential and limitations of Engeström s model for CALL and learner autonomy research. The chapter concludes by proposing a preliminary set of activity theoretical principles to underpin investigations of the development and exercise of learner autonomy in CALL supported language learning environments. 3.1 Vygotsky s legacy Whereas cognitive approaches to learning emphasise intra-personal processes (i.e. individual or independent), others, often labelled as sociocultural, focus on both interpersonal (i.e. social or interdependent) and intra-personal processes in the development of cognition: 35

55 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Cognitive growth, [in Bruner s view] is a matter of growing from the outside in as much as from the inside out. (Driscoll, 2000: 237 on Bruner s theory of learning and instruction) The social origins of higher mental functions are explained by Vygotsky's general genetic law of cultural development as cited by Wertsch (1990:113): Any function in the child's cultural development appears twice, or on two planes. First it appears between people as an interpsychological category, and then within the child as an intrapsychological category. This is equally true with regard to voluntary attention, logical memory, the formation of concepts, and the development of volition It goes without saying that internalization transforms the process itself and changes its structure and function. (Vygotsky, 1981:163) Furthermore, and according to Vygotskian psychology, cognitive functions are socially constructed and culturally transmitted (John-Steiner & Souberman in Vygotsky 1978:126), through the use of culturally determined tools and symbols (Diaz et al, 1990:128). This mediational role of tools, be they psychological (e.g. language, counting systems, diagrams, drawings, etc.) or material, is fundamental to Vygotsky's work and to his contribution to current educational psychology and instructional theories. In particular, language is seen by Vygotsky as the most important mediator of human mental activity. More specifically, his concepts of private and inner speech, and the associated notions of self- and other regulation, are most relevant to our understanding of learner autonomy. These will be discussed in section The most popular Vygotskian concept among language professionals is probably the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which indicates the distance between the assisted and the non-assisted performance of an individual (Vygotsky, 1978: 86). Indeed, the ZPD and one of its instructional interpretations known as scaffolding (Bruner, 1966) or teaching as assisted performance (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990) where the instructor or more advanced peer operates as a supportive tool for learners as 36

56 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy they construct knowledge (Driscoll, 2000: 251) have been the focus of a growing body of research in SLA or in learner autonomy (see for example Donato, 2000; Ohta, 2000; Swain, 2000; Verity, 2000; van Lier, 2000). Yet, critiques of the scaffolding interpretation of the Zone of Proximal Development point to the fact that it does not address the social character of learning, as suggested by Tolman (1999): Too often [the zone of proximal development] has been interpreted simply as a way in which the teacher can aid the learning of a pupil. This completely misses its theoretical intent, which is to reveal the essentially societally mediated nature of human learning. (Tolman, 1999: 75). Although the scaffolding interpretation of the ZPD which suggests that autonomy is the product of interdependence (see Chapter 2) provides a suitable framework to study learner autonomy in its psychological dimension (see for instance Tort-Moloney, 1997), it does not address its political dimension or the tension between social and individual autonomy discussed in the previous chapter. Rooted in Vygotsky s (1978) and Leontiev s (1978) activity theory, Engeström s (1987) formulation of activity theory appears to provide the basis for the establishment of a theoretical framework that integrates the social and individual dimensions of learner autonomy as well as the mediational role of technology in language learning environments. The following sections will briefly outline those Vygotskian concepts that have particularly informed this thesis with respect to the development of learner autonomy and language use. These are firstly private speech and self-regulation, and secondly, activity theory as initially proposed by Leontiev (1978). Engeström s formulation of activity theory will be discussed in section

57 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Private speech and self-regulation As briefly mentioned above, one of the most important psychological tools in Vygotskian psychology is language. Language is a cognitive tool used to mediate the learning process and, therefore, to transform higher mental functions. A related concept within Vygotsky s theory is that of private and inner speech (Mitchell & Myles, 1998). Private speech refers to the apparent conversation that a child is conducting with herself. The function of speech here is not to engage in social interaction but to regulate the child s own behaviour and to assist her in problem-solving. As the child matures, private speech or thinking aloud becomes inner speech that is used to regulate behaviour internally. The concept of private and inner speech is thus linked to the concepts of otherregulation and self-regulation, which are particularly relevant to learning and instruction, whether learners are children or adults. When learning new skills or knowledge, we engage in tasks and activities that initially require assistance or guidance from more capable people. Language then mediates the process which is one of otherregulation. This is an inter-personal process, the learner is interdependent. Eventually, the new skills and knowledge are internalised through a process of self-regulation or control over the psychological and cognitive processes. In other words, what started as an inter-personal or inter-psychological process is transformed into an intra-personal or intra-psychological one. Whereas the learner initially controlled her behaviour from the outside, she now controls it from the inside. As a result of interdependence, the learner has become independent. Self-regulation and the use of private speech in the context of second language acquisition have been the object of extensive research by Lantolf and Frawley who 38

58 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy initiated much of the subsequent work in this area (see McCafferty, 1994; Frawley & Lantolf, 1984 and 1985). According to McCafferty (1994): There are clearly fundamental differences between Vygotsky s approach to cognition and that of information processing theory, but the functional role of cognitive and metacognitive strategies as described in the L2 literature is also characteristic of private speech. In addition, social and affective strategies, commonly included in L2 taxonomies as well, also find functional equivalence in private speech. (McCafferty, 1994: 429) McCafferty argues that the use of private and inner speech as a problem-solving tool can take the function of metacognitive and cognitive strategies (McCafferty, 1994: 429). He further argues that, in the case of social interaction, private speech is also used as a social strategy enabling self-regulation. In fact, the function of speech in L2 interactive situations i.e. involving at least two persons engaged in one activity is not always communicative but can also function as metacognitive strategies as indicated by McCafferty (1994) summarising Donato s findings: [ ] Donato used a Vygotskian perspective to examine L2 learners involved in group interaction. He contends that unlike in two-way interaction, in which one participant usually emerges as the expert, in group problem-solving activities there can be a truly collective effort to set goals and come to an understanding of the nature of the problem (p.278). He argues that this is largely accomplished through a collective externalisation of metacognitive strategies that takes place in the presence of others involved in the same task. Thus, the individual in the group situation is speaking for the self as well as for others in attempting to orchestrate the course of activity (pp ). (McCafferty, 1994: on Donato, 1988: ). Therefore, according to the sociocultural perspective on Second Language Acquisition, and given the right conditions, the development and use of metacognitive and cognitive strategies can be seen as the outcome of language use as well as enabling factors for the development of language proficiency. 39

59 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Activity theory and language learning Cognitive strategies can also be understood as actions motivated by specific objectives and [ ] instrumental to fulfilling specific goals (Donato & McCormick, 1994) within a model derived from activity theory. Activity theory is another fundamental sociocultural concept originating in Vygotsky s work and developed by Leontiev (1978) in the tradition of Marx s historical materialism 7 and with a particular reference to the Marxist concepts of labour and value theory (i.e. the tension between use and exchange value of a commodity). Leontiev defined activity in terms of three constituents (subject, object and tools) operating on three different levels: collective activity, group or individual action, and automatic operation, thus integrating the notion of mediation by other human beings and social relations (Engeström & Miettinen, 1999: 4). An individual (the subject) carries out a number of actions that are directed towards an object (goal or motive). In that, he is assisted by a set of tools (or mediating artefacts), which mediate the relationship between subject and object as illustrated by Figure 3-1 below: Figure 3-1 Leontiev s model of activity theory Tools and artefacts Subject Object 7 It is generally agreed that the mediational theme running through Vygotsky's writings stems from Engels' ideas on the role of tools and human labour as the means by which we transform nature and, as result, ourselves (Cole and Scribner, 1978: 7). 40

60 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy The tools and artefacts are culturally constructed and transmitted, and, as briefly discussed at the beginning of this section (Section 3.1), they can be psychological or material. The important characteristic of actions in work or learning activities is that they are goal-oriented: actions are purposeful, and importantly, not automatic (McCafferty et al., 2001: 289). The activity is determined by its object or motive: similar actions can serve different activities if they are directed towards different goals. Actions become routinised and automatised when they cease to be goal-directed. This corresponds to the operational level of the activity, as explained by McCafferty et al (2001): Wertsch (1979: 88) suggests that operations are unconsciously triggered by the contextual conditions of the task. Therefore, actions are processes directed at, or focused on, the completion of a goal, while operations, although connected with the goal, lack specific goal-directness and are concerned with the material circumstances under which a goal is achieved. (McCafferty et al., 2001: ) Donato and McCormick (1994) illustrate the concept of activity by using the example of the foreign language classroom: A student (a subject) is engaged in an activity, for example, learning a new language. An object, in the sense of a goal, is held by the student and motivates his or her activity giving it a specific direction. In the case of our language learner, the object could range from full participation in a new culture to receiving a passing grade required for graduation. To achieve the objective, actions are taken by the student, and these actions are always goal-directed. [ ] Different actions or strategies may be taken to achieve the same goal, such as guessing meaning from context, reading foreign language newspapers, or using a bilingual dictionary to improve reading comprehension. Conversely, different goals may be fulfilled by the same action. For example, a student may think that a daily review of grammar rules can result, at the same time, in improved reading comprehension, speaking proficiency, or accuracy in essay writing. [ ] [ ] if the goal of the learner was to become proficient in deriving meaning from context rather than from the bilingual dictionary, contextual guessing during reading becomes automatized once the learner becomes adept at this strategy and the specific goal of 41

61 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy guessing meanings in context is no longer a concern for the learner. (Donato & McCormick, 1994: 455) In other words, when coming across an unknown word in the text she is reading, the proficient language learner will automatically use contextual clues to guess its meaning, i.e. without consciously attending to them. Donato and McCormick (1994) argue that once automatized, [a strategy] ceases to exist, and any attempt to train a learner to use this strategy can impede its execution (Donato & McCormick, 1994: 455), thus pointing out the limitations of learner strategies training programmes. However, they also suggest that activity theory recognizes that changing conditions can realign and highlight for the individual the component parts of strategic activity (Donato & McCormick, 1994: 455). For example, should the language learner attempt to read a text whose difficulty is beyond his or her current competence because of an unexpected level of syntactic or semantic complexity (e.g. as encountered in a highly specialised text), the strategy of contextual guessing may be reactivated. Activity theory can thus provide a conceptual framework to study the use of language learning strategies as suggested by Donato and McCormick (1994): Activity theory is germane to the literature on language learning strategies. First, it provides a framework for situating strategy use within the total context of an individual s language learning activity. Additionally, activity theory allows us to define strategies more completely than can be achieved with discrete-items lists and static categories. To analyze adequately language learning strategies requires discussion of all three levels of activity e.g. object-oriented learning activity (why the learner is using a particular strategy), goal-directed actions (how the learner is going about this task), and the operational composition of these actions under particular conditions (how the situation shapes, automatizes or de-automatizes strategic actions). (Donato & McCormick, 1994: 455) The activity theory perspective on language strategies research thus differs from the cognitive information processing approach (e.g. Rubin, 1981; O'Malley and Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990) in so far that it locates strategic competence in the overall language 42

62 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy learning activity. Cognitive approaches to language learning claim that learner autonomy, via the use of a wide range of metacognitive strategies, contributes to language learning efficiency. Training in cognitive and metacognitive strategies is thus thought to enhance language learning (see for example Hsia & Oxford, 2002; Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1991). Sociocultural accounts of strategy and L2 use would suggest that the relationship is actually bi-directional: language learning strategies are both mediators and outcomes of language use. The above discussion, however, rests on an interpretation of Leontiev s original model. In recent years, the development of activity theory has been the focus of considerable interest in the social sciences. In particular, the Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research, led by Yrjö Engeström at the University of Helsinki, has been instrumental in developing an activity theoretical framework and methodologies to study human practice, and in particular work practices, and organisations undergoing transformations through the adoption of technological innovation. The next section will summarise the activity theoretical concepts and principles outlined by Engeström and his colleagues. 3.2 Engeström s formulation of activity theory Drawing on the works of Vygotsky (1978), Leontiev (1978, 1981), Davydov (1988, 1990) and Ilyenkov (1977, 1982) among others, Engeström (2001) enunciates five principles that summarise his approach to contemporary activity theory. These are: Activity systems as the prime unit of analysis Multi-voicedness Historicity Contradictions as sources of change and development 43

63 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Expansive cycles Activity systems as the prime unit of analysis In his drive to develop a model enabling the study of collective work activities, Engeström (1987) expanded Leontiev s (1978) notion of activity, which according to him did not fully represent the collective and societal nature of human activity. The basic structure of an activity system is now defined in relation to six constituents object, subject, tools, community, rules and division of labour operating on the three levels identified by Leontiev (1978), e.g. collective activity, individual or group actions and routinised operations (section 3.1.2, on page 40). Tools and artefacts can be technical or psychological. They are culturally constructed and transmitted: artefacts embody the culture that created them and are the expression of cognitive forms developed within that culture (see for instance, the different functions embodied in scientific calculators used in different cultures), thus carrying with [them] the history of the relationship (Kuutti, 1996: 27). Tools and artefacts take part in the transformation of the object into an outcome, which can be desired or unexpected. They mediate the relationship between the subject (individual or team) and the object of the activity. They are empowering the subject, whose actions can be enabled and enhanced by their use. However, they can also be limiting by obscuring some aspects of the object of the activity: a tool or artefact may restrict the interaction between subject and object from the perspective of that particular tool or instrument only (Kuutti, 1996: 27). The subject is not acting in isolation but is a part of a community, which is shaped and defined in relation to the common object directing and giving sense to the actions carried out by subjects, who can be individuals or groups. The relationship between the 44

64 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy subject and the object is mediated by explicit and implicit rules and conventions. The relationship between the community and the object of the activity is in turn mediated by a division of labour, which encapsulates both the horizontal distribution of tasks between peers and the vertical distribution of power between participants. An activity is a systemic formation and mutual relationships exist between all its constituents. The triad subject object community forms the core of activity systems (Kuutti, 1996: 27), which are represented by triangles, commonly referred to as Engeström s triangles (Figure 3-2): Figure 3-2 Basic structure of an activity system (Engeström, 1987: 78) Tools and artefacts Subject Object Outcomes Rules Community Division of Labour The Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research at the University of Helsinki provides on its website a concrete example of the structure of an activity system located in the medical world: Consider the work activity of a physician working at a primary care clinic. The object of his work is the patients with their health problems and illnesses. The outcomes include intended recoveries and improvements in health, as well as unintended outcomes such as possible dissatisfaction, non-compliance and low continuity of care. The instruments include such powerful tools as X-rays, laboratory, and medical records - as well as partially internalized diagnostic and treatment-related concepts and methods. The community consists of the staff of the clinic, distinguished from other competing or collaborating clinics and hospitals. The division of labor determines the tasks and 45

65 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy decision-making powers of the physician, the nurse, the nurse's aide, and other employee categories. Finally, the rules regulate the use of time, the measurement of outcomes, and the criteria for rewards. (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research 8 ) The physician s work activity described above can easily be transposed into the educational world as illustrated by the example below, which is then represented in Figure 3-3: Consider the work activity of a language teacher working in an Irish secondary school. The object of her work is her pupils education in general and their language education in particular. The outcomes include the intended development of her students language competence required to pass state examinations, as well as unintended outcomes such as possible dissatisfaction, failure in examinations and discontinuation of language education. The instruments include such tools and artefacts as written or oral tests, school records, teaching materials, blackboard, and technology as well as partially internalised teaching methods. The community consists of the school staff, distinguished from other competing or collaborating schools and educational institutions. The division of labour determines the tasks and decision-making powers of the teacher, the head of department, the principal and other employee categories. Finally, the rules regulate the time table and the use of time within a period, the measurement of language learning outcomes, and the criteria for rewards. Figure 3-3 The work activity of a secondary school language teacher

66 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy The first activity theoretical principle enunciated by Engeström (2001) stipulates that the activity system, such as the one described above, must be taken as the prime unit of analysis, rather than individual or group actions: Goal-directed individual and group actions, as well as automatic operations, are relatively independent but subordinate units of analysis, eventually understandable only when interpreted against the background of entire activity systems. (Engeström, 2001: 136). However, a particular activity system does not exist in isolation but interacts with other activity systems. The language teaching activity system illustrated above is part of a network of interacting activity systems, such as those representing the teaching of other disciplines (e.g. maths, science, history, etc.), the management and everyday running of the school, or even the national education system (Lim, 2002). The activity system under study must therefore be seen in its network relations to other activity systems (Engeström, 2001: 136) Multi-voicedness According to Engeström s (2001) second principle, activity systems are also multivoiced formations. Different subjects in the community, whether individual or team, bring their own histories and construct the object in different ways, through their position in the division of labour and their level of familiarity with the mediating tools available to them (Engeström, 1999a, 2001). Consequently, the object of the activity is constantly in transition and under construction, and it manifests itself in different forms for different participants and at different moments of the activity (Hasu and Engeström, 2000: 4, italics in original). The multi-voicedness nature of activity systems is touched upon by Lantolf and Pavlenko (2001), who explore the implications of activity theory for understanding the nature of the relationship between real individuals and languages other than their first 47

67 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001: 143). Following Gillette (1994), they contend that motives and goals are rooted in people s histories. Language learners bring with them different histories which in turn will shape their motives and goals for learning a second language. However, they conclude that, within one class, learners engage in different activities while apparently performing the same task (see also Roebuck, 2000): [ ] from the perspective of activity theory, it is not necessarily the case that all the people in the language classes have the goal of learning the language and the reason for this is because they have different motives for being in the class, because in turn they have different histories. It doesn t matter that in the operational domain they are all engaged in the same overt behaviours, for example, listening and repeating, reading and writing, communicative/ task-based group work. Cognitively, they are not engaged in the same activity. And this is ultimately what matters, because it is the activity and significance that shape the individual s orientation to learn or not. This orientation, in turn, is perceived by us as dynamic and flexible and subject to possible change once the individual s circumstances change. (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001: 148) Lantolf s and Pavlenko s interpretation thus suggests a reduction of activity theory principles by focussing on individual actions, which are seen as independent from the collective activity. Rather than looking at individual actions in isolation, the principle of multi-voicedness recognises the significance of individual histories while highlighting the dynamic, flexible, and at times conflicting, construction of the object. The language teaching activity illustrated earlier (see Figure 3-3 on page 46) may thus look different if seen from the point of view of other subjects in the community. For example, the native language assistant brings her own language learning history and cultural background. Contributing to the school language teaching activity is perhaps her first teaching experience. Her relationship with the pupils may be governed by less formal rules than the teacher s, and she may use a different range of artefacts and methods to help students develop their communicative skills. Her position in the division of labour may also differ from that of the teacher s in so far that her decision- 48

68 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy making power in relation to the implementation of the syllabus are probably constrained by the language department decisions. Consequently, the language assistant is likely to construct the object of the language teaching activity in her own individual way. For example, whereas the teacher may insist on the development of oral competence as required by the state examination, she may emphasise the development of everyday communication skills. Yet, both the teacher and the language assistant are engaged in the same activity: their actions are driven by the need to transform their students into fairly competent language users. The multi-voicedness of an activity can also be revealed through an observable shift between tools and objects. Tools and objects are indeed interchangeable during the activity: the participants unfamiliarity of a tool results in the subject s shift of focus from tool to object and vice-versa (Hasu and Engeström, 2000; Bødker, 1996). For example, the language assistant may not be familiar with examination questions or with the textbooks used by the school as mediating tools. Similarly, her lack of experience with the language laboratory requires her to learn how to use it before bringing her class to practice. The language lab, the textbook and the past examination papers momentarily become the focus of her attention and the goals directing her actions. Conversely, when the teacher explains to the language assistant how to operate the language lab, a focus shift occurs (Bødker, 1996): as the teacher demonstrates the operations of the language lab, which in her case have been routinised through repetition, these become goal-directed actions. According to Engeström (2001: 136), the multi-voicedness of activity systems is a source of trouble and a source of innovation, demanding actions of translation and negotiation. The different constructions of the object by different subjects in the 49

69 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy community will thus lead to a transformation of the activity system, often through retrospective reflection (Lektorsky, 2004): There is constant construction and renegotiation within the activity system. Coordination between different versions of the object must be achieved to ensure continuous operation. Tasks area reassigned and redivided, rules are bent and reinterpreted. (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research). Understanding an activity system thus requires an understanding of its historical evolution, which constitutes Engeström s third principle Historicity The existence of mutual relationships between elements of an activity system along with the mutli-voicedness of activities mean that activity systems are not static but constantly evolve over a long period of time: What initially appears as object may soon be transformed into an outcome, then turned into an instrument, and perhaps later into a rule (Engeström, 1996). For instance, an unusual medical case first appears as a problem, is transformed into a successful diagnosis and treatment, the account of which is used instrumentally as a prototype or model for other similar cases, and is gradually sedimented and petrified into a rule requiring certain procedures in all cases that fit the category. On the other hand, rules may be questioned, reinterpreted and turned into new tools and objects. (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research) Engeström further posits that activity systems problems and potentials can only be understood against their own history (Engeström, 2001: 136). The history of an activity system is embedded in its internal structure and organisation but also in the global history of the tools, procedures, concepts and principles which have become mediators of the activity. Keeping with the example of the language teaching activity system discussed thus far, the procedures and tools employed by the teacher have been accumulated over a long period of time, not only as a result of the historical evolution of 50

70 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy the country education system and of the organisation of the school operations, but also in response to changes and advances in language pedagogy and in educational technologies (see for example Warschauer and Healy, 1998; Chapelle, 2001b; Levy, 1997; Tammelin, 2004) Contradictions Inspired by the work of Ilyenkov on dialectics (1977, 1982), Engeström s fourth principle, and probably the most important in the context of this thesis, concerns the role of contradictions or tensions as sources of change and development (Engeström, 1987; 2001: 137). The term contradiction is not to be understood as problem, obstacle, conflict, or communication breakdown. Rather, contradictions are historically accumulating structural tensions within and between activity systems (Engeström, 2001: 137). According to Kuutti (1996), activity theory uses the term contradiction to indicate a misfit within elements, between them, between different activities, or between different developmental phases of a single activity (Kuutti, 1996: 34). Contradictions characterise activity systems and trigger innovation and change (Engeström, 1987, 2001; Helle, 2000; Barab et al, 2002a). Understanding the underlying contradictions of an activity system is therefore crucial to understanding the system itself (Barab et al 2002a). In the context of work practices, contradictions, "manifest themselves as problems, ruptures, breakdowns, clashes (Kuutti, 1996: 34), or as disturbances, which interrupt the fluent flow of work (Helle, 2000: 87-88). Analysing these disturbances as they occur in a given social practice thus provides a method for uncovering deep, underlying tensions contradictions within the activity system and between a network of activity systems (Helle, 2000: 88). 51

71 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy In activity theory, the concept of contradiction stems from Marxist philosophy, and in particular from Marx labour theory of value. The primary contradiction in capitalist societies is between the use and exchange value of commodities. According to Engeström (2001: 137), this primary contradiction pervades all elements of our activity systems. Here again, the work activity of the physician, borrowed from the Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Research and cited earlier (see Section 3.2.1, on page 44), provides an example of a primary contradiction: The primary contradiction in [the] object of the doctor's work activity takes the form of patient as person to be helped and healed versus patient as source of revenue and profit (or on the flip side, as opportunity to profit by cutting costs). As Leont'ev (1981, p. 255) observed: "The doctor who buys a practice in some little provincial place may be very seriously trying to reduce his fellow citizens' suffering from illness, and may see his calling in just that. He must, however, want the number of the sick to increase, because his life and practical opportunity to follow his calling depend on that." (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research) Similarly, the primary contradiction in the object of the language teaching activity discussed earlier can take the form of the student as a person to be educated and transformed into an autonomous individual possessing a high level of foreign language competence versus the student who will pass the state examinations and contribute to the teacher s (and the school s) success statistics. If we focus on the tools and artefacts, the textbook chosen by the teaching staff is not just useful for teaching and supporting students learning, it is also a commodity marketed and sold for profit by a publishing company (or in the case of a textbook authored by the teacher herself, it is a commodity whose sales increase the teacher s income and status ). Engeström (1987) identifies three additional levels of contradictions. Secondary contradictions appear between elements of the activity system as a result of new 52

72 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy elements entering the activity system from the outside and creating an imbalance. For example, when a new object enters the language teaching activity, such as students with learning disabilities or students who are at a more advanced level than the norm 9, conflicts may arise between the needs of these students and the range of teaching materials or facilities currently available. Tertiary contradictions arise when a culturally more advanced object and motive is introduced into the activity (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research). The adoption by a team of innovative language teachers of a new approach to language teaching and learning may be resisted by some elements of the old teaching and learning activity systems. For example, the tools available (e.g. the technology available may be obsolete) or the administrative rules and procedures in place (e.g. faceto-face teacher-learner and learner-learner interactions) may conflict with the new motive triggered by the need to help their students develop new communicative competences, such as synchronous and asynchronous electronic communication (Chapter 2). Finally, quaternary contradictions, or external contradictions, emerge between the changing central activity and its neighboring activities in their interaction (Center for Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research). The central activity system is seen as part of a network of interacting activity systems, which are all engaged in a transformation process. The language teaching activity used as an example throughout this section does not exist in isolation. It interacts with other activities that may be 9 The use of object rather than subject to define students may appear at first confusing. It must be remembered however, that in activity theoretical terms the subject of an activity refers to the actor or agent whose actions are the focus of the study. In the example given here, i.e. a hypothetical language teaching activity seen from the perspective of the teacher, a distinction needs to be made between teachers as subjects and students as objects (i.e. to be transformed) of the activity. In the context of a language learning activity seen from the perspective of students, the latter will be the subjects of the activity under study. 53

73 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy producing instruments (such as a national curriculum or textbooks), or national policies and rules. Its neighbouring activities may also include other teaching activities such as the science or history teaching activities, which may compete for the use of the computer laboratory. Conflicts and misunderstandings between different language teaching activities may also emerge as a result of different instructional traditions, such as the adoption of different teaching methodologies by different language departments (e.g. a grammar-translation approach in Spanish versus a communicative and task-based approach in French) Expansive cycles The four levels of contradictions discussed above can be seen as triggering a series of transformations, which lead to the creation of a new activity. The earlier examples, which were drawn from a hypothetical language teaching activity, can be brought together to illustrate these transformations. The language teacher, who becomes conscious of the existence of new needs in relation to the language competence of her students, may start questioning the established language teaching practice (primary contradiction). Her attempt to resolve this primary contradiction results in the emergence of secondary contradictions between, for example, tools and object of the central activity. She then engages in the construction of new tools and artefacts, which are progressively adopted by the school language teaching community. The activity system thus moves into a second phase and becomes more culturally advanced. However, the newly formed activity encounters some resistance (tertiary contradictions) due to some persistent features of the old activity. Following a period of imbalance, the new language teaching activity stabilises itself before tensions soon start to emerge between this new language teaching activity and its neighbouring activities. A new cycle of transformations thus begins. 54

74 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy The formation and the resolution of internal contradictions in activity systems provide a basis to analyse what Engeström (1987, 1999a) calls expansive cycles: Activity systems move through relatively long cycles of qualitative transformations. As the contradictions of an activity system are aggravated, some individual participants begin to question and deviate from its established norms. In some cases, this escalates into collaborative envisioning and a deliberate collective change effort. An expansive transformation is accomplished when the object and motive of the activity are reconceptualized to embrace a radically wider horizon of possibilities than in the previous mode of the activity. (Engeström, 2001: 137) Expansive cycles are not repetitive but lead to the emergence of new structures (Engeström, 1999a: 32), through processes of internalisation and externalisation. Internalisation is concerned with the reproduction of culture whereas externalisation, through the construction of new tools and artefacts created in response to internal contradictions and conflicts, contributes to the transformation of culture and practice (Engeström & Miettinen, 1999: 10-11; Engeström, 1999a). For externalisation to occur and to lead to the evolution and transformation of an activity system, the internal contradictions must however be identified, addressed and eliminated (Engeström, 1999a: 35). Both processes are interconnected and present in the expansive cycle of the activity system under study: [ ] the expansive cycle of an activity system begins with an almost exclusive emphasis on internalization, on socializing and training the novices to become competent members of the activity as it is routinely carried out. Creative externalization occurs first in the form of discrete individual innovations. As the disruptions and contradictions of the activity become more demanding, internalization increasingly takes the form of critical self-reflection and externalization, a search for solutions, increases. Externalization reaches its peak when a new model stabilizes itself, internalization of its inherent ways and means again becomes the dominant form of learning and development. (Engeström, 1999a: 34) 55

75 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy The next section will examine the implications of activity theory concepts and principle for describing and analysing language learning activities that aim to foster the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich learning environments. 3.3 Towards an activity theoretical perspective on CALL and learner autonomy Although the principles outlined above are primarily used to analyse work practices undergoing transformations through the introduction of new technologies (see for example Christiansen, 1996; Engeström, 1999b, 2001; Engeström & Escalante, 1996; Hasu 2001; Helle, 2000; Mwanza, 2002b; Turner & Turner, 2001), Engeström s model is increasingly called upon by educational researchers and technologists engaged in the design, evaluation or analysis of computer-supported learning environments (see for example Andreassen, 2000; Barab et al, 2002b; Bourguin, 2000; Lim, 2002; Raven, 2004; Tolmie & Boyle, 2000; Trikic, 2001; Tweddle et al, 2000; ). Some researchers working in the area of Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) or Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) from an HCI and activity theory perspective may focus on the role of information technology in effecting change and in transforming social practice within the educational setting (e.g. Issroff & Scanlon, 2002a). Others may use it as a starting point to design computer systems that will support a variety of learning activities (e.g. Bourguin, 2000). For Issroff and Scanlon (2002a), activity theory provides a language to describe some of the key features of the learning experience (Issroff & Scanlon, 2000a: 82) and its use in describing learning environments highlights problematic features of the learning and teaching setting (Issroff & Scanlon, 2002a: 83). 56

76 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Different authors, however, report various degrees of success in using activity theory in educational settings (Issroff & Scanlon, 2001). The most common difficulty concerns perhaps the modelling and representation of learning activity systems. Indeed, the triangles used to model the dynamic and evolving activity may, paradoxically, convey a sense of rigidity (Issroff & Scanlon, 2001, 2002a; Kuutti, 1996: 33). They may become an end in themselves as opposed to a tool enabling the representation of the constituents of the activity system and its internal contradictions. The potential difficulties encountered when attempting to represent the language learning activity system are aggravated by the flexibility of activity theory concepts and principles. Indeed, the boundaries between the three levels of activity defined by Leontiev (i.e. collective activity, individual actions and routinised operations) are somewhat blurred and depend on the subject and object of real life activities and situations (Kuutti, 1996: 32). Actions that are repeated over time and practiced within the activity may become operations, i.e. actions that have been routinised and automated. Conversely, a change in conditions may trigger an operation to reverse to the action level. Similarly, what constitutes an action from the perspective of a specific actor (e.g. project manager or teacher-designer) may be an activity for somebody else (e.g. programmer or student). Consequently, a certain amount of overlap may exist between the three levels, which may cause the representation of the activity system to be a complex endeavour. Finally, one of the difficulties encountered by researchers may also lie in the distinctive nature of learning activities compared with other form of activities such as work. According to Lompscher, [A] learning activity differs from other kinds of activity in that it aims, above all, at psychic transformations of the subject itself [ ]. Other kinds of activity (play, labor, everyday communication, etc.) may have learning results, too, but they are not consciously aimed at by the subject (though possibly by other persons, e.g., teachers). (Lompscher, 1999: 267) 57

77 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Yet, despite these difficulties, principles derived from activity theory provide a basis for in-depth analyses of language learning environments supported by technology, which encompass both social and individual perspectives on the development of learner autonomy as well as bringing to the fore the role of tools such as technology in the developmental process. As will be shown in the next section, they provide in particular a basis for the expansion of Chapelle s (2001b) framework discussed in Chapter Chapelle s framework revisited According to Kuutti, information technology can support and penetrates activities at all levels (Kuutti, 1996: 34), i.e. at the operation, action and activity levels. At the level of operations, information technology allows the automation and substitution of human operations (e.g. calculations, spell and grammar checks, data manipulation and updating, document formatting, etc.). At the level of actions, information technology can serve as a tool in manipulative and transformative actions directed to an object or to a part of it (Kuutti, 1996: 34). Such tools may include word-processors and other editors, spreadsheets, presentation software, or drawing tools. At this level, Information Technology can also help in actions that are directed toward sense making (Kuutti, 1996: 34) and support communicative actions between participants (Kuutti, 1996: 35). The latter class of technology may include anything that will help participants to take part in the activity ( , computer conferencing, etc.), while the former may include not only on-line resources but also courseware or training packages. Finally, at the activity level, information technology can be the principal enabler for an activity (Kuutti, 1996: 35) either by connecting the participants for example via a network or platform by enabling participants awareness of the object of the activity, or by enabling the construction of new tools or object, the renegotiation of the established rules and of the division of labour. 58

78 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Kuutti s approach reminds us of the classification of CALL tools and artefacts proposed by Benson (2001) with respect to their potential role in supporting learner autonomy (Chapter 2). For example, VLEs, which can potentially support learners control over the overall language learning environment and thus the development and exercise of a social and political autonomy may enable the construction of a new object and the negotiation of new rules or division of labour at the collective activity level. Similarly, multimedia language courseware, word-processors or concordancers, which allow individual learners to take control over the selection of materials, of their language learning process, while providing them with opportunities to develop some language awareness and thus supporting the development and exercise of a psychological autonomy potentially support sense-making and manipulative actions at the action level. Building on his classification of the potential supporting role of IT in activities, Kuutti (1996) argues that by using activity theory, it is in principle possible to discuss issues belonging to different levels within an integrated framework (Kuutti, 1996: 37). The previous discussion thus suggests that the potential of CALL for the development and exercise of learner autonomy can be examined at the levels of collective activity (social and political autonomy), group and individual actions (psychological autonomy), or routinised (technical autonomy) operations. However, activity theory also posits that individual actions can only be understood in the context of the overall activity system in which they are carried out. While Chapelle acknowledges the importance of situating the evaluation of the CALL task or software in its context (Chapelle, 2001b: 52), her set of principles and criteria do not extend to the collective activity (Chapter 2). Chapelle s framework can therefore be interpreted, in activity theoretical terms, as primarily concerned with individual or group actions oriented towards specific language learning 59

79 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy goals and mediated by a CALL task or artefact, as illustrated by the red triangle in Figure 3-4 below: Figure 3-4 Activity sub-triangle addressed by Chapelle s (2001) criteria CALL task or software Individual students Focus on form and Meaning Language learning An activity theoretical approach to CALL evaluation requires locating Chapelle s subactivity (i.e. the individual students actions directed at form and meaning and mediated by CALL tasks or artefacts) in its overall context, which is determined by the collective activity of which it is a constituent part. In other words, the unit of analysis becomes the overall activity system as illustrated by Figure 3-5 below. An activity theoretical approach to CALL evaluation with respect to the development of learner autonomy also suggests the introduction of learner autonomy as a new object, or at least as a desired outcome. 60

80 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Figure 3-5 A new unit of analysis for CALL evaluation: the language learning activity system Tools and artefacts, including CALL Individual students Focus on form and meaning Development of learner autonomy Language learning and Increased autonomy Rules and conventions Language learning community Horizontal and vertical division of labour Chapelle s framework, however, goes beyond a mere evaluation of CALL artefacts and highlights overlapping themes between evaluation of materials or tasks and empirical research (Chapelle, 2001b: 157), which aims to further our understanding of particular phenomena or to answer specific research questions through experience (i.e. through what is observable). CALL materials or tasks evaluations, such as those reported by practitioners at conferences, are at times restrictive in their scope and primarily directed towards making judgemental decisions in relation to the design features of a particular artefact or environment. Chapelle s redefinition of evaluation of materials, which is seen as an argument about appropriateness for a particular purpose rather than as a categorical quality judgement (Chapelle, 2001b: 157) and her distinction between judgemental and empirical analyses thus constitute a useful starting point for examining the relationship between CALL and learner autonomy. Judgemental analyses would aim to assess the potential of CALL tools and artefacts for the development and exercise of learner autonomy, while empirical analyses would focus on the process and the outcomes associated with the development of learner autonomy in context. According to the activity theory principles discussed in section 3.2, the latter should aim to identify the contradictions underlying the language learning activity. 61

81 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy Activity theory based principles for the study of CALL and learner autonomy The adoption of activity theory as the underpinning framework for the analysis technology-rich language learning environments that aim to foster the development and exercise of learner autonomy thus leads to the modification of Chapelle s principles and criteria (Chapter 2) in order to accommodate: The introduction of learner autonomy as a new object of the language learning activity; The definition of a new unit of analysis, i.e. the language learning activity sytem in its interaction with a network of activity systems; The principles of historicity and multi-voicedness; The central role of contradictions in expansive transformations of activities. Table 3-1 illustrates the correspondence between Chapelle s (2001b) principles and those derived from an activity theoretical approach. Chapelle s principles are expanded through a shift from a focus on language learning potential as the principle object of the language learning activity to a focus on both language acquisition and learner autonomy as motives for the overall activity. CALL tasks are now viewed as individual or group goal-oriented actions whose overall direction is given by the motive of the overall collective language learning activity. Furthermore, internal and external contradictions are likely to occur, as a result of the introduction of new technologies (e.g. a VLE) and new objects (e.g. learner autonomy), or simply as the result of the multivoiced construction of the object. A detailed activity theoretical analysis highlighting the internal and external contradictions as well as the relationships between the different components of real-life language learning activity systems should therefore provide 62

82 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy some insights into the potential as well as the barriers for the transformation of the object into the desired outcomes within specific settings. Table 3-1 Activity theoretical principles for CALL and learner autonomy Chapelle s principles (2001b: 52) Principles based on AT Evaluation of CALL is a situation-specific argument CALL should be evaluated through two perspectives: judgemental analysis of software and planned tasks, and empirical analysis of learners performance Criteria for CALL task quality should come from theory and research on instructed SLA Criteria should be applied in view of the purpose of the task Language learning potential should be the central criterion in evaluation of CALL Evaluation of CALL is an activity-specific argument. The unit of analysis is the language learning activity system in its interaction with a network of activity system. The language learning activity system is a multivoiced formation undergoing constant transformation. CALL should be evaluated through two perspectives: 1) judgemental analysis of all the constituents of the learning activity system and of the potential contradictions which may manifest themselves through disturbances or conflicts; 2) empirical analysis of both process and outcomes of the language learning activity, including the identification of the contradictions occurring as the activity is realised by learners, and the internalisation and externalisation of new tools, division of labour, rules and objects. Criteria for CALL task quality should come from theory and research on instructed SLA and learner autonomy but also from activity theory principles. In particular, criteria should highlight those potential contradictions that may be source of development of language use and learner autonomy and those that may prevent it. Criteria should be applied in view of the goals of individual or group actions and of the object or motive of the language learning activity. Language learning and learner autonomy potential should be the central criteria in evaluation of CALL 3.4 Summary and conclusion The chapter began with a brief recall of the main tenets of sociocultural theories of learning and discussed their contribution to learner autonomy research. In particular, cognitive approaches to language learning strategies were reassessed in the light of Vygotsky s concepts of private and inner speech and Leontiev s activity theory. The five principles of activity theory outlined by Engeström i.e. activity systems as the primary unit of analysis, multi-voicedness, historicity, contradictions and expansive cycles were then discussed. 63

83 Chapter 3 - Activity theory perspectives on CALL and learner autonomy The adoption of these principles as a theoretical framework underpinning the analysis of technology-rich language learning environments aiming to promote the development and exercise of learner autonomy led to an expansion of Chapelle s (2001) principles for CALL evaluation. Activity theoretical principles that will form the basis for judgemental and empirical evaluation of CALL with a focus on learner autonomy were then proposed. The next chapter will examine the epistemological and methodological issues that must be addressed if the framework proposed in this chapter is to be applied to study the development and exercise of learner autonomy in real-life technology rich language learning environments. 64

84 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Chapter 4 Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Activity theory provides a theoretical framework and a terminology to study and analyse a variety of phenomena associated with human activities. Chapter 3 argued that activity theory concepts and principles were applicable to CALL and learner autonomy research and evaluation. This chapter considers the epistemological and methodological issues inherent to the operationalisation of activity theory principles in real-life educational settings in general and in technology-rich language learning environments in particular. It then outlines the research design devised to conduct an activity theoretical empirical study of the development and exercise of learner autonomy in the context of language modules offered in Dublin City University. The following chapter (Chapter 5) will detail the methods used in the empirical studies. Section 4.1 examines the challenges that educational researchers must face when adopting such methods. The implications for this thesis are then discussed in section 4.2 and methodology requirements are formulated. Section 4.3 describes the research design adopted for the empirical studies which will be reported in Chapter 6 and Chapter The challenge of activity theory based educational research Activity theory research is generally developmental and derives from Vygotsky s cultural-historical and dialectical psychology (Vygotsky, 1978): To study something historically means to study it in the process of change; that is the dialectical method s basic demand. [ ](Vygotsky, 1978: 64-65, italics in original) 65

85 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Formative or developmental experiments are a central component of Vygotsky s methodology (Scribner, 1985), which Engeström describes as a cyclic methodology for understanding transformations at the individual level, emphasizing the internalization of culturally given higher psychological functions (Engeström, 1999a: 35). Engeström argues that other types of transformations must be studied and that a methodology for studying expansive cycles (Chapter 3) is required (Engeström, 1999a: 35). He calls for formative experiments, involving researcher intervention, that aim at the construction of new models of activity jointly with the local participants through historical and empirical analyses (Engeström, 1999a: 35-36). Engeström and the Center for Cultural Historical Activity Theory and Development Work Research at the University of Helsinki have been particularly instrumental in developing methodologies for developmental work research, which rely precisely on interventions aimed at helping practitioners analyze and redesign their activity systems (Centre for CHAT & DWR). Other centres such as the Centre for Learning and Work Research at Griffith University (Australia) are also constructing research methodologies derived from cultural-historical psychology and activity theory (Stevenson, 2002). In the HCI domain, a number of researchers and computer systems designers have elaborated research guidelines based on activity theory principles. Nardi (1996), for instance, outlines some methodological implications of activity theory for HCI studies. Claiming that activity theory can enrich the needs analysis conducted prior to the design of a new computer system, Mwanza (2001b) proposes a structured methodology to guide the data gathering and interpretation process (Mwanza, 2001b: 2; see also Mwanza, 2001a, 2002a, 2002b). In the fields of educational technology and educational psychology, the search for activity theory based methods is also an on-going pursuit. From a design perspective, 66

86 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Bellamy (1996) examines the implications of activity theory for educational technology and derives principles for the design of learning environments from Vygotsky s theories of child development. From an analytical perspective, Issroff and Scanlon (2001) attempt to revisit earlier case studies in the light of activity theory. In doing so, they face a number of difficulties and conclude that: [ ] Activity Theory provides us with a framework for describing developments over a long period of time within a cultural context. However, we were surprised to find that even in the setting where the framework was providing useful new insights we were not able to use it to find further insights into the fine grained aspects of interactions between individuals within this setting. (Issroff & Scanlon, 2001: 7) To-date, constructing trustworthy and replicable methodologies (Cobb et al, 2001) still represents a challenge for researchers working within a sociocultural or culturalhistorical activity-theoretical framework. The next sections will examine three major issues particularly relevant to this thesis: defining the unit of analysis and delineating boundaries, working with multiple timescales, and designing and conducting a developmental research programme Defining the unit of analysis and delineating boundaries Barab et al (2001) adopt a systematic approach to researching learning as it takes place in technology-rich project-based learning environments. They propose a methodology for capturing and tracing the emergence, evolution, and diffusion of a practice, conceptual understanding, resource, or student-constructed artifact (Barab et al., 2001: 63), which they call Constructing Networks of Action-Relevant Episodes (CN-ARE). They claim that the CN-ARE methodology allows researchers to: [ ] identify relevant data from a complex, evolving environment, and then to organize it into a web of action that can illuminate the historical development (evolving trajectory) of 67

87 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations the phenomenon of interest (e.g.,conception of an eclipse, applications of a mathematical formula, an evolving student-constructed Website). (Barab et al., 2001: 63) Their methodology draws on contributions from interaction analysis (e.g. Jordan & Henderson, 1995), network theories (e.g. Callon, 1987; Latour, 1987), activity theory, and from the notion of tracers, which they use to denote those facts, practices, student productions, or understandings that can be observed and followed over time (Barab et al., 2001: 79). Adopting a network approach, which seeks to construct a network web that illustrates the relations among the nodes [the particular items of analysis] (Barab et al., 2001: 69), Barab et al. use activity theory to determine the boundaries separating the nodes from each other (Barab et al., ibid.). According to them, an activity system can be an entire course, a particular class, or even an isolated event the latter being the unit of analysis adopted in this [study] (Barab et al, 2001: 69). They conceptualise each node of their network as an Action-Relevant Episode (ARE), which they see as equivalent to an ethnographic chunk in qualitative research terms (Barab et al., 2001: 74). Taking a similar approach to Mwanza (2001b), and keeping in line with Vygotsky s mediational triangle and Engeström s expanded model (Chapter 3), they argue that a minimal description of a node conceived as an ARE must include participants and objects, as well as those components that mediate their relations (Barab et al., 2001: 70). Later on, they identify AREs as activity occurrences that are judged to be a significant happening in the learning context, and are delimited by a change in theme, activity, subject, or resources (Barab et al., 2001: 74). In practical terms, the AREs are identified through the coding and analysis of qualitative data according to criteria established by Lincoln & Guba (1985) and Jordan & Henderson (1995), thus integrating grounded theory and interaction analysis into their approach. Whilst the CN-ARE methodology was created in order to capture and explain learners trajectory over a period of time, Barab et al.(2001) are however aware of the limitations 68

88 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations of their approach due to the micro unit of analysis, focusing primarily on episodes as the minimal building blocks in constructing a particular trajectory (Barab et al., 2001: 70). Commenting on their method, Hall (2001: 208) argues that their use of activity theory to define the minimal meaningful context for an activity constitutes a theoretical reduction (ibid) as no attempt is made to integrate the hierarchical structure of human activity as initially defined by Leontiev (e.g. collective activity, individual or group actions, and routinised operations). Hall (2001) questions the author s conceptualisation of the boundaries of AREs as units of analysis and their apparent lack of concern for inner contradictions that characterise activity systems: [ ] are the boundaries of what is meaningful simply fixed at the edges of the intended curriculum, regardless of what individuals are doing? Is there any relevant role for conflict, resistance, or ensuing transformation in collective activity? These are central concerns for current work in activity theory (Engeström, 1999), and they could be important for Barab et al. s analysis too. (Hall, 2001: 208). 10 These concerns are taken on board by Lim and Hang (2003). Using activity theory to study the ICT integration processes in Singapore schools, Lim and Hang focus their analysis on contradictions occurring within and between activity systems and draw on Cole s (1995, 1999) garden-as-culture metaphor (see below) to identify different levels of activity systems that provide the context for classroom activities (Lim & Hang, 2003: 54): Broadly speaking, like gardeners, activity theorists must attend simultaneously to two classes of concerns: what transpires inside the activity system ( garden ) they study (or design and study) and what transpires around it. These issues often seem to be addressable independently of each other, but in reality, they are as interdependent as tasks and context, thought of as the text and context of development [ ] Gardens do not, 10 Some of these concerns are addressed by Barab and his team in a subsequent article, where they use activity theory as an analytical tool to examine the relations of participant and objects as mediated by the primary components that constitute an activity system (Barab et al., 2002). 69

89 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations obviously, exist independently of the larger ecological system within which they are embedded. (Cole, 1999: 92). Adopting an ecological approach to educational research, Lim and Hang present a concentric model of nested activity systems, from the Singapore Ministry of Education to specific schools and classrooms. Following Cole (1995), they take as a starting assumption that changes that are initiated by any of the components of an activity system have an impact on the components of the other activity systems (Lim & Hang, 2003: 54). Arguing that knowledge of the interdependence and contradictions of the activity systems at various levels will provide a better understanding of the ICT integration process (ibid), they restrict their investigation to three levels: the Educational Technology Division (ETD) of the Ministry of Education, schools and classrooms. In practical terms, they choose the classroom activity system as what Hall (2001: 208) calls the minimal meaningful context for an activity and use observation as the main data collection method, supplemented by interviews of selected participants (e.g. teachers, principal, staff member in charge of ICT and students). Their methodology allows them to identify external contradictions occurring between the classroom activity systems and the higher levels (i.e. school and EDT) and internal contradictions occurring within the classroom activity system. In particular, the introduction of ICT in the primary classroom resulted in internal contradictions as other components of the activity system were left unchanged: These led to internal contradictions as ICT provided opportunities of active learning that were not taken up in the classrooms. The contradictions might be between the ICT tools and the DOL (e.g. roles of students and teachers). (Lim & Hang, 2003: 60) Similarly, internal contradictions between rules and tools (e.g. between end of year examinations and ICT) or between rules and object (e.g. between end of year examination and students higher order thinking) were seen as hindering the successful 70

90 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations integration of technology in the classroom (Lim & Hang, 2003: 60). External contradictions were also observed between the object of the classroom activity (e.g. developing higher order thinking) and the object of the school activity (e.g. improving exam results) (Lim & Hang, 2003: 61). These two examples illustrate the broad range of perspectives drawn upon by researchers to define the minimal unit of analysis and to operationalise activity theory in educational settings. While such perspectives are obviously dependent on the research questions investigated, these examples are also indicative of the different levels of analysis chosen by activity theorists: Barab et al. (2001) operate at a micro level while Lim and Hang (2003) concern themselves with a macro level. The results of their respective findings will therefore impact on the educational research community in different ways. Barab et al. s findings can potentially influence the design and implementation of technology-rich project-based learning environments in the classroom, while Lim s and Hang s analysis can potentially inform educational policy at national level. The above discussion highlighted a significant challenge of activity theory based methodologies: the determination of the minimal unit of analysis and the resulting delineation of the boundaries of an activity system. While activity theory stipulates that activity, defined by its object, constitutes the minimal unit of analysis (Leontiev, 1978; Engeström, 1987; Cole & Engeström, 1993), it does not provide precise guidelines on how to define what actually constitutes this unit of analysis (Mwanza, 2002b). In both examples above, this process was assisted, and even mediated, by a range of complementary theoretical frameworks and conceptual tools, made explicit in Barab et al. s account and perhaps less so in the case of Lim s and Hang s article. 71

91 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Furthermore, delineating the boundaries of the activity system under study does not automatically reduce its complexity, when it comes to identify the underlying contradictions. As discussed in Chapter 3, some internal contradictions may manifest themselves through the disturbances interrupting the flow of the activity. Others may not be so easily identifiable, unless relationships between the different elements of the activity system can be established. The dynamic nature of the activity, which transforms itself over time, and the multivoiced construction of its object make it difficult at times to identify and to represent these relationships. The potential difficulties in delineating the boundaries of the activity system of interest and in identifying its underlying contradictions may hinder the development and adoption of methodologies based on activity theory concepts and principles. At the same time however, they stimulate in-depth reflections on what constitutes the minimal context that needs to be included in a particular analysis of a learning environment Working with multiple timescales The issue of delineating the boundaries of the activity system that will constitute the unit of analysis is rendered more complex by the flexible nature of activity theory concepts. As discussed in the previous chapter, the hierarchical structure of activities as conceptualised by Leontiev assumes a degree of flexibility in relation to boundaries between collective activity, individual or group actions and routinised operations. This flexibility, according to Kuutti (1996: 32), makes it difficult to generalise what an activity is and what an action is. One feature that distinguishes between activity and action, however, is their time structure: Activities are longer-term formations; their objects are transformed into outcomes not at once but through a process that typically consists of several steps or phases. (Kuutti, 1996: 30) 72

92 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations For Engeström (1999a), who uses Gould s (1987) notions of time s arrow and time s cycle, action time and activity time are qualitatively different: Action time is basically linear and anticipates a finite termination. Activity time is recurrent and cyclic (Engeström, 1999a: 33). While actions can be studied in a chronological or linear way (i.e. from beginning to end), activities can be studied through the analysis of stepwise formation and resolution of internal contradictions in activity systems (Engeström, 1999a: 33). An important methodological consideration, however, is that neither actions nor activities can be adequately analysed and understood without a back and forth movement between them: [ ] It may be very fruitful to move from the analysis of individual actions to the analysis of their broader activity context and back again. Actions are not fully predictable, rational and machine-like. The most well-planned and streamlined actions involve failures, disruptions and unexpected innovations. These are very difficult to explain if one stays at the level of actions. The analysis of the activity system may illuminate the underlying contradictions that give rise to those failures and innovations as if behind the backs of conscious actors. (Engeström, 1999a: 32) From a social-ecological perspective, Lemke (2001) makes a similar claim: to understand a specific level of a complex system, we need to look at the level immediately below and also at the level immediately above the one we are interested in (Lemke, 2001: 17-18). Lemke also argues that learning activities need to be analysed across multiple timescales. According to him, multiple time scales analyses are at the core of sociocultural approaches to learning and development: Sociocultural approaches to learning and development are not just about social interaction [ ]. They are more significantly about the role of longer time-scale constancies and how they constrain, afford, and intrude into moment-to-moment activity. (Lemke, 2001: 19) 73

93 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Lemke (2001) thus criticises classroom-based short-term events studies, which tend to be restricted in terms of timescales and scope. Classroom observations are useful in revealing the short-term development of a meaningful practice, but not the longer term development of a meaning-making disposition, an attitudinal stance, a habitus (Bourdieu, 1990) (Lemke, 2001: 20). Studying activities across longer term timescales presents however a number of conceptual and practical challenges, as remarked by Lemke (2001): To analyze human social activity, development, and learning across multiple time scales, we must be as willing to look at biography and history as at situations and moments, as methodologically and theoretically prepared to study institutions and communities as to study students and classrooms. (Lemke, 2001: 25) Both activity-theoretical and social-ecological perspectives on human activity thus raise important practical questions in relation to the multiple timescales across which learning and development are taking place. The issue here is not only one of long-term (as is commonly understood by longitudinal studies ) versus short-term (as in classroom observation over a few lessons). It is rather one of interdependence between the longer term collective activity and short-term individual actions or events (Lemke, 2001). This view concurs with that of Engeström s recalled earlier (on page 73) on the explanatory role of the internal contradictions occurring in activity systems in understanding individual actions situated in a given activity. Therefore, in addition to the challenge of delineating boundaries discussed in the previous section, activitytheoretical researchers also face the challenge of constructing methodologies that will enable them to capture learning and development as it occurs across multiple timescales. The next section will briefly discuss the implications of this on research designs. 74

94 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Designing and conducting a developmental research programme The challenges of defining the unit of analysis and of working across multiple time scales were brought to light by examining some of the educational research literature primarily concerned with developmental research within sociocultural approaches to learning and development (e.g. within situated and distributed cognition paradigms), or within a cultural-historical activity theory framework. In terms of their research design, the studies briefly discussed in section illustrate some of the methodological issues that arise when departing from more traditional experimental designs in order to adopt a developmental method. One particularly interesting reflection on methodology and methods is the account of Cobb et al. s (2001) developmental research focusing on students participation in classroom mathematical practices. Their approach involves both instructional design and classroom-based research (Cobb et al., 2001: 115) in a design-research cycle rooted within a situated cognition framework. The instructional design aspect of the design-research cycle is guided by a domain-specific instructional theory (Cobb et al., op. cit.), while the classroom-based research aspect of the cycle is informed by an interpretive and analytical framework (Cobb et al., 2001: ). For them, the relation between theory and instructional practice is one of reflexivity in which the development of theoretical ideas is driven by and remains rooted in instructional practice that is itself guided by current theoretical ideas (Cobb et al., 2001: 118). Leaving aside the instructional design aspect of the design-research cycle, Cobb et al. s (2001) methodology involves firstly the collection of a large corpus of data over a number of months and secondly the development of an interpretive framework to analyse the emergence of mathematical practices over a number of months. Both entail a high level of complexity and simultaneously yield valuable and problematic findings 75

95 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations and interpretations (see Hall s critical comments, 2001: ). The corpus of data mainly consists of video-recordings of researchers working with selected students, field notes, and students written work. Interviews with all students before and after the teaching experiment were also recorded. Data are encoded following a method adapted from Glaser s and Strauss s (1967) grounded theory and constant comparative method, which involves inspecting and comparing all the data fragments that arise in a single case (Silverman, 2001: 239). The interpretive framework developed by Cobb et al. (2001) attempts to coordinate social and psychological perspectives: The social perspective [ ] is concerned with ways of acting, reasoning, and arguing that are normative in a classroom community. From this perspective, an individual student s reasoning is framed as an act of participation in these normative activities. In contrast, the psychological perspective focuses squarely on the nature of individual students reasoning or, in other words, on his or her particular ways of participating in communal activities. (Cobb et al., 2001: ) Each perspective draws on a number of theoretical constructs that have been adapted and modified to suit the researchers pragmatic focus on supporting and organizing students mathematical learning (Cobb et al., 2001: 120). These modified theoretical constructs have their origins in sociocultural theory, ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism for the social perspective and in Piagetian constructivism and distributed accounts of intelligence for the psychological one (Cobb et al., 2001: ). Cobb et al. s article exemplifies the developmental research features that are shared by sociocultural and cultural-historical activity-theory perspectives on educational research, and which have been discussed in earlier sections. It may thus be useful to briefly recall them. Firstly, a significant feature of classroom-based developmental research relates to the coordination of psychological and social perspectives on learning 76

96 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations episodes across multiple timescales: individual episodes only make sense when looked at over a period of time in conjunction with the emergence of a communal classroom practice (Cobb et al., 2001: 122; see also Engeström, 1999a). Secondly, researchers intervene in the teaching experiment and engage in instructional interactions with the students. Finally, a large corpus of data is collected and interpreted according to a framework, which itself is congruent with the overall aims of the research project and derived from explicit epistemological assumptions. The article also reveals a number of difficulties that are common to classroom-based studies in general and to developmental studies or formative experiments in particular. As Hall (2001) remarks: There are challenges and trade-offs for any set of methods that simultaneously hope to look closely at moments of interaction and to follow these across place and time in complex instructional environments. (Hall, 2001: 219). The first challenge identified by Hall (2001: 219) concerns access to a suitable site where a teaching experiment can be conducted. This may involve a long term relationship between the researchers and the site. Access to a stable technological infrastructure may also pose a challenge if computers are to be a significant part of the teaching experiment. Moreover, the studies described earlier (such as Barab et al. s, 2001, and Cobb et al. s, 2001) required a team of researchers as opposed to an individual researcher. The second challenge relates to the constitution of a corpus of data that will prove adequate for an ongoing or later analysis, and which will focus on both psychological and social perspectives while spanning over months or years. Selecting which data to record can be problematic as, according to Hall (2001), capturing the data on which to base a subsequent interpretation can only be selective with respect to what can be a 77

97 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations topic for later analysis (Hall, 2001: 220). Furthermore, recording a large amount of data over a period of time creates heavy demands on the researchers time and focus of attention in addition to the technical demands of the chosen methods (e.g. operating the video camera while writing field notes). Managing the pace of analysis and the pace of teaching and design constitutes the third challenge identified by Hall (2001): There are complex issues concerning the pace and topic for analysis, and the daily demands of teaching and managing a complex classroom study place limits on what can be found or followed in a growing set of field data. (Hall, 2001: 220) Taking an activity-theoretical perspective on the process of classroom-based studies, a related challenge concerns the tensions that may result from the interaction between the research and teaching activities. In particular, it may be difficult to identify teachers willing to participate, through fear of criticism and of work disruption, in long term studies that entails the presence of researchers-observers in the classroom (Quinsaat, 1997). Issues of managing the pace of analysis and the pace of teaching become even more critical when the study is conducted by a single teacher-researcher, as is often the case in CALL research. Furthermore, contradictions and tensions may arise as a result of conflicts between the two roles assumed by the same person. Murray (1999a) suggests that the role chosen by the researcher affects not only the quality of information received [ ] but the eventuality of receiving any information at all (Murray, 1999a: 188). A trusting relationship between researcher and subjects of the study needs to be established from the very beginning of the research. In addition, ethical considerations may impose restrictions not only on the desired pace of data analysis but also on the methods used to collect data. 78

98 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations 4.2 Implications for this thesis So far, the current chapter has explored a range of epistemological and methodological issues pertaining to developmental classroom-based research. The scope of the studies discussed in earlier sections goes beyond that of this thesis, not only in terms of the breadth of their research questions and objectives but also in terms of the magnitude of the empirical studies that were conducted. Indeed, for the most part, they involved a team of researchers collecting a large corpus of data over periods of time from a semester to a couple of years. The design of an activity theory based research programme to study the development of learner autonomy in CALL-mediated language learning environments requires however that the very same issues be acknowledged and taken into account when making methodological choices Research questions As indicated in the introductory chapter, this thesis seeks to provide new insights into the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments. More specifically, it addresses the following research questions: Question 1: What factors contribute to or prevent the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments? Question 2: What do learners do when in the process of becoming autonomous language learners? Is it possible to give a description of this process? Question 3: Can we formulate principles and criteria for the design, implementation and evaluation of technology-rich language learning environments promoting the development and exercise of learner autonomy? So far, it has been argued that the development of learner autonomy has to be examined from two interdependent perspectives, i.e. social and psychological. While activity 79

99 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations theory concepts and principles provide a language and a conceptual framework to discuss the interdependence of social and individual perspectives in language learning activities, they do not provide a set of tried methods to answer the above questions. Consequently, it is necessary to formulate a set of methodological requirements Methodological requirements In order to coordinate technical, psychological and social/political perspectives on CALL and the development and exercise of learner autonomy as discussed at a theoretical level in earlier chapters, three principal methodological requirements can be derived from the previous discussion and from the arguments presented in earlier chapters. These are: 1) The need to define the unit of analysis as the overall language learning activity providing the context for the CALL tasks, as opposed to individual actions (or to action-related episodes 11 ), and to delineate the boundaries of the activity systems under study (i.e. a full language course, a lesson, a CALL laboratory session, or an on-line collaboration episode); 2) The need to capture the disturbances and the relationships within and between elements of interacting activity systems that will help to identify the internal and external contradictions that promote or prevent the development and exercise of learner autonomy in CALL mediated language learning environments; 11 An equivalent of action-related episodes as units of analysis also exists in sociocultural Second Language Acquisition research. Language-related episodes have been studied by authors such as Swain and Lapkin (1998). 80

100 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations 3) The need to capture data across place and multiple timescales as opposed to single episodes (such as an hour in a computer laboratory), so that the longer term development of learner autonomy can be revealed. The third requirement is probably the most challenging one in the context of a research project conducted by a single teacher-researcher with limited resources. Furthermore, the increasing use of web technologies in CALL and the rapid development of distance language learning point to the need for alternative methods to classroom-based observations and direct face-to-face intervention from researchers. The question of the feasibility, and indeed appropriateness, of developmental research methods for investigating the relationship between CALL and the development of learner autonomy therefore arises. In particular, the researcher intervention may be mediated by the tools, which are also the object of the study (Mann & Stewart, 2000). However, log files generated by a Virtual Learning Environment tracking system or by screen capture software may provide significant information on the actions and operations performed by students, whether outside or inside class time and observable computer laboratory sessions (Beatty & Nunan, 2004; Hegelheimer & Tower, 2004). One alternative to classroom-based observations proposed by this thesis is the collection, analysis and activity-theoretical interpretation of material-semiotic artefacts. Lemke (2001) defines a material-semiotic artefact as a material object that carries significant information across time and space and that serves, through local interpretation, to create coherences between distal events (Lemke, 2001: 21). Examples of material-semiotic artefacts that can be found in the language classroom, or in a language resource centre, include textbooks, students notebooks, video and audio tapes, language learning software, authentic written texts, etc. These textual artefacts afford 81

101 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations heterochrony (Lemke, 2000) 12 : they link longer-term processes and shorter-term events. For example, when a student refers to his/her vocabulary notebook when writing an assignment, the notebook participates in a process on a much longer timescale than either the event of writing or the event of reading that particular note (Lemke, 2000). One particularly interesting category of material-semiotic artefacts are those artefacts constructed by students during the language learning activity, such as reflective accounts involving both introspection and retrospection. Diaries, journals or logs, created by students to document and to reflect on their learning trajectory over a period of time, potentially carry significant information on the development of learner autonomy across time and space. According to Nunan, diary entries can provide insights into processes of learning which would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain in any other way (Nunan, 1992: 123). Diaries studies are increasingly considered as a possible research method in CALL (see for example Murray, 1999a & 1999b; Myers, 2001; Halbach, 2000; Levy, personal communication). For example, they have been used to explore learners CALL experiences (Murray, 1999a & 1999b), to investigate the use of students language learning strategies (Halbach, 2000), or to examine the impact of diary writing on academic writing and self-reflection (Myers, 2001). Diaries also have a pedagogical function. Keeping a diary presents a number of learning opportunities that are particularly relevant to second language learning (Nunan, 1992: 120). For example, diaries may help to promote learner autonomy by encouraging students to take responsibility for their own learning, by facilitating a dialogue between teacher and learners, or by helping students make connections between their language classroom experience and their learning and use of the target language outside the

102 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations classroom (Nunan, 1992). Furthermore, keeping a learner diary through the target language may enable learners to reflect on their own learning process while using the target language and developing their fluency and self-confidence. Other learner constructed artefacts of interest include students postings in a CMC environment, websites and other artefacts published on the Internet. These artefacts serve a variety of purposes in the learning process (e.g. they may appear first as goal of a certain chain of actions before becoming mediating tools) on a much longer timescale than either the events of publishing or posting these particular artefacts, or the event of accessing, downloading or reading them. Analysing these artefacts requires the development of suitable instruments so that the second requirement can be met (see page 80). Coding schemes must be devised, which will capture the disturbances occurring during the realisation of the language learning activity by individual or groups of students, and which will highlight the relationships between the elements of the activity system under study. This entails modelling the activity system in terms of its actual constituents. Modelling and representing the activity system under study necessitate first of all that its boundaries be delineating and that its position within a network of interacting activity systems be identified. Defining the unit of analysis and locating it in its overall cultural and historical context is therefore the prerequisite to any subsequent methodological step or procedure Defining the unit of analysis and delineating boundaries: the case of DCU Dublin City University (DCU), and more specifically, the School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies (SALIS), provided the overall context for the language 83

103 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations learning activity systems chosen as units of analysis for the empirical studies that will be reported in subsequent chapters. Cultural and historical background The School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies (SALIS) in Dublin City University was established in the early eighties. It soon developed a solid expertise and a national reputation in the fields of applied languages and translation studies. More specifically, translation technology and the teaching of foreign languages to students of other disciplines, such as Business Studies, Accounting and Finance, and International Marketing were at the core of many course development and research projects carried out during this early period by academic staff. Around the mid-nineties, the concepts of e-learning and learner autonomy were gradually finding their way into the DCU academic community discourse. The Semi- Autonomous Language Learning Unit (SALLU) was established in 1993 following the receipt of a substantial grant awarded by the Higher Education Authority (HEA) under the European Social Fund (ESF) programme. The initial mission of the unit was to increase and to support SALIS s provision of language education to undergraduate students of other disciplines (e.g. Communication Studies, Journalism, Business Studies, Science, etc.), and to facilitate the integration of ICT in the language curriculum. As soon as 1995, the use of the facilities audiovisual and multimedia laboratories, networked computers, materials, etc. was extended to all students studying languages, either as a major or minor component of their degree. In 1996, semesterisation and modularisation were implemented throughout the university. Consequently, all language courses were revised to conform to the new rules and regulations. This triggered the introduction of new teaching methods, which 84

104 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations included project-based learning and the development of both independent and collaborative learning. For example, learner diaries, which had been piloted in the context of French for Business courses by this researcher, were adopted by the school as a whole and integrated into all first year language modules. At the same time, SALIS further expanded its research and teaching domains to include comparative literature and intercultural studies. However, many difficulties were soon to be encountered: falling students numbers, reduced budget and a definite lack of resources, obsolete equipment, tensions between staff members in relation not only to the new directions taken by the school but also to different approaches to language teaching and learning, and an increased resistance, if not obstruction, to innovation in teaching methodologies and to technology. All contributed to the closure of SALLU in the summer of 2001 and to the search for a new conception of self-access and independent learning for foreign language learning in Dublin City University. Yet, these difficult times were also the source of transformations and innovations in the teaching and learning of languages. New scientific, computing and engineering degrees were launched, which comprised a significant foreign language component: BSc in Physics with French/German, BSc in Chemistry with French/German, BSc in Applied Computational Linguistics (with French or German) and BEng/MEng in Electronic Systems (with French). At the university level, new technologies had been gradually brought in. Videoconferencing and Virtual Learning Environments were thus introduced, on a pilot basis, in the French curriculum delivered to students of science and technology. 85

105 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations The French for Science and Technology curriculum The above degrees require students to spend one or two semesters in a French university or Grande École through the Erasmus programme. This period of residence and study abroad usually takes place in the third year of the relevant programme. The compulsory period of residence abroad on one hand and the potential professional or academic life after graduation on the other constitute two separate, yet convergent, motives or problem spaces. The French component on these programmes is thus designed, firstly, to prepare students for their period of residence abroad and, secondly, to prepare them for a professional or academic career involving the use of the language at an advanced level. Consequently, the language curriculum adopts strong elements of Language for Specific Purposes (LSP). Over the years, a number of DCU academics, either from the Science Faculty or from SALIS, have realised that the major difficulties faced by science and engineering students during their period abroad relate to their academic integration into the host institution. These difficulties are often made worse by a certain lack of awareness of the differences in science education between the two countries on the part of the host institution and the students themselves. Consequently, one of the main objectives of the French for Science and Technology programme is to bring students to reflect on the different cultural representations of a given concept and to become aware of the way they themselves deal with these representations 13. A second objective is to enable students to develop strategies that would help them express, through French, their 13 A simple example is the way long divisions are done in France as opposed to Ireland. Both countries use a different symbolic representation, or tool, to assist in the computation. By adulthood, the way to compute long division is so internalised that it is extremely difficult to comprehend how it can be done in a different way. More complex examples would include, the representation of electromagnetic waves. It would seem that French students are much at ease with Euler formulae, which is far from being the case for Irish students 86

106 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations difficulties and to interact with French lecturers and peers so that learning can actually take place when abroad. The first two years of the French programme are thus motivated by the students need, as perceived by the academic staff, to become autonomous learners of their own specialism as well as of the target language. The French modules offered to students do not, however, focus exclusively on scientific language and culture. The first year curriculum is primarily concerned with the development of learner autonomy and with the consolidation and improvement of language skills in general. Between 1996 and 2001, all first year students had to attend one general French module in each semester (FR130 and FR140 respectively). In addition, physics and chemistry students were also registered on two French for Science and Technology half-modules (FR119 and FR129). The proportion of scientific language modules was increased in Year 2. Integration of ICT in the language curriculum The French for Science and Technology programme has been supported from the start by ICT. Electronic databases and the web are extensively used to retrieve and organise information while students produce language in the form of oral and written presentations, web pages or scientific posters, using generic Windows applications. Domain specific packages, such as Chime, IsisDraw and Microsoft equations, allow students to produce symbolic expressions and diagrams. In addition, a small range of CALL packages are available to students (e.g. commercial CD-ROMs designed for beginners and intermediate learners, in-house exercises created with authoring packages, etc.). However, lack of space and resources in SALLU on one hand, and expanding facilities outside the unit on the other, necessitated a consideration of a possible move towards a 87

107 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), which would be accessible to students and lecturers from everywhere, on and off campus, and which would complement the existing structure. In September 1998, Oscail (the National Centre for Distance Education based in DCU) provided this researcher with access and administrator rights to TOPCLASS 14, a web-based VLE being used on a trial basis with Distance Education students. Between October 1998 and February 1999, TOPCLASS was used to support the French for Science and Technology curriculum from Year 2 onwards, through experimental development and distribution of teaching materials. It was also used to expand the opportunities for learner-learner and teacher-learner interaction outside scheduled classes. Each student was registered in one or more virtual classrooms corresponding to the French modules followed. During this initial phase, the discussion area was the most extensively used feature of the system. In some classes however, content-oriented materials were generated by students and distributed via the system (see Blin & Donohoe, 2000). Unsurprisingly, the immediate effect of the introduction of TOPCLASS in the learning environment was the integration of distance learning elements with traditional face-toface instruction. This provided increased opportunities for independent and collaborative work, and for learner-learner and teacher-learner interaction, thus increasing the opportunity for language use outside the scheduled face-to-face classes. In February 1999, a virtual classroom was created to support the French modules delivered to first year students. 14 TopClass is distributed by WBT Systems: 88

108 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations A network of language learning activity systems This brief historical overview of the development and transformation of the overall context of the French for Science and Technology Programme in DCU between 1996 and 2001 highlights three distinct activities that are shaped by their respective objects or motives and that can be clearly identified in terms of time and place. The first activity is directed towards the preparation for the year abroad while the third one is directed towards the preparation for the professional or academic life that will follow graduation. Both are situated in DCU, thus within institutional boundaries that exert some influence on the realisation of each activity. The second activity, realised abroad, interacts with the DCU-situated activities as illustrated by Figure 4-1 below. Figure 4-1 Language learning sub-activities Activity 2 (host institution-situated) Year 3 Activity 1 (DCUsituated) Activity 3 (DCUsituated) From the university viewpoint, and from the language teaching staff s perspective in particular, activity 1 is motivated by the future realisation of activity 2. Its desired outcomes are the transformed subjects, in terms of language proficiency and autonomy, who will take part in the next activity. Activity 2 is in turn motivated by the DCU requirements to bring back credits from the host institution (through the successful 89

109 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations completion of a pre-determined diet of modules, projects or work placements) and to improve language proficiency and cultural knowledge. The desired outcome of activity 2 is thus an additional transformation of the subjects who will now participate in activity 3, which is itself motivated by graduation and future career or academic prospects, or simply by a desire for self-development. Each activity can be further divided. For example, activity 1 evolves over two academic years through the realisation of a number of language modules. Each French module, which is specified in terms of learning objectives and outcomes according to the university regulations and common practice, can thus be conceived as an activity system in its own right. For clarity of purposes, each language activity system is identified by the corresponding module code as described in Table 4-1 below: AS Module code Table 4-1 Sub-activity systems (AS) in Year 1 Official name of module Semester Programme of studies AS1 FR130 French Language 3 (Intermediate) AS2 FR140 French Language 4 (Intermediate) 1 BSc in Physics with French; BSc in Chemistry with French; BSc in Applied Computational Linguistics; BEng in Electronic Systems 2 BSc in Physics with French; BSc in Chemistry with French; BSc in Applied Computational Linguistics; BEng in Electronic Systems AS3 FR119 French for Science 1 1 BSc in Physics with French; BSc in Chemistry with French AS4 FR129 French for Science 2 2 BSc in Physics with French; BSc in Chemistry with French For the purpose of this thesis, the two sub-activity systems AS1 and AS2, corresponding to the Year 1 French language (Intermediate) modules FR130 and FR140 delivered during the academic year , were selected for the investigation. This choice was motivated by a range of factors but two were particularly determinant. Firstly, first year Irish students, who for the most part have just finished secondary school, are often seen by the university community as teacher or examination dependent. During their 90

110 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations first year in DCU, they are expected to develop a certain level of personal and social autonomy. At the same time, they have to adjust to new ways of life: many of them leave the family home for the first time. A significant group of students starting afresh a French Intermediate curriculum, that explicitly focuses on the development of both learner autonomy and language use while making intensive use of ICT, seemed to be the ideal subjects for the study. Secondly, as the two general language modules (FR130 and FR140) were taken by all students enrolled in one of the science and technology programmes mentioned above, a larger group of students could participate in the study (i.e. about 40). 4.3 Research design The research design involved firstly an instructional design aspect (Phase 1) and secondly a classroom-based research aspect focussing on the implementation of the syllabus (Phase 2 and Phase 3) by the teacher allocated to the course, followed by a data analysis and interpretation phase (Phase 4) as illustrated by Figure 4-2 (on page 92). During Phase 1, the teacher and I 15 devised new syllabi for the two chosen modules FR130 and FR140, and developed teaching materials and assignments, which emphasised the use of ICT and the development and exercise of learner autonomy. This preliminary phase built on previous work (Blin 1996a, 1996b, 1996c). The design of the syllabi was constrained by the university norms and regulations, and by the technology available. In particular, existing objectives, indicative syllabus and assessment procedures could not be changed. An assessment grid to evaluate learner diaries was 15 In this section and thereafter, the first person singular is used when it was deemed necessary to indicate the personal and direct involvement of this researcher. The first person plural refers to the teacher and me. 91

111 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations also developed. The results of the instructional design process will be presented and analysed in the next chapter (Chapter 5). Figure 4-2 The four phases of the research design Phase 1 Instructional design Development of assessment grid for diaries Revised syllabi for FR130 and FR140 Development and production of teaching materials and course documents in cooperation with teacher Assessment strategies and methods Phase 2 Implementation of FR130 (Oct 98 Jan 99) Delivery of module by teacher to 38 students No direct researcher intervention but close collaboration between teacher and researcher Teacher assessment of students performance Data collection and storage Phase 3 Implementation of FR140 (Feb 99 Jun 99) Delivery of module by teacher to same 38 students Direct researcher intervention (limited online and FtF instructional interaction) Teacher assessment of students performance Data collection and storage Phase 4 Data analysis and interpretation (from Jan 2000) Modelling of activity systems Selection of sub-set of data to be analysed for each study Constitution of electronic corpus (e.g. transcription of handwritten data) Development of coding scheme Data encoding Identification of underlying contradictions Activity theoretical interpretation 92

112 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations The syllabi were then implemented during the academic year (Phase 2 and Phase 3) by a part-time teacher who had been working very closely with me over a number of years and who had agreed to take part in the study. She was directly responsible for the delivery of the two modules. The overall design and implementation of the complete French for Science and Technology programme that these students were following over four years had however been my responsibility since the early 1990s. I was also ultimately responsible for the assessment of the students performance, even though I was not involved in the actual grading Epistemological assumptions The instructional design aspect of this study is informed by the theory and practice of learner autonomy (Chapter 2), and by sociocultural concepts derived from Vygotskian approaches to learning in general and language learning in particular (Chapter 3). Learner autonomy is thus seen as a combination of complex social and individual constructs. The development of both independence and interdependence is central to the development of learner autonomy. A language curriculum aiming to promote the development and the exercise of learner autonomy must therefore address the three dimensions identified in Chapter 2, i.e. social/political, individual/psychological and technical. In terms of pedagogical applications, collaborative and project based learning are believed to enhance the development of learner autonomy and language use. To a lesser extent, cognitive approaches to language learning, and in particular in the area of learning strategies training, also contributed to the overall design approach. The classroom-based research aspect of the study involved the implementation of revised syllabi over two consecutive semesters during the academic year , and the collection of a corpus of data for a later analysis and interpretation. The 93

113 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations interpretive framework underpinning this second aspect of the study draws on culturalhistorical activity theory Methodological choices As discussed previously, developmental research rely on the direct intervention of researchers. In the case of educational research, this is often translated by the active participation of researchers in the classroom and thus in the teaching process, through instructional interaction. The limitations of these studies were discussed in section 4.1, which also highlighted some of the difficulties encountered when engaging in classroom-based studies. In the case of this study, while access to a site did not present a problem, access to the classroom proved to be more difficult, due to the SALIS management and administration reluctance to alleviate timetable constraints and to facilitate joint teaching at the time of the study. Each module involved three face-to-face contact hours per week over a twelve-week semester. Due to a heavy teaching and administrative workload and to a lack of flexibility in the organisation of teaching activities within the university structures, my direct intervention in the classroom was restricted to one hour a week in Semester 2. Whereas my intervention in Semester 1 was limited to the production of course materials and to constant engagement with the teacher, Semester 2 provided me with opportunities to interact directly with the students, either face-to-face or electronically. However, the impact of these direct instructional interventions on the development of learner autonomy was difficult to identify and undoubtedly limited. A corpus of data for later analysis was constituted over the two semesters, which consists of most of the artefacts created by learners over the two semesters, such as learner diaries and assignments. This choice was motivated by the difficulties in 94

114 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations accessing the classroom for regular observations and by the need to capture learners behaviour outside the classroom. Other data sources included background questionnaires, informal conversations and interviews with students and the teacher, computer log files, end-of-year oral presentations, notes and observations, and institutional documents (e.g. modules descriptors, course materials, etc.). The constitution of the corpus of data was constrained not only by practical issues but also by ethical considerations. All students were informed of the details of the research project in writing and asked for their permission to use the data collected for research purposes. While they were given the opportunity to opt out of the research project, none took this option. Precautions were taken to preserve their rights to anonymity and confidentiality. In accordance with the Irish Data Protection Act in force at the time, students could (and still can) access the information relating to them stored on computers. The data was password protected, and every effort was made to ensure that nobody else could access it. In the absence of a university ethical committee at the time, the Secretary of Dublin City University approved the procedure put in place. Balancing the research and teaching requirements while preserving students welfare and rights raised a number of issues. As module coordinator, I was ultimately responsible for the assessment procedures and the grading of students assignments, even though the teacher assumed the main role by correcting and grading students work. This had implications firstly, on the data collection methods that could be used, and secondly on the data analysis timescale. For instance, a number of students felt extremely uncomfortable with the idea of being videotaped during face-to-face to sessions or during oral presentations. Consequently, the initial idea of video recording any interaction taking place in the French class was abandoned. Furthermore, in order to gain the trust of all students, and to avoid the possible contamination of data, the 95

115 Chapter 4 - Activity theory based methodologies: epistemological and methodological considerations commitment was given that no set of data would be looked at nor analysed until after the release of the end of year examination results. While the decision to delay data analysis may put into question the trustworthiness of the study, it nevertheless contributed to the establishment of trusting relationship between researcher, teacher, and students. Notwithstanding the restrictions imposed on the data gathering process, a large volume of data was collected over the academic year. Two empirical analyses were then conducted. Following the activity theoretical modelling and representation of the two activity systems corresponding to the modules FR130 and FR140, a data sub-set for each module was selected for analysis. Details of the data retained for analysis will be given in the next chapter. 4.4 Summary and conclusion This chapter started by considering a number of epistemological and methodological issues that arise when trying to operationalise activity theoretical principles in educational research. Methodological requirements for studying the development and exercise of learner autonomy in CALL mediated language learning environments were then formulated. The research design adopted for this thesis was outlined along with the underpinning epistemological assumptions and the methodological choices that were made. The next chapter will describe the methods used to analyse the data. 96

116 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Chapter 5 Empirical analyses: context and methods The previous chapter (Chapter 4) discussed some methodological implications of the adoption of activity theoretical principles for the study of the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich environments. The background context for the empirical analyses that were conducted as part of this thesis was introduced and the resulting methodological choices were outlined. This chapter (Chapter 5) concludes the methodological section of this thesis by describing the methods and techniques used during the empirical analysis phase of the study. Following a brief overview of the syllabi (section 5.1), the two activity systems selected for the empirical study are modelled and represented according to activity theoretical concepts in section 5.2. Section 5.3 describes the data selected for the empirical analyses and outlines the data analysis methods. 5.1 Syllabi overview The instructional design phase of this study consisted in translating the two module descriptors for FR130 and FR140 into syllabi. Whether in their hard-copy or in electronic form (i.e. on the DCU official website), modules descriptors are institutional documents that embody the outcomes of a collective curriculum design process (e.g. aims and learning outcomes, indicative syllabus, etc.). They include the constraints and rules (such as time allowances, assessment regulations, etc.), which have been socially constructed by the university community as a whole, and which frame the teaching and learning activity associated with each module. DCU module descriptors are the starting point of syllabus and course design. Each module descriptor creates a problem space 97

117 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods (Levy, 1999) by defining the object or motive of a specific learning activity sub-system, the module. An extract of the module descriptor for FR130 is given in Figure 5-1 below. Figure 5-1 Extract from the module descriptor for FR130 According to their respective descriptors, the modules FR130 and FR140 aim firstly to develop learner autonomy and language use and secondly to introduce students to the use of ICT for language learning. While FR130 explicitly emphasises independent learning and the development of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, FR140 focuses on collaborative learning through the realisation of a group project. Learner autonomy therefore constitutes the underlying principle of French modules as conveyed to first year students at the beginning of the academic year (Figure 5-2): 98

118 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-2 Learner autonomy as the underlying principle of the French course Savoir travailler aussi bien seul qu'avec d'autres, se fixer des objectifs à court et long terme, vouloir et savoir apprendre, exercer un certain contrôle sur son environnement et en être responsable, être capable de rester soi-même dans des situations parfois difficiles sont quelques unes des caractéristiques d'une personne autonome. Cette notion d'autonomie constitue l'un des principes fondamentaux de votre apprentissage du français à DCU. The ability to work on your own as well as with others, and to set short and long term objectives, a willingness to learn and knowing how, the exercise of a certain control over your environment and being responsible for it, the ability to be yourself in situations that are sometimes difficult are some of the attributes of an autonomous person. This notion of autonomy constitutes one of the fundamental principles of language learning in DCU. Extract from the introduction to the module FR130 The translation of the module descriptors into new syllabi thus aimed to construct a language learning environment that would provide: Increased students control over the language learning process; Increased opportunities for students to reflect, individually and collectively, on their learning experience and outcomes; Increased opportunities for collaborative learning and language use through the definition of appropriate learning tasks and projects; Increased collaboration between teachers and learners and opportunities for feedback; Increased opportunities for the use of ICT Module FR130 Regarding the development of learner autonomy and language use, the introductory module (FR130) attempts to develop students self-confidence, responsibility and control over their own learning. The syllabus is organised around tasks that are carried 99

119 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods out by the whole class, individual students, or small groups, with or without the teacher present. In class, students are introduced to language learning tasks that they can then repeat or expand, on their own or with peers, in the self-access unit (SALLU), in the library or at home (see Appendix A for a description of the aural comprehension task). Teacher and students meet face-to-face in a normal classroom, i.e. with no computing equipment, three hours per week for the duration of the semester (i.e. 12 weeks). The chosen tasks are organised around three main themes: metacognitive and social strategies, cognitive strategies for language learning, and development of language proficiency. Course documents provide students with guidelines, explanations, worksheets, and various commented lists of resources available to them. This introductory module thus endeavours to train students to become autonomous language learners and users by teaching them to adopt and to reflect on a broad range of language learning strategies Module FR140 By contrast, the follow-up module, FR140, is organised around a group project, which requires the development and use of collaborative skills and transferable strategies. Students are asked to construct, in small teams co-operating with each other, a web site providing French-speaking students with practical information on Dublin City University and related topics. The construction of the website is broken down into three sub-tasks (information retrieval and language analysis, website design and content creation, oral presentation of methodology and results). Extensive use is to be made of the communication tools accessible through the VLE TOPCLASS (see Appendix D) and of other technologies available in DCU. Students attend two classes a week led by the teacher in a normal classroom. A third class takes place in the SALLU computer 100

120 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods laboratory and is facilitated by both the teacher and this researcher, who also acts as technical support Continuous assessment Both module descriptors stipulate that students will be continuously assessed. In the case of FR130, students are required to keep a language learning diary in French (Appendix B) during the semester and to submit it for grading in week 12. They are also required to sit an aural test at the end of the semester (see Appendix A). Each assignment represents 50% of their final mark. The assessment schedule for FR140 include individual and group reports submitted at regular intervals (20%), an oral presentation at the end of the semester (50%) and the completed website (20%). The remaining 10% are allocated to the students participation and contribution to the TOPCLASS discussion list. The marks breakdown between oral and written, individual and group assignment is summarised in Table 5-1 below: Table 5-1 Assignments and breakdown of marks (FR130 and FR140) FR130 FR140 Written production Learner diary: 50% Individual and group reports: 20% Web site: 20% Contribution to discussion list and participation: 10% Oral/ aural Aural comprehension: 50% Group presentation: 25% Individual presentation: 25% Assessing the learner diaries The learner diaries are graded by the teacher according to an assessment grid developed by this researcher in 1997 in response to teachers requests for guidance and support in 101

121 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods assessing the diaries (see Blin, 1998). Following a content analysis 16 of twenty-nine diaries submitted by science and engineering students at the end of their first semester (December 1996), five learner profiles had been established and validated by colleagues. These profiles give a description of what students do, think or feel at a given stage of their move towards autonomy (see Appendix C for a complete description) and are assigned a corresponding level of autonomy. They provide a measure of psychological and technical autonomy in terms of independence and interdependence, motivation and self-direction (see Chapter 2, section 2.2). For assessment purposes, and in line with the DCU honours classification, a grade was then allocated to each profile as illustrated in Table 5-2 below: Level of autonomy Table 5-2 Summary of learner autonomy profiles (levels of autonomy) Main descriptors Level 1 "Dropping out" or "not applicable" 17 Fail Level 2 Dependence, irregularity, lack of direction and motivation Pass Level 3 Level 4 Dependence, affective factors may be a barrier, overall lack of direction and organisation Motivation and a sense of direction, independence but still low interdependence Grade (DCU honours classification) 2 nd Class, Grade 2 (H2.2) 2 nd Class, Grade 1 (H2.1) Level 5 Motivation, direction, independence and interdependence 1 st Class (H1) Using the grid as a reference while keeping in mind that it is often the case that in the early stages the entries do not make a great deal of sense, and patterns emerge only in the longer term (Nunan, 1992: 121), the teacher looks for evidence supporting the allocation of a grade to each diary by seeking to identify elements of the students' writing that reveal their use of metacognitive or socio-affective strategies. As the diaries 16 The categories used to encode the initial sample were derived from various taxonomies of social and metacognitive language learning strategies, and in particular from the classification elaborated by Oxford (1990). 17 Students whose diaries belong to this category usually did not keep their diary regularly. Most of them tend to drop out of their programme of studies or even out of college. 102

122 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods are written over a period of twelve weeks and handed in at least twice during the semester, the entries following the last correction essentially form the basis for the final grading. A grade is assigned based on the level that received the greatest number of ticks. The actual mark (out of 100) is then allocated by comparing diaries belonging to the same level. Language proficiency is not graded. 5.2 Modelling the activity systems A preliminary activity theoretical model and representation of the language learning activities associated with the two modules FR130 and FR140 (i.e. prior to the implementation of the courses) provides a description of the activity systems and reveals the different components that constitute them. As discussed in previous chapters, object, subjects and community form the core of the activity system under study. Actions taken by individuals or groups are mediated by a number of rules and a certain division of labour on the one hand, and by tools and artefacts on the other Subjects In activity theory, activity systems are always examined from the perspective of the subject. The two empirical analyses discussed in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 explore the language learning activities from the perspective of the students participating in the two modules, i.e. FR130 in Semester 1 followed by FR140 in Semester 2. In October 1998, thirty-eight first year students from the Physics with French (PF), Chemistry with French (CF), Electronic Systems (ES) and Applied Computational Linguistics (CL) had registered for both modules. In both semesters, the students were taught by the same teacher in two separate classes of 19 students as detailed in Table 5-3 below. The overall group comprised 25 females and 13 males. In order to preserve students 103

123 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods anonymity, each student was assigned a code at random (e.g. S01, S02, etc.), which is used to refer to specific individuals throughout the remaining chapters. Table 5-3 Class composition Class 1 CL 19 students Class 2 CF ES PF 10 students 7 students 2 students The subjects of the FR130 course As is normally the case at the start of a new academic year (see Blin, 1996c), students were given a questionnaire (Appendix E), originally designed to provide teachers with some background information on their students prior language learning experience and on their expectations about the French course they were about to take. The questionnaire asks for students' perceptions of their own learning style and for their perception of the role of teachers. It also asks about their prior technology and language learning experience. Finally, it tries to identify the type of materials or media that students are confident in using for language learning purposes. Twenty-eight students returned their completed questionnaire before the end of the first week of semester. Not surprisingly, the group of students involved in the project is rather homogeneous, most coming directly from the Irish secondary school system 18. Although all students have studied Irish throughout primary and secondary education, half of them find it difficult to learn a language. They enjoy learning French, but their worst experiences have occurred in school settings. In contrast, their favourite 18 However, one mature student, S02, had lived and worked in France for an extensive period of time. 104

124 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods experiences are generally related to a stay in France or Belgium, and if not, to interaction with native speakers of French. Most students have therefore some direct experience of French native speakers and culture. All students regard oral skills important but they are not very focused in terms of learning objectives and do not seem to envisage any other teaching and learning methodologies than those they have encountered in school. Furthermore, while they accept responsibility for their own learning, at least in theory, they appear to remain teacher dependent and to prefer to study alone. The group of students involved in this research project is thus typical of a first year group of language students in any Irish university: fairly motivated, hard working, teacher dependent and whose learning styles and habits are deeply anchored in Irish secondary school traditions and practices. In relation to the use of ICT, most students had a basic exposure to computers prior to their entry in DCU. Computers still offer an element of novelty, they are sometimes "fascinating", and students generally want to learn more about them. Given that all students are registered for science, computing or engineering degrees, this is not totally surprising: these students tend to be well disposed towards technology. It is among chemistry students that the less computer-minded students are to be found. However, computers have not been used in any depth in school. Students consistently refer to "basic" applications or programming (including the programming language Basic ). Computer skills were the object of learning rather than tools used to assist in the learning of other disciplines. No mention is made of courseware or any other packages that could have been used in any subject. 105

125 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods The subjects of the FR140 course Given the collaborative nature of the project given to students, the language learning activity associated with FR140 can be viewed either from the perspective of individual students or from the perspective of teams. Individual students as subjects of the activity Although the students participating in the second module bring to the activity the same history as previously, they have also been transformed as a result of their participation in a number of learning activities during the first semester and in university life, and as a result of continuing development into adulthood. By the beginning of the second semester, new knowledge had been gained about the students, i.e. the level of autonomy at the end of the previous semester as determined by the teacher's assessment of their diaries (see Appendix F1 for the grades assigned to students by the teacher). The distribution of students among the different levels of autonomy (or profiles) as assigned by the teacher is given in Figure 5-3 below. Fifteen students out of thirty-eight have been assigned to Level 3. The rest of the overall group is equally distributed between Levels 1 and 2 (11 students), and Levels 4 and 5 (12 students). While Level 3 suggests a general pattern for the whole group, levels on either side point to particular traits that may help discriminate between different levels. The overall group is therefore heterogeneous with respect to their level of autonomy as assessed through their diaries, with two third of the group still dependent and overall lacking direction. 106

126 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-3 Distribution of students among the different levels of autonomy at the end of Semester 1 Number of students per level of autonomy Number of students per level of autonomy Teams as subjects of the activity Following the presentation of the project, eight self-selected teams were formed (see the guidelines given to students in Appendix G). Two teams comprised students from the two class groups. Team 1, the Technical Team, was ultimately responsible for the production of the site and Team 2, the Journal Team, was responsible for monitoring the progress of each group and for writing up the story of the project as it evolved from its initial conception to its on-line publication. Table 5-4 below indicates the composition of the two mixed teams: Table 5-4 Composition of mixed teams Team 1 (Technical Team) Team 2 (Journal Team) Student Origin Student Origin S02 CL S06 CL S03 ES S18 CF S05 CL S26 CF S10 CL S30 CL S13 ES S35 CL S14 ES S38 CL The six remaining teams were responsible for the creation of content. Six topics were chosen by the content teams: student accommodation (Team 3), attractions outside Dublin (Team 4), DCU campus (Team 5), transport (Team 6), cost of living (Team 7), 107

127 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods and social life in Dublin (Team 8). Team 8 was the only content team consisting of students coming from two different programmes of studies (i.e. Chemistry with French and Physics with French). The composition of the content teams is given in Table 5-5 below: Table 5-5 Composition of content teams Team 3 Student Accommodation Team 4 Attractions outside Dublin Student Origin Student Origin S20 CL S12 CL S29 CL S21 CL S33 CL S22 CL S34 CL S24 CL S27 CL Team 5 DCU Campus Team 6 Transport Student Origin Student Origin S01 CL S07 CF S04 CL S08 CF S17 CL S25 CF S36 CL S31 CF Team 7 Cost of living Team 8 Social life in Dublin Student Origin Student Origin S09 ES S11 CF S15 ES S23 CF S16 ES S28 CF S19 ES S32 PF S37 PF Community The overall collective activity is realised by a community comprising all students registered for the modules, thus sharing the object given by the module descriptors whether they are in the same class group or not their teacher, and myself as the researcher-designer, assuming a rather distant observer role in FR130 and a more interventionist one in FR140 (e.g. I engaged in face-to-face and online instructional interactions to assist both students and teacher with the technology). 108

128 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Object and desired outcomes The development of learner autonomy and of language use constitutes the primary object of the language learning activity that will unfold through the implementation and realisation of the introductory module FR130. Secondary objects include the development of cultural awareness and a familiarisation with the use of ICT in language learning. The desired outcomes consist of a range of skills and strategies that can be measured through an assessment of student assignments and other artefacts created during the course. In the case of FR140, although the ultimate motive directing the design activity is also the development of students autonomy, the object of the language learning activity differs in its explicit formulation to the students. The given object is the construction of a concrete artefact, the website, as opposed to a more abstract entity (the development of learner autonomy and language use) in FR130. The desired outcomes of this second language learning activity are: increased fluency and accuracy in French, development of an awareness of cultural differences between student life in France and Ireland, and acquisition of a broad range of transferable skills Rules and division of labour The two modules FR130 and FR140 share a number of explicit and implicit rules and conventions with most other modules offered in DCU. The first set of explicit rules concerns the time allowance prescribed by the module descriptors (e.g. three face-toface contact hours per week and approximately three hours per week devoted to independent learning). The second set of explicit rules, and probably the most important one in any educational institution, concerns the assessment procedures that are specified in the module descriptors: both FR130 and FR140 are continuously 109

129 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods assessed. The continuous assessment details are however controlled by the module coordinator and the teaching staff. Implicit rules govern the subjects participation in the language learning activity. Although attendance to lectures is not compulsory in DCU, language lecturers still expect students to be present at all scheduled classes. Conversely, Year 1 language students normally expect teachers to give them homework on a regular basis and to correct it in a matter of days. Communication between participants is governed by the norms usually found in Irish and in most European educational institutions: politeness, respect for others, turn taking, etc. all apply. Electronic communication also follows a conventional netiquette : flaming and offensive behaviour are not acceptable. The relationship between the community and the object of the language learning activity is mediated by a certain division of labour, which can be horizontal or vertical. As discussed in Chapter 3, a horizontal division of labour concerns peer collaboration and assumes some equality between the participants. The vertical division of labour, on the other hand, reflects the status of the participants and highlights the distribution of power between them. Even though we may view the role of the teacher primarily as one of mediation and facilitation, the teacher s power over the students resides in the administration of the continuous assessment process and in the grading of the various assignments. The teacher also controls the overall management of the language learning activity. In the context of FR130, individual students (i.e. the subjects) are given the opportunity to exercise control over their learning content and process through the choice of tasks, topics, and materials, and through the opportunity to prioritise the skills that need to be consolidated or developed. In the context of FR140, the realisation of the website is distributed among different teams (horizontal division of labour). Within individual 110

130 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods teams, the execution of different sub-tasks is distributed between team members the resulting division of labour may be both horizontal and vertical, depending on the personality and level of engagement demonstrated by individual students. Table 5-6 below outlines the rules and division of labour between the various classes of subjects taking part in FR130 and FR140. Table 5-6 Rules and division of labour (FR130 and FR140) Students Teacher Researcherdesigner FR130 Attend classes and avail of self-access facilities Contribute to teacher generated tasks Keep a learner diary and submit it for feedback at regular intervals Generate independent learning tasks Search for and analyse materials (videos) to be used in class (aural comprehension) Take part in aural test and submit diary for grading Manages overall course schedule Guides students and provides feedback on the realisation of teacher and student generated tasks Provides documents and materials to trigger actions taken by students Prepares and grades final aural comprehension test Corrects and grades learner diary Creates and produces course documents Guides and assists teacher in relation to course content and progression Provides additional material when necessary FR140 Attend classes and laboratory sessions Research chosen topic Collaborate with team members according to role specified within team Write up reports on individual and collective work carried out within team Communicate with and report to other teams orally and via TOPCLASS Write content or code for website Work to agreed deadlines Manages overall course schedule Guides students and provides feedback re: content and language of website Provides documents and materials to trigger actions taken by students Facilitates teams and individual students Assists in the resolution of conflicts within and between teams Corrects and grades reports, website and messages posted on TOPCLASS Grades oral presentations Creates and produces course documents Assists teacher and students during lab sessions Administers TOPCLASS and moderates discussions when necessary Provides additional material when necessary Guides and assists teacher in relation to course management and conflicts resolution Attends oral presentations and takes part in discussions Publishes final website Tools and artefacts To assist the performance of the tasks defined by the two syllabi, and consequently to enable the transformation of the objects into outcomes, a number of tools and artefacts 111

131 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods are made available to the actors of the corresponding language learning activities. Table 5-7 below presents a taxonomy of these mediating tools and artefacts classified according to their origins, from those enabled by the overall learning environment (i.e. by the university) to those created by the subjects (i.e. by the participating students) as the language learning activity unfolds. 112

132 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Table 5-7 A taxonomy of mediating tools and artefacts Enabled by FR130 FR140 University SALLU Networked computers MICROSOFT WORD (with French proofing tools) MICROSOFT POWERPOINT MICROSOFT ACCESS WORDSMITH TOOLS Computer laboratories (computers, network, the Internet, etc.) Library (books, journals, dictionaries, etc.) Internet access (web and ) TOPCLASS Classrooms (incl. blackboard and chalk ) Technicians and teachers Design team Individual students or teams Course documents (guidelines) Module presentation Keeping a learner diary How to work on: Aural comprehension Vocabulary acquisition Guessing the meaning of a word Pronunciation Grammar Writing Background questionnaire (Part 1) SILL questionnaires Pre- and post-test Classroom resources (videos, texts, etc.) Native language speaker SALLU Equipment (TV, VCR, computers, network) Resources (videos, books, CD ROMs, CALL programs, etc.) First language Target interlanguage Learner diary Previous language study habits Personal resources from previous language learning experience (school books and notes, etc.) Video extract and analysis/ task for classmates Pre- and post- tests (completed) Course documents Module presentation Practical guidelines: forming a team and selecting a topic; roles of each team; leading a team; making collective decisions; writing up minutes of meetings; writing up an individual report; searching the Internet; evaluating French universities websites. Tutorials/ lab sessions: login onto network; searching the Internet, saving websites and evaluating them; using MS ACCESS; creating and revising a report (ACCESS); creating and revising a report with WORD (French); using WORDSMITH TOOLS; using the corpus. Corrected reports Native language speakers TOPCLASS Course documents (as above) Discussion lists TOPCLASS Evaluation Questionnaire (Part II) TOPCLASS postings (messages and attachment) Corpus and evaluation report Individual reports (3) Minutes of team meetings or group reports Draft content Websites PowerPoint presentation (or transparencies) 113

133 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Representing the activity systems under study Having modelled the activity systems associated with the modules FR130 and FR140 as they have been designed, we can now represent them using Engeström s triangles. These triangles are a convenient and graphical way of representing the initial context of the activities that are about to unfold through the real-life implementation of the syllabi. As the language learning activities transform themselves over time, new models and representations are likely to emerge. Figure 5-4 and Figure 5-5 below give a preliminary representation of the activity systems corresponding to FR130 and FR140 respectively. Figure 5-4 Preliminary representation of activity system associated with FR

134 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-5 Preliminary representation of activity system associated with FR Empirical analyses: methods As indicated in Chapter 4 (section 4.3), two empirical analyses were conducted following the implementation of the modules FR130 and FR140. As in the case of Murray's (1999b) study on learner autonomy and CALL simulations, the development of language skills during the two semesters was not the focal point of either study. As students from different programmes of studies attended various language related modules, language acquisition as observed through a detailed analysis of texts (either oral or written) produced by students could not be attributed solely to their participation in the two modules. Using the concepts and principles of activity theory (Chapter 3) as the primary interpretive framework, the first study (empirical analysis 1) aimed to describe the complexity of a language learning activity designed to promote and develop learner independence (i.e. associated with the module FR130). Furthermore, it sought to provide some new insights into our understanding of learner autonomy, thus marking a departure from approaches to learner autonomy that are rooted in the literature on 115

135 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods language learning strategies, such as the one initially adopted to establish the learner profiles described in Section and to measure the level of autonomy attained by students at a given point in time. Building on the findings of the first empirical analysis, the second study (empirical analysis 2) aimed to identify the underlying contradictions that constrained or afforded the development and exercise of learner autonomy in the context of a language learning activity designed to promote and develop learner interdependence (i.e. module FR140). It also aimed to reveal and characterise the transformations of the language learning activity that these contradictions triggered during the implementation of the module. In particular, it sought to establish to what extent these transformations were expansive (see Chapter 3, section 3.3.2). Both analyses are thus what Engeström calls actual-empirical: they seek to explain the situation by constructing a picture of its inner systemic relations (Engeström, 1999b: 383). They seek to capture the dynamic relationship between collective activity and individual actions with respect to the development and exercise of learner autonomy. They relied on different data types, which are described in the next section Description of the selected data The data collected during the implementation of the two modules were stored and catalogued for later analysis (see Chapter 4). Following the modelling of the two activity systems (section 5.2 above), a sub-set of data for each module was selected primarily from the range of artefacts that had been created by the learners and by the teacher in the course of the academic year. The data sets were chosen according to their potential for providing information across place and multiple timescales (Chapter 4), which would reveal, through analysis and interpretation, the activities inner contradictions. 116

136 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Empirical analysis 1 (FR130) The learner diaries kept by students during the first semester, and in particular their last entries, satisfy the above criteria. In addition, the teacher s comments, which originated not only in her reading of the diaries but also in her intimate knowledge of the course and of her students, provide opportunities for triangulation and further insights. For the last entry in their diaries, students were asked to give a reflective account, called a bilan 19 in French, on their language learning experience during the semester as well as on the task of writing a language learning diary. To assist students in their reflection, a list of questions, in French, was given to them (Appendix B3). The questions were divided into three groups encouraging students to evaluate the contents of their diary, to evaluate their learning outcomes and to reflect on the process of keeping a learner diary. The rationale for the last group of questions was to gain information on the process of writing a diary and on the impact this task may have had on the language learning activity and on its outcomes. It was also thought important to get some insights into the students attitude towards the task itself as this could have influenced the contents of the diary. Indeed some students may well be quite autonomous while being reluctant to keep a diary according to the specified rules. Accompanying instructions and explanations from the teacher given in class specified that these questions were to be seen as guidelines and that students were free to structure their bilan as they saw fit. 19 The French term bilan is used throughout as no English equivalent can fully express its meaning. In business terms, a bilan is a balance sheet. In every day French, faire un bilan entails taking stock of one's experience and evaluating the outcomes so that decisions concerning future actions or directions can be made. In the context of this thesis, the bilan refers to a reflective account of past events and outcomes written by students at the end of a semester or task. Throughout their studies, students participating in the French for Science and Technology programme are requested to write a bilan of their learning experience following the completion of task or module. These bilans constitute an integral component of the continuous assessment schedule for all modules co-ordinated by this researcher. 117

137 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Using the evaluation grid presented earlier (see section and also Appendix C1), the teacher provided detailed feedback on the contents of each diary. Thirty-seven diaries were submitted for assessment at the end of Semester 1. However, four students did not write a bilan. As both the diaries and the teacher s feedback were handwritten, the last entry and the accompanying teacher s comments and grades were typed into two separate text files. A total of 33 students bilans and 37 teacher s comments were therefore available for analysis. An example of a student bilan (written by student S07) is given in Figure 5-6 and of the corresponding teacher s comments is provided in Figure Figure 5-6 Example of a bilan (Student S07) I think that my written expression improved since the beginning of the semester. I think now that it is easier to write the diary now that it was at the beginning. I think more in French now. I find my diary interesting. It was a good way for following my progress in the French language. I think that I improved my aural comprehension and a little my grammar, but my vocabulary is not very good. I have to work more on the vocabulary. I used SALLU well enough. I used televisions and videos a lot. In the last weeks I used computers constantly to write the report of the experiment. This task was very difficult at the beginning but it is easier now and it was rather interesting. I think that I could have used my diary better to organise my French work. 20 A literal translation is provided for all diary extracts used thereafter. No attempt was made to rewrite the translations in the hope to convey an impression of the learners' language. Grammatical and spelling errors have not been 'translated'. Any errors are mine only. 118

138 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-7 Teacher's comments on student S07 s diary Diary regularly kept. Some entries were very short. A lot of activities carried out outside class (videos, TV, Internet, reading, letter writing, vocabulary, grammar) and generally well described. But you don't say which book you have used at the beginning for the vocabulary. Towards the end of the semester you have exclusively focused on the science project. Good bilan Overall your work was lacking direction. You haven't always stated the objectives you were following. Two separate corpora were thus created. The first one contained all students' bilans files (student corpus) and the second one consisted of the teacher's comments files (teacher corpus). These constituted the main source of data to be encoded, analysed and interpreted. The full handwritten diaries were used at a later stage of the analysis in order to gain a more precise understanding of the actions carried out by specific students. Empirical analysis 2 (FR140) The sets of data available for the second empirical analysis differed from above in terms of data types. During the second semester, individual students produced three reflective accounts of their language learning experience (individual reports) and each team generated minutes of their meetings and created a web site. They also responded to a questionnaire, in English, at the end of the semester (Appendix E2). Messages posted to the TOPCLASS discussion lists and the log files generated by tracking system, as well as notes taken during the lab sessions and the end of semester oral presentation, were also available for analysis. 119

139 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods By contrast with the learner diaries, a structure for the reports and minutes was imposed along with a recommended length. Both had to be typed and corrected before a final submission at the end of the semester. At the beginning of Semester 2, students were given templates to help them prepare their individual reports (Figure 5-8) and the minutes of team meetings (Figure 5-9). These documents were to be circulated to all members of the team for approval and for their own records, to the teacher for corrections and feedback, and to the Journal Team via TOPCLASS (see Appendix D3). The final individual report, on the other hand, remained private and was to be submitted to the teacher (and later on to myself) only. Figure 5-8 Template for writing up individual reports Nom:. Student identification ID: Rapport Individuel No Report Number and corresponding period Pour la période :.. Object of activity Activité principale: Méthodologie: Résultats: Ma place dans l'équipe: Mes impressions: Goal-oriented actions or chain of actions Tools and artefacts Outcomes of activity Role within team Division of labour Reflections and reactions Tensions and contradictions 120

140 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-9 Template for writing up minutes of team meetings COMPTE-RENDU DU GROUPE... Réunion tenue le à... (lieu) de... à... (horaire de début et fin de réunion) Time and place of meeting, including start and end of meeting Personnes présentes:... Secrétaire:... Team members present Secretary designated for this meeting Objectif de la réunion:... Sujets discutés: Object of meeting Topics discussed Décisions prises: Decisions made during the meeting Date et lieu de la prochaine réunion:... Secrétaire:... Time and place of next meeting Designated secretary for next meeting The final individual report was written in class and had a different structure to the previous two. It included a summary and discussion of the oral presentations that took place at the end of the semester. During these presentations, each team presented the learning outcomes of their work and their collective reflection on the project. They outlined the difficulties encountered and the solutions adopted. Each presentation was followed by a class discussion, which also involved the teacher and this researcher Data analysis Given the qualitatively different nature of the data selected for each empirical analysis and the different levels of researcher intervention during the implementation of the two modules, two different approaches to data analysis were called for. The first empirical analysis (FR130) combined techniques derived from the field of corpus linguistics and from conceptual content analysis (see Writing@CSU: Writing Guide). The second 121

141 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods empirical analysis used techniques borrowed from ethnography (Silverman 2000, 2001). Both studies thus led to different types of data preparation and encoding. Empirical analysis 1 During the initial phase of the study, the students bilans and the teacher s comments were segmented and translated (or encoded ). Data segmentation involved the division of each paragraph and sentence into smaller units corresponding to preestablished categories. Each segment was then tagged in order to facilitate the automated extraction and retrieval of categories of interest. In other words, the categories assigned to the segments were converted into opening and closing tags (i.e. <> and </>), which could be recognised by text analysis programs. Data translation or reduction (Silverman, 2000: 143) involved the allocation of English descriptors to each segment, so that the constituted corpus could be subsequently easily searched and analysed. The method used to tag and to encode the data files combined two different types of analysis. The first one (segmentation and tagging) used pre-determined categories derived from activity theory concepts and principles (see Chapter 3). The second one (encoding or translating) adopted a bottom up approach and descriptors were created as the need for them arose. The activity theoretical pre-determined categories used to segment and tag the texts are divided in three groups as illustrated in Figure 5-10 below: individual or group actions (e.g. reading, watching, noting, choosing, etc.), components of the activity system as seen from the point of view of students (i.e. subject, object, community, tools and artefacts, rules, and division of labour), and emerging contradictions (i.e. identifiable relationships between elements of the activity system, disturbances or breakdowns). 122

142 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-10 Segmentation and categories derived from activity theory concepts and principles Can the sentence or paragraph be segmented into action information, description of a component of the activity system, or contradiction? Action AC1: Action Description Contradiction AC2: Context of Action Component of activity system Level 1: Internal contradictions within element of Activity System SU1: Subject CO1: Community OB1: Object/ Goals Language OB2: Object/ Goals Strategies & Transferable Skills OB3: Set/ Define Goals/ Objectives AR1: Artefacts used by learner (text, cassette, video, TV Programme) AR2: Artefacts created by learner (diary, notes, text, etc.) Level 2: Internal contradictions between elements of Activity System Level 3: External contradictions between Activity System and More Advanced Activity System TO1: Tools Cognitive and Metacognitive TO2: Tools Technology (Hardware) DL1: Division of Labour (Horizontal) DL2: Division of Labour (Vertical) Level 4: External contradictions between Activity System and neighbouring activities RU1: Rules (implicit and explicit) Level 5: reflexion on learning outcomes OU1: Outcomes - Language OU2: Outcomes Strategies and Transferable Skills 123

143 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Can the sentence or paragraph be segmented into action information, description of a component of the activity system or contradiction (positive or negative)? Action Component of activity system Contradiction Manifested by disturbances or relationship within or between: L1SU: Subject Level 1: Internal contradictions within element of Activity System L1OB: Object L1AR: Tools and Artefacts L1CO: Community L1DL: Division of Labour L1RU: Rules L2SUAR: Subject - Artefact Level 2: Internal contradictions between elements of Activity System L2SUTO: Subject - Tool L2SURU: Subject - Rules L2SUCO: Subject - Community L2SUOB: Subject Object/ Task L2SUDL: Subject Division of Labour L2DLOB: Division of Labour Object L2AROB: Artefact - Object L2TOOB: Tool - Object L2AROB: Artefact - Object Etc. Level 3: External contradictions between Activity System and More Advanced Activity System L3 Level 4: External contradictions between Activity System and neighbouring Activity Systems Level 5: reflexion on language learning activity outcomes L4 L5SUAR2: Subject Artefact created by learner L5SUOU: Subject Learning Outcomes 124

144 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Categories in the contradictions group also include positive as well as negative reactions towards elements of the language learning activity, the task described or the perceived outcomes. These reactions were conceptualised as positive or negative tensions between the subject of the activity and one of its elements, which could potentially cause or prevent a transformation of the activity (see Chapter 3). Relationships between elements of the activity system, disturbances as well as students' reactions towards or reflexion on a specific task or the overall activity shaped by their object or goal as perceived by students were thus seen as possible manifestations of underlying contradictions and were consequently labelled L2 contradictions'. For example, the category L2SUOB1 denotes the subject's reaction towards the object or task described, L2SUAR1 the subject's positive reaction towards the artefact she has used, and L2SUAR2 her negative reaction as illustrated in Table 5-8 below: Table 5-8 Examples of tagged and encoded segments Student Segment Tagged segment Tagged and encoded segment S13 7 <L2SUOB1>Mais aussi j'ai trouvé cet exercice très embetant</l2suob1> S24 67 <L2SUOB1>3. J'ai trouvé cette tâche un peu ennuyeuse</l2suob1> S29 21 <L2SUOB1>et c'est très important</l2suob1><s> S27 59 <L2SUOB1>Quelquefois elle était intéressant</l2suob1> S08 46 <L2SUOB1>C'était intéressant de tenir un journal</l2suob1> S03 44 <L2SUOB1>Cependant, bien que je n'aime pas tenir un journal,</l2suob1> S16 50 <L2SUAR1>sont très intéressant</l2suar1> S24 38 <L2SUAR2>mais un peu ennuyant</l2suar2> S02 39 <L2SUAR2>mais je les ai trouvées peu utiles</l2suar2> <L2SUOB1>Boring</L2SUOB1> <L2SUOB1>Boring</L2SUOB1> <L2SUOB1>Important</L2SUOB1><S> <L2SUOB1>Interesting Sometimes</L2SUOB1> <L2SUOB1>KeepADiary Interesting</L2SUOB1> <L2SUOB1>KeepADiary NotLike</L2SUOB1> <L2SUAR1>Content Interesting</L2SUAR1> <L2SUAR2>Boring</L2SUAR2> <L2SUAR2>NotUseful</L2SUAR2> In order to capture the students' reflexion on the outcomes of the language learning activity, a fifth level of 'contradictions (L5)' was added to the four levels identified by Engeström (1987) and discussed in Chapter 3: L5SUAR2 and L5SUOU were used to tag 125

145 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods segments relating to students' reflexion on the artefacts they created and on learning outcomes respectively (see Table 5-9 below). Table 5-9 Examples of tagged and encoded segment (contd.) Student Segment Tagged segment Tagged and encoded segment S11 8 <L5SUAR2>3. Je pense que mon journal reflete le travail que j'ai accompli</l5suar2><s> S14 11 <L5SUAR2>Sans doute le journal reflète le travaille que j'avais fait</l5suar2><s> S27 10 <L5SUAR2>Peut-être quelques fois mon journal ne reflète pas le travail que j'ai accompli</l5suar2> S24 14 <L5SUAR2>mais peut-être je ne fait justice à le travail</l5suar2> S33 23 <L5SUAR2>Je n'ai que discuté mes propres activités</l5suar2> S01 6 <L5SUOU1>Mais je sais bien que ma compréhension de la langue parlée a bien améliorée</l5suou1><s> S21 74 <L5SUOU1>Je pense que mon compréhension orale est terrible</l5suou1><s> S13 28 <L5SUOU1>et maintenant je sais qu'il y a beaucoup des erreurs dans mon journal</l5suou1><s> S34 25 <L5SUOU1>parce que j'ai des problèmes dans ces parts de la langue français</l5suou1><s> <L5SUAR2>Content Activity All</L5SUAR2> <L5SUAR2>Content Activity All</L5SUAR2> <L5SUAR2>Content Activity NotAll</L5SUAR2> <L5SUAR2>Content Activity NotAll</L5SUAR2> <L5SUAR2>Content Activity NotAll</L5SUAR2> <L5SUOU1>Aural Improve</L5SUOU1><S> <L5SUOU1>Aural Level VeryPoor</L5SUOU1><S> <L5SUOU1>Diary Errors Many</L5SUOU1><S> <L5SUOU1>Difficulties</L5SUOU1><S> To start the segmentation and encoding process, ten bilans were selected at random and imported into a spreadsheet and segmented according to whether a group of words provided some information on specific actions, described discrete elements of the activity system or were a possible manifestation of contradictions. Segments in each category were then retrieved and checked for inconsistencies using the constant comparative method (Silverman, 2001) before the coding scheme was finalised. Following this preparatory phase, the remaining files were encoded, using the initial ten segmented and encoded bilans as a reference to be consulted whenever subsequent segments would prove ambiguous. As the database grew in size and in content, adjustments were made by regularly checking each segment in relation to the category 126

146 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods to which it had been assigned and to its context in the original file. Figure 5-11 to Figure 5-14 below illustrate the different stages of the encoding process. Figure 5-11 Stage 1: Raw bilan Figure 5-12 Stage 2: Segmentation and tagging of one bilan 127

147 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-13 Stage 3: Comparing and assigning descriptors (OU1) Figure 5-14 Stage 4: Tagged and encoded bilan Consequently, rules for encoding and translating became increasingly visible and easier to apply. A similar process was used to assign descriptors to each coded segment, thus 128

148 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods ensuring a certain stability of coding over a period of time. The process was then repeated to encode the teacher s comments. Table 5-10 below indicates the number of words and encoded segments for each corpus: Table 5-10 Description of corpus Number of files Number of words Number of encoded segments Students bilans Teacher s comments 33 12,165 2, ,129 1,003 With regards to reliability issues, priority was given to intra-coder reliability or stability over inter-coder reliability. As no accepted or standardised activity theory based coding scheme exists for the analysis of learner reflective accounts, the development of such a coding scheme soon became a research project in itself. Furthermore, encoding the diary required, apart from familiarisation with learner language at the level considered here, a high degree of familiarity with activity theory concepts and principles. Identifying and training potential coders in Ireland proved to be impossible in the time frame available. In order to alleviate the resulting reliability issues that may arise, the tags have been included in most extracts given in the next chapter. Information regarding the coding rules and the decisions made by this author is given when deemed necessary. Following the preparation of the data, the students bilans and the teacher s comments were analysed with WORDSMITH TOOLS, which consists of a suite of programs performing a variety of text analyses, such as word lists, concordances, or key words analysis. Given the small size of the corpora and the reliability issues indicated above, the purpose was not to engage in a comprehensive statistical analysis but rather to identify the existence or non-existence of categories in either corpus and to explore relationships between these categories. Simple numerical analyses were however performed. In particular, the WORDLIST program from WORDSMITH TOOLS enabled the 129

149 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods calculation of the frequency of occurrence of each category and descriptor. The CONCORDANCE program helped to identify co-occurring descriptors or to retrieve segments allocated to specific categories. More advanced features of WORDSMITH TOOLS, such as WORDLIST DETAILED CONSISTENCY FUNCTION and KEYWORDS were particularly helpful in comparing various data sub-sets and in identifying those categories or descriptors that allow discriminating between different groups of students (e.g. between different levels of autonomy). Details on these programs will be given in the next chapter when appropriate. Empirical analysis 2 The imposed structure for the individual reports and the teams minutes collected during the implementation of FR140 considerably reduced the need for segmentation and encoding of the data along the lines discussed above. Furthermore, the variety of data types precluded the use of a common coding scheme throughout the data sets. Instead, tags (or labels) corresponding to the activity theoretical themes illustrated in Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9 (p. 120) were used to categorise data chunks (e.g. individual or team actions, goals or objects, breakdowns, problems or tensions, solutions or resolutions, etc.). Chunks associated with a theme were then extracted for analysis. A finer-grained encoding and simple numerical analyses were performed when deemed necessary, and more particularly when comparisons between preliminary findings from the two empirical analyses deserved to be further explored Identification of the inner contradictions As indicated earlier on (p. 115), the core objective of the empirical analyses is to gain insights into the development and exercise of learner autonomy as the two language learning activities unfolded. In line with activity theoretical concepts and principles, 130

150 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods identifying the activity systems inner contradictions is crucial to our understanding of learner autonomy in these contexts. Although contradictions, which are seen by activity theorists as source of development (see Chapter 3), potentially afford the development of learner autonomy, unresolved contradictions may well prevent its exercise. A preliminary inspection of the selected data sets, with the relevant coding schemes in mind, suggested that a number of contradictions were readily identifiable through the analysis of students reflective and retrospective accounts. Indeed students expression of experienced breakdowns, disturbances, and of a number of relationships or tensions between various elements of the activity systems, can all be conceptualised as manifestations of underlying contradictions. However, other deeper contradictions were not so readily identifiable. In order to reveal them, a decomposition of the main activity into sub-activities was at times required. Decomposing the main activity system The decomposition of the main activity system associated with the FR130 module involved defining a sub-unit of analysis, whose boundaries were delineated according to an identified sub-object. For example, it will be shown in the next chapter that improving aural comprehension skills is a sub-object of the FR130 activity, which characterises the aural comprehension sub-activity. The sub-activities resulting from the decomposition of the main activity are not seen in isolation of each other but as interacting with each other. In the case of FR140, the main activity system was decomposed into a network of interacting team activity systems corresponding to the sub-activities realised by the different teams. While motivated by the object of the main activity (i.e. the construction of the website), each team is directed by a specific object and the team members 131

151 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods actions are oriented towards specific goals. Each team activity system interacts with every other one and cannot be fully understood outside its relationship with the main activity: the interaction between teams is defined and shaped by the overall motive of the main activity. For each team activity system, the activity is seen from the point of view of its individual members. The community consists of all the members of the team and the teachers, whose actions are directed towards the creation of specific content, the production of the website or the writing up of the journal of the project. The technologies available to individual members in their constituted team and the rules imposed by the syllabus and the university context remain those mediating the main activity. However, team-specific rules, tools and division of labour are also likely to mediate the team activity. Figure 5-15 below illustrates the network of interacting activity systems resulting from this initial decomposition of the main activity system. 132

152 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods Figure 5-15 Decomposition of the main activity system (FR140) Main activity Subjects: Teams Individual students Object: Construction of website Object: Journal of project Subject: Individual students Students registered for FR140 Teachers Team 2 Teachers Object: Design and production Subject: Individual students Team 1 Teachers Subject: Individual students Team 3 Teachers Object: Content creation 3 Individual students Content creation 8 Team 8 Teachers 5.4 Summary and conclusion This chapter presented the context and the methods used in the two empirical analyses that will be reported in the next two chapters. Following a brief overview of the two revised syllabi, it proposed a model and a representation of the FR130 and FR140 activity systems as they have been designed, and described the participating students. The data sets selected for each analysis were described and the methods to encode and analyse them were discussed. The next chapter (Chapter 6) will present the findings of the first empirical analysis, which focuses on the development and exercise of learner autonomy as it was observed during the implementation of the first module, FR

153 134 Chapter 5 -Empirical analyses: context and methods

154 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Chapter 6 Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence This chapter (Chapter 6) is the first of two chapters presenting the findings of the empirical analyses described in the previous chapter. It proposes that the development of learner autonomy is both constrained and enabled by internal and external contradictions that reveal themselves as the activity unfolds. It further proposes that the capacity to resolve contradictions is an attribute of learner autonomy, and more specifically of learner independence. The activity system associated with the FR130 course, which required students to work independently, is analysed from the students' perspective in Section 6.1. The relationships between elements of the activity system and the internal and external contradictions that they highlight are then examined in section 6.2 with respect to the development and exercise of learner autonomy. Finally, Section 6.3 revisits the students' profiles established by the teacher through her assessment of the diaries and relates them to the findings discussed in earlier sections. 6.1 Analysing and modelling the activity system from the students viewpoint Chapter 5 proposed a model and a representation of the FR130 activity system as it had been designed. This section puts forward a revised model derived from the analysis of the students diaries and more specifically of their last entries, the bilans. 135

155 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence The students bilans: overview As discussed in Chapter 5, a student s bilan is a reflective account of their language learning experience over the semester, which includes a reflection on the task of keeping a diary. The tagged and encoded bilans (Appendix H3) were analysed using the WORDLIST program from WORDSMITH TOOLS. The program automatically generates word lists, in both alphabetical and frequency order, from one or more text files and can perform comparisons between word lists. The investigation began with a count of all segments occurring in each category (i.e. occurring between the tags < > and </ >), which is summarised in Table 6-1 below. Twenty-nine percent of the total number of segments described the actions carried out by students and their context (Total 1), while 39% of them provide information on the different components of the activity system (Total 2). The remaining segments (32% of the total number of segments) indicate relationships or contradictions within or between these components (Total 3). 136

156 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Table 6-1 Number of segments per category (students bilans) Segment category Frequency Percentage GROUP 1 (ACTIONS) AC2 CONTEXT OF ACTION AC1 ACTION TOTAL % GROUP 2 (DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITY SYSTEM COMPONENTS) OU1- OUTCOMES (LANGUAGE) AR1 ARTEFACTS USED BY LEARNERS OB1 OBJECT/ GOALS (LANGUAGE) OB3 OBJECT/ GOALS (DEFINE GOALS OR OBJECTIVES) AR2 ARTEFACTS CREATED BY LEARNERS TO1 TOOLS (COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE) TO2 TOOLS (TECHNOLOGY - HARDWARE) DL2 DIVISION OF LABOUR (VERTICAL) OU2 OUTCOMES (STRATEGIES AND TRANSFERABLE SKILLS) OB2 OBJECT/ GOALS (STRATEGIES AND TRANSFERABLE SKILLS) RU1 RULES (IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT) DL1 DIVISION OF LABOUR (HORIZONTAL) TO3 TOOLS (TECHNOLOGY SOFTWARE) SU1 SUBJECT CO1 COMMUNITY TOTAL % GROUP 3 (DISTURBANCES, RELATIONSHIPS AND CONTRADICTIONS) TOTAL L2SUOB (SUBJECT OBJECT) % L5SUAR2 (SUBJECT - LEARNER CONSTRUCTED ARTEFACT) TOTAL L2SUTO (SUBJECT TOOL) + TOTAL L2SUAR (SUBJECT ARTEFACT) % TOTAL L5SUOU (SUBJECT OUTCOMES) % L4 EXTERNAL CONTRADICTION (BETWEEN NEIGHBOURING ACTIVITIES) TOTAL L2SUDL (SUBJECT DIVISION OF LABOUR) % L3 EXTERNAL CONTRADICTION (BETWEEN NEW ACTIVITY AND RESIDUE OF OLD ONE) L2SURU (SUBJECT RULES) L2AROB (ARTEFACT OBJECT) L2SUCO (SUBJECT COMMUNITY) L1 INTERNAL CONTRADICTIONS (WITHIN COMPONENTS) L2DLOB (DIVISION OF LABOUR OBJECT) TOTAL % TOTAL NUMBER OF SEGMENTS % The most frequent category in Group 2, which regroups the categories assigned to segments describing components of the activity system, concerns the outcomes related to language (OU1), followed by artefacts used by learners (AR1) and language skills as object of the activity or actions goals (OB1). Taken together, the outcomes and objects of the language learning activity represent 350 occurrences, with 84% of these relating to language skills (i.e. OU1 and OB1) and only 16% to strategies and transferable skills 137

157 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence (i.e. OU2 and OB2). These preliminary observations would suggest that the vast majority of students did not recognise the development of strategies and transferable skills, initially thought to foster the development of learner autonomy, as a primary motive for the French course. Similarly, the low frequency attached to the horizontal division of labour or collaborative learning (DL1), with only 1.1%, suggests a focus on independent learning. The even lower frequency (0.1%) of the community category (CO1) evokes either the possibility that students worked in isolation, or a lack of awareness of the community to which they belong. Finally, with respect to the frequency of material tools and artefacts, technological tools such as computers and software (TO2 and TO3) accounts for only 28% of the total of tools and artefacts mentioned, thus suggesting a significant reliance (72%) on more traditional artefacts such as videos and newspapers articles (AR1). In the contradictions group (Group 3), the most frequent categories relate to relationships between the subjects and the object of the activity (L2SUOB) and its derivatives, i.e. the categories of segments indicating the subjects attitude and reaction towards the task (L2SUOB1) or towards the task difficulty (L2SUOB2): together they represent 42.36% of all contradiction segments. The second most frequent category (20.88%) concerns the students' reflections or assessment of their own diary (L5SUAR2), followed by their reactions towards the tools (L2SUTO) and artefacts (L2SUAR) used in the course of the activity (17.70%). As in the case of segments describing the activity system (Group 2), the number of segments relating to the division of labour (L2SUDL), the rules (L2SURU) and the community (L2SUCO) do not appear to constitute a strong component of the students' overall reflection. These preliminary observations do not however allow firm conclusions to be drawn. At best, they point to areas deserving further investigation. In particular, a more detailed 138

158 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence analysis of the outcomes as they were perceived by students and of the individual or group actions that led to them are first required and will be discussed below. The contradictions will be discussed in section Perceived outcomes In terms of language outcomes (OU1), three sub-categories emerged, marked by the descriptors PROGRESS, ACHIEVEMENT and OUTCOMES. In response to the questions guiding the writing up of the bilans, which suggested that students should comment on their perceived progress (see Appendix B3), the sub-category PROGRESS represents 77% of all segments in this category. The descriptor ACHIEVEMENT was allocated to segments giving a clear indication of what a student could actually 'do' at the end of the semester (18%). The descriptor OUTCOMES, on the other hand, indicates a general statement on what has been learned, without any specific details (3%): Example 6-1 S22-11 <OU1>Je pense aussi que j'ai moins d'erreurs avec le genre des mots</ou1> PROGRESS GRAMMAR GENDER ERRORS LESS Also, I think I have less errors with the words gender S34-27 <OU1>parce que je comprends le prof </OU1> ACHIEVEMENT AURAL UNDERSTANDTEACHER because I understand the teacher S21-21 <OU1>et je pense que j'ai appris beaucoup de français</ou1> OUTCOMES FRENCH ALOT and I think that I have learned a lot of French Out of the remaining three segments (2%), two indicated that no progress had been observed in relation to the student's written expression and one was assigned the descriptor STUDENTRESOLVE, which will be examined later on. Table 6-2 below presents the main language learning outcomes as they have been perceived and reported by the students. The second column (Frequency) indicates the number of occurrences for each outcomes descriptor and the third column (Main 139

159 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Collocates) shows the distribution of language skills. Aural comprehension and grammar are the most cited areas, where progress or achievements have been observed. Table 6-2 Language Outcomes Language Outcomes (OU1) (Total number of segments) Frequency (182) (100%) Main Collocates PROGRESS 141 (77%) ACHIEVEMENT 32 (18%) OUTCOMES 6 (3%) (Language) (100%) (150) AURAL (32); GRAMMAR (34); EXPRESSION (2); WRITTEN EXPRESSION (30); WRITTEN COMPREHENSION (2); VOCABULARY (13); SPEAKING (8) AURAL (10); GRAMMAR (7); WRITTEN EXPRESSION (2); VOCABULARY (7); SPEAK (1); GRAMMAR (1); OVERALL ALOT (3); AURAL (29%); GRAMMAR (28%); WRITTEN EXPRESSION (22%); VOCABULARY (14%); SPEAKING (7%) With respect to language learning strategies and transferable skills (OU2), only sixteen students (i.e. 50% of the submitted bilans) report some learning outcomes. These outcomes range from a capacity to identify errors or weaknesses (6) to the acquisition of learner independence (4) as illustrated by the examples below: Example 6-2 S02-6 <OU2>j'ai pu me rendre compte de mes points faibles</ou2> I was able to identify my weaknesses S13-34 <OU2>Je vois maintenant que j'ai appris d'etudier tout seule</ou2> I now see that I have learned to study on my own Students actions The above outcomes are the results of the transformation of the object of the language learning activity through individual and group actions, which were mediated by tools and artefacts, by a certain division of labour and by implicit or explicit rules. In their bilans, students often describe their actions with verbs such as écrire (to write), noter (to note), regarder (to watch), écouter (to listen), lire or relire (read or re-read). These verbs are generally followed by an artefact (AR1 or AR2) or a technological tool (TO2 or TO3), which therefore act as "direct objects" both in a grammatical and in an activity 140

160 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence theoretical sense. Such tools and artefacts possess a dual characteristic: they mediate the overall collective language learning activity while being the focus of individual actions for a limited period of time. They are thus both object and mediator and this shift, introduced in Chapter 3 (see also Hasu & Engeström, 2000), will be further examined in section (on page 147). Actions and direct objects Using the word lists generated for the categories AC1, AR1, AR2, TO2, and TO3, and calling the concordances for descriptors which appear to be significant in terms of their frequency, it is possible to represent the range of actions rendered by the bilans as illustrated by Figure 6-1 (on page 142). The numbers in brackets indicate the number of occurrences for each descriptor. The left column represents the descriptors allocated to the AC1 category (i.e. actions) and the right column details the associated "direct object" artefacts or tools. Groups of tools and artefacts are colour-coded: red for audiovisual, pink for computers, green for written texts and blue for students' written productions. 141

161 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Figure 6-1 Actions and direct objects artefacts VIDEO (50) BORROW (5) FILM (6) BUY (2) TV PROGRAMME (5) LISTEN TO (5) TV5 (5) LOOK AT (1) TAPE (16) BOOK/ GRAMMAR/ CHAPTERS (15) LOOK UP (3) ARTICLE (5) TAKE (3) NEWSPAPER/ MAGAZINE (9) USE (21) DICTIONARY (3) WATCH (32) TRANSCRIPTIONS (1) INTERNET (11) READ (19) CD-ROMS (4) RE-READ (10) MS-FRENCH (1) CORRECT (1) COMPUTERS (22) TELEVISION (6) GET (1) DISK (3) PRINT (1) VIDEO RECORDER (2) WRITE (50) DIARY (62) TYPE (1) NOTES (2) REPORT (1) NOTE (1) NOTEBOOK (1) VOCABULARY NOTEBOOK (1) The pair WRITE + DIARY constitutes the most frequent occurrence. This can be explained by the fact that students were explicitly asked to reflect on their experience in keeping or writing a diary. However, it is also consistent with the fact that keeping a diary was part of the module assessment and thus constituted an important motive for students' writing. Actions oriented towards aural comprehension, which constituted a large component of the post-test but also a priority for students (Chapter 5), emerge as the second most frequent ones, as revealed by the high frequency of the descriptors VIDEO 142

162 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence (50), TAPE (16), and TVPROGRAMME and TV5 21 combined (15), and that of the descriptors associated to them: WATCH, USE, LISTEN TO, BORROW, TAKE and even BUY. The frequency of tools and artefacts relating to computers and the Internet only represents 18% of all occurrences, compared with 39% for audiovisual artefacts (including audiotapes). The most frequent actions and their associated artefacts are thus oriented towards the assessment components of the module, which may constitute the perceived object of the language learning activity. This relationship between object and assessment will be revisited in section (on page 148). Actions in context The category AC2 and its associated descriptors provide a more complete picture of students' learning habits. The above actions have taken place in different contexts, at different times and at different intervals. The context of use is often given in class (CLASSROOM), or outside the classroom (INDEPENDENTSTUDY) along with some indication of time or duration. The classroom as the context of students actions was only referred to in 21 segments in comparison with 76 segments indicating work taking place outside, in SALLU, at HOME or in the LIBRARY. Among these, a number of segments correspond to general statements about the amount of tasks carried out outside the classroom. While students did not directly refer to the organisation of the division of labour in their bilans, the distinction between independent and class actions suggest nevertheless a form 21 As students had access to a number of French TV channels in SALLU, the descriptor TVPROGRAMME was used when no indication of the exact channel was given. Some students had also access to TV5 at home through the cable network. The descriptor TELEVISION (TO2) was used to refer to the machine that could be used for viewing live TV as well as videos. 143

163 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence of division of labour: students carry out independent actions over which they have a form of control (e.g. over time, place and content) and class actions initiated by the teacher. Figure 6-2 illustrates the distribution of independent actions, represented by their associated tools or artefacts (e.g. WHAT), between time (WHEN AND HOW LONG) and place (WHERE). Using the same colour scheme as previously, the lines join the different components of the context of use of each artefact. The full lines represent the most frequent combinations, while the dotted lines represent those that are less prevalent. Figure 6-2 Independent Study in context WHERE WHAT WHEN AND HOW LONG SALLU LIBRARY UNIVERSITY COMPUTERLAB ANYWHERE HOME WITHOUT INDICATION AUDIOVISUAL ARTEFACTS COMPUTERS & INTERNET WRITTEN DIARY OFTEN REGULARLY OCCASIONALL RARELY EVENING DAY TIME 30 MINUTES TASKS "ACTIVITIES" 1 HOUR MANY HOURS While recognising the diversity of contexts where similar actions are carried out, the diagram attempts to highlight emerging patterns. For example, SALLU was principally used to support actions centred on the use of audiovisual technical tools and artefacts. Students used the facilities, often or regularly, and spent a lot of time working with these artefacts. Computers and the Internet were occasionally used and the main location was also SALLU, as illustrated by the following extract from S08's bilan: 144

164 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-3 S08-29:38 <AC2>J'ai passé beaucoup de temps à SALLU</AC2> <AC1> en regardant </AC1> <AR1>des émissions françaises</ar1> <AR1>et les vidéos.</ar1> <AC2>Récemment,</AC2> <AC2>je passais beaucoup d'heures</ac2> <TO2>sur les ordinateurs</to2> <AC2>à SALLU</AC2> <AC1>en tapant</ac1> <TO3>dans Windows en français.</to3> I spent a lot of time in SALLU watching some French programmes and the videos. Recently, I was spending many hours at the computers in SALLU typing in Windows in French By contrast, the diary was mostly written in the evening, at home, and at intervals ranging from rarely to often. The average time spent writing an entry was thirty minutes: Example 6-4 S11-61:65 <AC1>3. D'habitude j'ecrivait</ac1> <AR2>dans mon journal</ar2> <AC2>aux soirées ou au weekend</ac2><ac2>à la maison ou à la bibliothèque.</ac2> <AC2>Cela me prenait environ 30 minutes.</ac2> Usually, I wrote in my diary in the evening or at weekends, at home or in the library. It took me about 30 minutes. In relation to classroom-based actions, the information given in the bilans does not provide a comprehensive view of what happened in class. Rather, it often refers to the content of the diary itself. In this case, the "direct object" of an action may be another action: Example 6-5 S24-2:4 <AC1>J'ai écrit</ac1> <AC1>ce que nous avons fait</ac1> <AC2>dans les classe</ac2> I wrote what we did in class To get an insight of what was actually happening in class, it is necessary to look at the diaries entries themselves as illustrated by the following extract (Example 6-6) from Student S24's entry for Wednesday 18 November. This extract relates what happened in two French classes held on the same day. The focus of these two classes was grammar and in particular the use of past tenses. In the first description, student S24 describes what the teacher did (i.e. the subject is the teacher) and in the second one, she describes what the class did (i.e. the subject is now the whole class): 145

165 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-6 S24 Mercredi 18 novembre Dans mon classe [ ] Description des activités entreprises -1 D abord notre professeur a expliqué que en cas de verbes de perceptions il doit utilise accord du participe passé. Puis elle a commencé a expliquer les règles qu on utilise de decider quand utiliser l imparfait ou passé composé. [ ] Description des activités entreprises -2 Dans le premier exercise il y a des phrases incomplete avec des verbes dans l infinitive et nous devons mettre les verbes en passé. Nous devons décider selon le cas si il y a passé composé ou imparfait. [ ] Il y a deux exercises après ça ou nous devons mettre un passage qui est donné dans le passé. [ ] Après ça nous avons fait des exercises sur le plus-que-parfait. [ ] La dernière exercise était le plus difficile j ai pensé. C etait sur l accord des participes passés. [ ] Wednesday 18 November In class [ ] Description 1 First, our teacher explained that in the case of perception verbs, they must use the agreement of the past participle. Then she started to explain the rules we use to decide when to use the 'passé composé' or 'imparfait'. [ ] Description - 2 In the first exercises there are some incomplete sentences with the verbs in the infinitive et we had to put them in the past. We have to decide whether it is the passé composé or imparfait. [ ] There are two exercises after that where we had to put a passage in the past [ ] After that, we did some exercises on the 'plus-que-parfait' [ ] The last exercise was the most difficult one, I thought. It was on the agreement of the past participle [ ] When students do provide information on what happened in class in their bilans, they tend to focus on the object or goals of the actions carried out. For example: Example 6-7 S19-34:38 <AC1>Nous avons fait</ac1> <OB1>la grammaire</ob1> <AC2>en cours,</ac2> <OB1>surtout le passé</ob1> <OB1>et le subjonctif</ob1> (we did grammar in class, mainly the past and the subjunctive) According to activity theory, actions are goal-oriented and can serve different activities, which are themselves defined by their object or motive. Similarly, one artefact possessing the dual characteristic of mediator and object (see page 141) can be used in association with different actions: a video can be borrowed, taken, watched or used (see Figure 6-1 on page 142). While the semantic difference between borrowed and taken, or between watched and used, may be a question of nuance, they do suggest however the 146

166 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence possibility of different overall motives or goals. Indeed, there are many motives for watching a video: entertainment, searching for information, learning a new subject, or in the case of language learning, improving one's aural comprehension and vocabulary. Understanding the individual actions in the context of the collective activity thus requires an analysis of their underlying goals or motives Goals and Objects Segments indicating a personal motive for the language learning activity as a whole and those revealing either a precise goal for a finite action (i.e. which clearly had a beginning and an end), or the locus of conscious attention (e.g. grammar, vocabulary, aural comprehension, etc.) were assigned to the following categories: OB1 when the object was related to language (including assignments) and OB2 when it was not. In addition, the category OB3 was assigned to those segments which clearly conveyed that the student was defining objectives, either firmly (SETOBJECTIVES), or intentionally (e.g. INTENTIONS, WISH, HOPE or EXPECTATIONS). All these objects may relate to past or future events. For instance, the OB1 category contains the goal or focus of individual or group actions that took place during the semester as well as those that have been set for the coming semester. These goals and objects are often the result of reflection rather than conscious motives for carrying out specific actions. Indeed, as discussed in Chapter 3, subjects may not become aware of the object of their activity until the latter has been realised and this awareness is often the result of reflection, as expressed by student S20: Example 6-8 S20-5:6 J'ai réalisé que j'avais étudié beaucoup de choses surtout au sujet de la grammaire de français (I realised that I had studied a lot of things, especially about the French Grammar) 147

167 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence WORDLIST returned 220 segments belonging to the three object categories and 90 descriptors overall, which are outlined in Figure 6-3. As remarked earlier (see Table 6-1), the distribution between language on the one hand, and strategies and transferable skills on the other, suggests that the main object of the activity relates to language: 111 segments (50.4%) were assigned to the OB1 category, only 27 segments (12.3%) were assigned to OB2 and the remaining 82 segments (37.3%) were assigned to OB3, with the number of OB1 occurrences being approximately four times that of OB2. Figure 6-3 Objects and Goals Regarding the OB1 category, grammar and language skills thus appear to be the main objects, followed by French as a general motive. Only 10% of the segments in the OB1 category make an explicit reference to tests and assignments. Yet, as discussed previously (section 6.1.3), the predominance of aural comprehension within the language skills group would suggest that the end of semester post-test provided an 148

168 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence underlying motive for this strong focus on aural work. For example, student S11 does not specify why she tried to improve her aural comprehension skills: Example 6-9 S11-12:16 <OB1>J'ai essaié d'améliorer ma comprehension orale</ob1> <AC2>pour le première semestre</ac2> <AC1>et j'ai emprunté</ac1> <AR1>beaucoup de vidéos</ar1> I tried to improve my aural comprehension in the first semester and I borrowed a lot of videos Although S11's bilan does not explicitly mention the post-test, the student's preparation for the latter is a recurrent theme in her diary, as illustrated by the following extracts: Example 6-10 S11 Vendredi 21 novembre On avait une teste comme le pretest aujourd'hui mais seulement sans le son. Je trouve cet exercise plus facile maintenant. On a le "post-test" la semaine prochaine!! C'est 50% de la semestre! Mardi 1 décembre On a le "post-test" demain et pour preparer je suis allée à SALLU et j'ai regardé TV5 pour 20 minutes. [ ] Samedi 5 décembre Nous sommes finis avec la comprehension orale maintenant. J'ai commencé travailler dans ma comprehension écrite et je suis allée à la bibliothèque. J'ai photocopié un article dans le Monde au sujet du cancer. J'ai fait une liste du nouveau vocabulaire. Cet exercice était utile, à mon avis. Pour la prochaine semaine je vais continuer avec cette exercise et j'espère que mon niveau de comprehension ecrite va ameloirer. Friday 21 November We had a test like the pre-test today but only without the sound. I find this exercise easier now. We have the "post-test" next week!! It's 50% of the semester! Tuesday 1 December We have the "post-test" tomorrow and to prepare I went to SALLU and I watched TV5 for 20 minutes. [ ] Saturday 5 December We are finished with the aural comprehension now. I have started to work on my written comprehension and I went to the library. I photocopied an article from Le Monde about cancer. I did a list of new vocabulary. This exercise was useful, I think. For next week, I will continue with this exercise and I hope that my level of written comprehension will improve. It is interesting to note that her entry for 5 December marks a shift in the object of her learning activity: as the post-test had been completed during the week, aural comprehension is no longer the object. Student S11 now turns her attention to written 149

169 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence comprehension, thus effectively contributing to the transformation of the language learning activity itself from her own perspective. The emphasis on grammar noted in most bilans is surprising, given that only two weeks (i.e. 6 out of 36 contact hours in total) were devoted to teacher led grammar work, namely the study of the subjonctif and of the passé composé and imparfait, as illustrated by Example 6-6 on page 146. Yet, many examples of grammar as either an object of the collective activity or a goal of individual actions, similar to Example 6-7 on page 146, can be found, such as Example 6-11 below: Example 6-11 S21-36:41 <OB1>Nous avons fait beaucoup de grammaire</ob1> <AC2>en classe</ac2> <OB1>et j'ai fait le grammaire</ob1> <AC2>suplementaire aussi</ac2> <OB1>comme le subjonctif</ob1> <OB1>et le futur</ob1> (We did a lot of grammar in class and I did some additional grammar too like the subjunctive and the future) Objects in transition Whereas grammar features a lot in the students' bilans in relation to the object of classroom-based tasks, vocabulary does not figure to the same extent. Yet, a comparable number of classes were devoted to the development of strategies thought to enhance vocabulary acquisition. In particular, grouping, using new terms in context and defining them, or guessing the meaning of word were the object of exercises proposed in the course documents and practiced in class. Here too, it is necessary to return to the actual diaries to find a more detailed description of actions oriented towards vocabulary acquisition. Students S11's and S19's diaries provide such a description as illustrated by the extracts below: 150

170 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-12 S11 Mardi 24 novembre On a fait du travail dans le vocabulaire aujourd'hui et comment le apprendre. J'ai trouvé que c'était plus facile de le comprendre le vocabulaire quand il est dans un groupe. Premièrement j'ai essayé de mémoriser une liste sans theme ni des groupes. Et puis j'ai essayé de mémoriser une autre liste de mots dans les groupes. J'ai retenu san doute plus de mots pour la deuxième liste. Je vais grouper les termes et donner un titre à chaque groupe de vocabulaire dans l'avenir. Tuesday 24 November We did some work on vocabulary today and how to learn it. I found that it was easier to understand the vocabulary when it is in a group. First, I tried to memorise a list without any theme nor groups. And then, I tried to memorise another list of words in groups. I probably remembered more words for the second list. I am going to group terms and will give a title to each group of vocabulary in the future. Example 6-13 S19 Mardi le 24 novembre Pour le moment nous sommes finis avec la grammaire. Aujourd'hui nous avons commence un autre sujet "Comment on apprends la vocabulaire". Au fond le secret est de mettre les mots dans certains groups. J'utilise cette methode quand je mets mes mots sur un disque donc je peux ameliorer ma technique et aussi le niveau de vocabulaire que j'apprends. Nous avons fait un exercice en classe et c'était utile parce que la technique de mettre les mots dans les groupes est un peu difficile. Tuesday 24 November For the time being we are finished with grammar. Today we started a new topic "How do we learn vocabulary". Actually, the secret is to put the words in groups. I use this method when I put my words on a disk so I can improve my technique and also the level of the vocabulary I learn. We did an exercise in class and it was useful because the grouping technique is a bit difficult. The above examples clearly demonstrate that both students perceived that the object of the task was not to learn specific terms but to develop strategies to help vocabulary retention. While vocabulary acquisition as a goal for past or future individual actions does feature in the bilans (see Figure 6-3 on page 148), the development of such strategies and other transferable skills is seldom mentioned. Yet Example 6-12 and Example 6-13, extracted from the actual diaries, show that these strategies and transferable skills were the object of the activity at some point during the semester. By the end of the semester, and for some students, these objects became tools, as illustrated by the following extract from Student S19's bilan: 151

171 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-14 S19 21:28 <L2SUTO1>Ce que j'ai trouvé le plus utile etait</l2suto1> <TO1>les methodes de etudier et de travail</to1> <DL2>Par exemple Madame Francine nous a donné beaucoup de choses</dl2> <OB2>pour nous aider apprendre dans un moyens plus efficace.</ob2> <AC1>Quand je etude le français</ac1> <AC1>je utilise</ac1> <TO1>ces methodes,</to1> <L2SUTO1>donc ils m'aide beaucoup</l2suto1> What I found most useful is the methods to study and to work. For example 'Madam Francine' gave us a lot of things to help us learn more efficiently. When I study French I use these methods, therefore they help me a lot. The above extract highlights a transformation of the object for this particular student. Language learning strategies (METHODS) were initially the object of a class activity (OB2), initiated by the teacher. Student S19 adopted these methods, which then mediated his actions directed towards his language learning. They thus became cognitive tools (TO1). Student S11, however, does not mention these methods in her bilan. The WORDLIST DETAILED CONSISTENCY FUNCTION in WORDSMITH TOOLS, which can compare up to 50 different word lists, makes it possible to identify those descriptors (i.e. Words ) appearing both as an object and as a tool in the bilans. Four word lists were generated from the encoded segments corresponding to the four categories OB1, OB2, TO1 and TO2 respectively 22. The detailed consistency function then returned comprehensive information on the occurrence of each descriptor: the number of categories in which each descriptor occurs (i.e. between one and four), the total number of occurrences across the four categories and the number of occurrences in each category. Table 6-3 below shows a selection of particularly interesting descriptors, which occurred in two of the four lists generated. For example, the descriptor GRAMMAR was found 18 times overall between two distinct lists, OB1 (17 occurrences) and TO1 (1 occurrence). 22 For each category, the program selected the text (i.e. the descriptors) between the relevant tags (e.g. between <OB1> and </OB1>, <OB2> and </OB2>, and then calculated the frequency of each descriptor. 152

172 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Table 6-3 Detailed Consistency Analysis (WORDSMITH TOOLS) Descriptor Number of Word lists in which the descriptor occurs Total number of occurrences in four word lists Number of occurrences in Word list for category OB1 Number of occurrences in Word list for category OB2 Number of occurrences in Word list for category TO1 Number of occurrences in Word list for category TO2 GRAMMAR VOCABULARY AURAL FRENCH ERRORS DIARY COMPUTERS These results suggest that language related descriptors (i.e. GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY, AURAL 23, FRENCH and ERRORS) are predominantly found as objects of the activity (OB1). Yet, they also appear as a cognitive tool (TO1) in what can be considered marginal or deviant cases for the first three. In purely quantitative terms, these would probably be ignored. Within an activity theoretical framework however, emerging patterns and deviant cases are both of significant interest. Student S03 appears to be such a deviant case: Example 6-15 S03-16:20 <OB3>Je dois, certainement, ameliorer mon expression écrit et aussi mon expression oral.</ob3> <OB3>Pour faire ça</ob3> <TO1>je veux ameliorer ma comprehension des certains points de grammaire</to1> <TO1>et je veux aussi parler avec les francophones</to1> <TO1>et agrandir mon vocabulaire</to1> I must, certainly, improve my written expression and also my oral expression. In order to do that, I want to improve my understanding of some grammar point and I also want to speak with francophones and increase my vocabulary Understanding grammar, speaking with native speakers and increasing his vocabulary are both goals and tools for Student S03. They are goals, in so far that they direct the actions that the student intends to carry out, but they are also cognitive tools (TO1) enabling him to reach the objectives that he has set for himself. Similarly, students S30's 23 It must be noted that others descriptors were associated with the three mentioned here, but these were closely related to one or the other category, and therefore only appear in one list. 153

173 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence and S26's bilans illustrate a shift between vocabulary as a goal or object and vocabulary as a tool. For student S24, aural comprehension, which was originally the object of the language learning activity, became a tool that enabled the development of her vocabulary: Example 6-16 S30-18:20 S26-26:28 S24-49:51 <OU1>Je crois que j'ai appris plus de vocabulaire et des expressions</ou1> <TO1>et ça me premis</to1> <OU1>d'écrire plus vite, sans hesitation</ou1> I think I have learned more vocabulary and phrases and this enabled me to write quicker, without hesitations <L2SUOB1>J'ai detesté apprendre le vocabulaire</l2suob1> <RU1>mais je l'ai dû apprendre</ru1> <TO1>parce que le vocabulaire est très utile</to1> I hated learning vocabulary, but I had to learn it as vocabulary is very useful <OU1>[ ] je pense que ma vocabulaire a amélioré</ou1> <OU1>parce que j'ai appris de nouveaux mots</ou1> <TO1>avec chaque compréhension orale</to1> [ ] I think that my vocabulary has improved because I have learned new words with each aural comprehension The descriptors FRENCH and ERRORS are also particularly interesting. FRENCH was allocated to segments corresponding to statements about the French language, usually as an overall motive for the language learning activity. Yet, the French language is also a cognitive tool mediating thought, as evident in the following extracts: Example 6-17 S07-3 <TO1>Je pense plus en français maintenant</to1> I think in French more now S19-48:51 <AC2>Maintenant</AC2> <TO1>je pense en français</to1> <L2SUOB2>donc c'est plus facile</l2suob2> <AC1>d'ecrire plus</ac1> Now I think in French, so it is easier to write more While the frequency of the descriptor ERRORS in the two lists OB1 and TO1 is relatively low, a closer look at the corresponding segments further illustrates the shift occurring between objects and tools. In Example 6-18 below, student S02 identifies her errors as the object that must be transformed as a result of the language learning activity. While this is also implicit in students S08's and S27's extracts (Example 6-19), these errors 154

174 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence also function as a tool used by the students in their efforts to achieve their desired outcomes: Example 6-18 S02-5:7 S02-17:18 <AR1>Grâce à la correction du professeur</ar1> <OU2>j'ai pu me rendre compte de mes points faibles</ou2> <OB1>et les corriger</ob1> Thanks to the teacher's corrections I was able to identify my weaknesses and to correct them <L5SUOU2>J'ai encore des progrès à faire au niveau de l'expression écrite,</l5suou2> <OB1>afin d'éliminer les erreurs d'accords avec les participes passés</ob1> I still have some progress to make in relation to my written expression, in order to eliminate the errors with the past participle agreement Example 6-19 S08-13:15 S27-79:82 <L2SUOB>C'est vrai que tous les choses ne sont pas toujours exact</l2suob> <OU1>mais on apprend</ou1> <TO1>en faisant des erreurs</to1> It is true that things are not always exact but you learn by making mistakes <TO1>Pour dire vrai souvent mes erreurs</to1> <OB2>ont decidé la suite de mes activités.</ob2> <OU2>J'ai pu voir les régions qui ont eu besoin beaucoup de travail</ou2> <OB1>et j'ai essayé eliminer ces erreurs.</ob1> To say the truth my errors have often decided my next tasks. I was able to see the areas which needed a lot of work and I tried to eliminate these errors The figures relating to the descriptor DIARY in Table 6-3 are at first somewhat intriguing. It must be noted however that the descriptor DIARY also occurs 61 times as a learner constructed artefact (AR2), thus as a 'direct object' of actions carried out by students (e.g. write or read), and, in the actions category (AC1), in the descriptor KEEPADIARY (see section 6.1.3). The diary as an object or goal of students' action is therefore a recurrent theme in the bilans. Nevertheless, the diary is also a tool to a small group of students as illustrated by the extracts below (Example 6-20). The diary as an artefact, or the action of writing a diary, gives a focus to the students' work or simply forces them to write in the target language: 155

175 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-20 S17-3:8 <OU1>Je pense que j'ai fait du progrès dans ma expression écrite</ou1> <AC2>parce que à mon avis, au début,</ac2> <L4>j'ai oublié beaucoup de mon français après le leaving cert</l4> <TO1>mais avec l'aide de mon journal</to1> <OU1>je me sens que j'ai amélioré mon français,</ou1> <OU1>en particulière ma grammaire et mon vocabulaire</ou1> I think that I improved my written expression, because, in my opinion, at the beginning, I had forgotten a lot of my French after the Leaving Cert, but with the help of my diary, I feel that I have improved my French, in particular my grammar and my vocabulary Other students also claim to have used their diary to plan their independent work. However, in the absence of details, and given a chosen formulation close to the question suggested by the teacher (see Appendix B3, Question 3.4), it is difficult to assess the significance of statements such as Example 6-21 below: Example 6-21 S26-78:79 <TO1>4. Parfois je servais du journal</to1> <OB2>pour decider de la suite de mes activités</ob2> Sometimes I used the diary to decide what to do next Finally, while the descriptor COMPUTERS features predominantly in the TO2 list (i.e. technical tools), it also appears as an object (OB2) in four instances. For example, in Example 6-22, Student S11 announces her intention to use computers and to familiarise herself with them (OB3). Computers thus become the object of her learning activity (OB2). The Internet and CD-ROMs then function as mediating tools (TO3) that will help her improve her written comprehension and her grammar, which are the current motives giving a direction to her actions (OB1): Example 6-22 S11-46 <OB3>3. J'ai l'intention d'utiliser les ordinateurs</ob3> <OB2> et de devenir plus familiarisé avec ils.</ob2> <TO3>Je vais utiliser l'internet et les CD Roms</TO3> <OB1>pour ameloirer ma comprehension ecrite et mon grammaire</ob1> I intend to use computers and to familiarise myself more with them. I will use the Internet and the CD-ROMs to improve my written comprehension and my grammar 156

176 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence A preliminary representation of the language learning activity This section (section 6.1) sought to describe the individual actions carried out by individual students during the semester. In doing so, it highlighted the different perspectives that have emerged from the analysis of the students' bilans. The preliminary observations reported so far suggest that: The consolidation and development of language skills, and in particular grammar and aural comprehension, constituted the main object of the language learning activity as constructed by individual students. As a corollary, the acquisition and development of strategies and transferable skills were not perceived as the object of the activity by most students. Consistent with the objects and with the individual actions carried out by students, the outcomes, as they were perceived by the students, primarily relate to an identified progress in language skills and to a much lesser extent to the development of learner independence. To transform the main object of the language learning activity (i.e. the consolidation and development of language skills) into outcomes (in terms of. progress or achievement), students have predominantly relied on 'traditional' artefacts, such as videos and TV programmes. The use of computer technologies remained marginal and exploratory (e.g. the Internet). The horizontal division of labour does not appear to have played a significant mediating role, suggesting a strong teacher and student focus on independence. Different students have constructed the object of the language learning activity in different ways and at different times. This object is in constant transition, as evident in the observed shift between the mediating tools and artefacts on one hand, and the objects of the activity on the other. In particular, a number of tools 157

177 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence and artefacts possess the dual characteristic of mediating artefact and "direct object". The individual actions associated to these "direct objects" are distributed across time and place. These findings highlight the complexity of the language learning activity as it has been realised by the participating students. They bring to light the dynamic nature of the language learning activity associated to the module FR130, which transformed itself over time through a constant shift between its object and its mediating tools and artefacts. In Figure 6-4 below, which gives a preliminary representation of the FR130 activity system, this relationship between tools and objects is indicated by the conventional lightning-shape arrow. Figure 6-4 A preliminary representation of the FR130 activity system TV, films, audiotapes, videos; Novels, grammar books, newspapers, magazines, articles, dictionary, transcriptions; Computers, Internet, CD-ROMs, MS-French, disks; Diary, notes, notebook, report, corrections; Methods, learning strategies (vocabulary) Objects in transition Individual Students Continuous assessment French Class Grammar, aural comprehension, vocabulary, written expression Post-test and Diary Independent Study Improved aural skills, grammar, written expression, vocabulary, speaking Independence Although this fundamental relationship between tools and objects revealed itself through an analysis of descriptors occurring both in the tools and objects categories (as opposed to the contradictions categories), it constitutes one example of relationships or tensions between elements of the activity system. The next section will explore those 158

178 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence relationships, contradictions or tensions, which can further our understanding of the development of learner autonomy in this language learning environment. 6.2 Contradictions and the development of learner autonomy The organisation of the division of labour reflects the tension or relationship between independence and interdependence defined in Chapter 2 as fundamental constituents of learner autonomy. The previous section, however, suggested that the division of labour did not play a significant mediating role during the implementation of the module. It also suggested that most students did not perceive the development of learner autonomy as the object of the language learning activity. Further analyses of interdependence as it is reflected in the division of labour and of the tensions between the participating students and independence as an object of the activity are thus called for Interdependence as a mediator of the language learning activity The syllabus emphasis on aural comprehension, which matches the students priorities (Chapter 5, section 5.2.1), and its significant frequency in the bilans as an object of the language learning activity suggest that the aural comprehension sub-activity can be studied in its own right. The aural comprehension sub-activity and the division of labour The main features of the aural comprehension sub-activity as it had been designed are as follows (see also Appendix A): both the end of semester test 24, which was used to measure the outcomes with respect to aural comprehension competence, and the class activities required students to work in small groups. Therefore, a horizontal division of 24 A pre-test, with the same format, was given to students at the beginning of the semester. 159

179 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence labour was supposed to mediate the actions carried out by students. Yet, the only reference to a horizontal division of labour (i.e. peer collaboration) in relation to the aural comprehension sub-activity is found in student S12's bilan as shown in Example 6-23 below: Example 6-23 S12-10:16 S12-17:21 S12-21:24 <L4>J'ai trouvé que les méthodes d'eseignement à l'université sont très differente que des méthodes à l'école</l4> <L2SUOB1>J'ai aimé</l2suob1> <AC2>les classes</ac2> <OB1>sur la grammaire, les tenses, etc</ob1> <AC2>Et les classes</ac2> <OB2>sur les méthodes d'apprenant</ob2> <L2SUOB1>était très intéressant</l2suob1> I found that the teaching methods at the university are very different from school methods. I liked the classes on grammar, tenses, etc. And the classes on learning methods were very interesting <L2SUDL1>Je pense que c'est une bonne idée de travailler dans les groupes</l2sudl1> <OB1>pour le test sur la vidéo</ob1> <L2SUDL1>car on peut écouter les idées des autres</l2sudl1> <TO1>Il a aidée</to1> <OB1>dans le test</ob1> <L2SUDL1> I think it is a good idea to work in groups for the test on the video because you can listen to the ideas of others. It helped for the test <L2SUDL1>A mon avis, il n'y a pas assez de travail avec les groupes</l2sudl1> <L2SUDL1>Il est difficile de travailler tout seul</l2sudl1> <L2SUDL1>Et, il est intéresant de travailler dans un groupe</l2sudl1> In my opinion, there is not enough work in groups. It is difficult to work on your own. And it is interesting to work in a group The student s remarks on this horizontal division of labour seem to have been triggered by a perceived tension between the 'Leaving Certificate' language learning activity that she has just left (segments S12-10:16) and the DCU language learning activity. The DCU French module introduced her to new language learning methods and strategies, to which she reacted positively. In particular, she appears to have understood the rationale behind the peer collaboration element of the aural test and she recognises the benefit of such collaboration. Although her bilan does not provide sufficient details on the collaborative process, her full diary gives us more information on how the horizontal division of labour mediated her actions directed towards the aural comprehension exercises and test: 160

180 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-24 S12 Mercredi 21 octobre [ ] Aujourd'hui, nous avons obtenu un projet. Nous devons former une groupe, regarder un extrait sur une vidéo et présenter l'extrait en classe, la semaine prochaine. Today we got a project. We have to form a group, watch a video extract and present the extract in class next week Vendredi 23 octobre J'ai formé un groupe pour le projet avec [S38] et [S17] hier. Aujourd'hui nous sommes allées à Sallu et j'ai obtenu une vidéo (V118) "The French collection". Sur la vidéo il y a beaucoup d'extrait. La durée des extraits est entre deux et cinq minutes. Nous avons décidé que [S17] présentera la vidéo mardi prochain. Je la regarderai chez moi ce weekend. I formed a group for the project with S38 and S17 yesterday. Today we went to Sallu and I got a video (V118) "The French collection". On the video there are many extracts. The extracts length is between two and five minutes. Lundi 26 octobre Je ne comprends pas la vidéo. J'ai regardé un extrait. Le titre de cet extrait est "Combattre le stress" et le thème principal est comment combattre le stress dans le lieu de travail. Je trouve que j'ai eu difficulté avec elle parce qu'il y avait beaucoup de la musique pendant l'interview. Aussi, il y avait beaucoup des images et c'était difficile pour concentrer sur l'interview. J'ai écrivé une liste de mots dans l'extrait. I don't understand the video. I watched one extract. The title of this extracts is "Fighting stress" and the main theme is how to fight stress in the workplace. I find I had difficulties with it because there was a lot music during the interview. Also, there were many images and it was difficult to concentrate on the interview. I wrote down a list of words in the extract Mercredi 28 octobre Nous avons regardé les extraits dans la classe aujourd'hui. Au début [S06], [S20] et [S29] ont présenté leur extrait. C'était sur le sujet de la mode. L'extrait était très court mais j'ai trouvé que l'extrait était difficile pour comprendre. [ ] Puis nous avons présenté notre extrait. [S17] dit d'extrait et j'ai répondu quelques questions. J'ai compris qu'une personne présenterait l'extrait donc [S17] l'a présenté. Mais les autres groupes ont le présenté ensemble. Il y a encore un groupe ou deux qui présentera un extrait la semaine prochaine. We watched the extracts in class today. At the beginning S06, S20 and S29 presented their extract. It was on the topic of fashion. The extract was very short but I found it difficult to understand. [ ] Then we presented our extract. S17 talked about the extract and I answered a few questions. I understood that one person was going to present the extract so S17 presented it. But the other groups presented it together. There is another group of two who will present an extract next week. Example 6-24 above illustrates how the division of labour (DOL) has been organised between October by three students working together towards a class-based task. In response to the teacher-initiated task (vertical DOL) on Wednesday, students S12, S17 and S38 constitute a team (horizontal DOL), go to SALLU together, and choose a 161

181 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence video on Friday. They decide that S17 will present the video in class the following Wednesday. Student S12 watches the video at home over the weekend and reports some difficulties with it on Monday. On Wednesday, student S17 presents the video in class and S12 answers some questions. Student S12 then reflects on the fact that her understanding of the task differed from that of the rest of the class: her team adopted a different division of labour than the others. Student S38's contribution to the class presentation is not mentioned. Although the account given by S12 informs us about the organisation of the horizontal division of labour in relation to this specific task, it presents a number of gaps, which can be filled by looking at the other two students' entries for the same period. Student S17 also gives a brief account of the team actions on Friday 23 October. However, she does not mention the forthcoming class presentation, for which she has a leading role since she will be presenting the team effort to the class. Her follow-up actions also differ greatly from student S12's. While both students indicate difficulties in understanding the chosen video, student S17 takes a very different path from S12. On Tuesday 27 October, she reverts to the use of materials targeting beginners in French: Example 6-25 S17 Vendredi 23 octobre Aujourd'hui, je suis allée à SALLU avec deux personnes dans ma classe, [S38] et [S12], et nous avons regardé une émission "Combattre le stress" pour aider ma compréhension orale. Le thème principal de l'émission était le stress dans le lieu de travail. La durée était vers trois minutes. Pendent l'émission, j'ai pris des notes, par exemple des mots, expressions, arguments etc. Malheureusement, j'ai trouvé que les gens parlaient très vite et nous avons dû le regarder deux ou trois fois pour le comprendre complètement. À mon avis, le thème de l'émission était très intéressant et après nous avons fait un résumé pour notre classe de français. Today, I went to SALLU with two persons from my class, S38 and S12, and we watched a programme "Fighting stress" to help my oral comprehension. The main theme of the programme was stress in the workplace. Its length was about three minutes. During the programme, I took some notes, for instances words, expressions, arguments, etc. Unfortunately, I found that the people were speaking very fast and we had to watch it two or three times to understand it completely. In my opinion, the topic of the programme was very interesting and after that, we did a summary for our French class. 162

182 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Mardi 27 octobre Aujourd'hui, je suis allée à Sallu et j'ai emprunté une cassette audio "Complete Mastering French 1" pour la nuit. J'ai choisi cette cassette parce que j'ai lu dans la chemise française qu'elle était convenir à les 'débutants' et aussi je voulais travailler à ma compréhension auditive et ma prononciation. Avec la cassette, il y avait un livre. J'ai écouté à le premier cinq chapitres et à la fin du chaque chapitre, j'ai lu les points de grammaire et aussi j'ai fait les exercices. J'ai trouvé cet activité très utile et ma réaction était positive parce que j'ai compris tout. Les exercices étaient très salutaire pour ma prononciation aussi. Today, I went to Sallu and I borrowed an audio tape "Complete Mastering French 1" for the night. I chose this tape because I read in the French folder that it was suitable for beginners and also, I wanted to work on my aural comprehension and my pronunciation. With the tape, there was a book. I listened to the first five chapters and at the end of each chapter, I read the grammar points and I also did the exercises. I found this activity very useful and my reaction was positive because I understood everything. The exercises were very salutary for my pronunciation too. Student S17's account of her team s actions on Friday 23 October thus suggests a different orientation: whereas S12 saw their collaborative actions and her subsequent individual actions principally oriented towards the class presentation, S17 first relates them to her own personal motive (to help MY aural comprehension). Furthermore, whereas she initially sets out to improve her aural comprehension on 27 October, independently of the forthcoming class presentation, her actions change directions and become influenced by the content and structure of the materials she uses. Taken in isolation, student S17's entry for 27 October may give a sense of some overall direction, while illustrating how the object of an activity or action may change in the course of its realisation. Taken in the context of the team and class actions, her own individual actions seems to be at odds with the broader motive triggered by the initial goal (i.e. presentation of a video to the rest of the class) and its associated rules and division of labour (i.e. team preparation and presentation). Student S38, on the other hand, does not mention her team s actions at all. Instead, she gives a detailed account of the actions she performed individually during the same period. While S38 did focus on aural comprehension (and also on grammar), her 163

183 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence individual actions appear to be totally independent of her team's efforts as illustrated by the following extracts: Example 6-26 S38 Mercredi 21 octobre [ ] Cet après-midi, je suis allée à Sallu où j'ai emprunté un cassette (n127). J'ai écouté le premier extrait [ ]. J'ai fait les questions qui sont venus avec la cassette. [ ] This afternoon, I went to Sallu where I borrowed a tape. I listened to the first extract. I did the questions that came with the tape Samedi 24 octobre Hier, je suis allée à Sallu et j'ai emprunté un livre de grammaire "Grammaire Niveau Supérieur". J'avais décidé d'etudier des articles definis et indéfinis. Donc, j'ai fait des exercices sur des articles defini, indefini et aussi des articles défini contracté et partitif [ ] Yesterday, I went to Sallu and I borrowed a grammar book. I had decided to study the definite and indefinite articles. So, I did some exercises on the definite and indefinite articles, and also on the contracted definite articles and the partitif articles [ ] Lundi 26 octobre J'ai décidé de travailler encore avec des cassettes pour améliorer mon compréhension. Je suis allée à SALLU où j'ai emprunté une cassette (n128). J'ai commencé avec le premier extrait [ ] I have decided to work again with some tapes to improve my comprehension. I went to SALLU where I borrowed a tape (n128). I started with the first extract Mardi 27 octobre Aujourd'hui, je suis allée à Sallu où j'ai emprunté une video pour travailler à la comprehension orale et au post-test. J'ai regardé à la video (V37) dans CG08. J'ai commencé avec le premier extrait [ ] Je l'ai regardé sans le son et ensuite avec le son. J'ai du repeter la cassette video quelque fois pour comprendre tous les mots. Les gens ont parlé très vite. J'ai ecrit les nouveaux mots. Bien que j'ai du repeter la video, j'ai trouvé que j'ai pû comprendre plus que déja. Today, I went to Sallu where I borrowed a video to work on the aural comprehension and the post-test. I watched the video (V37) in CG08. I started with the first extract. I watched it without the sound and then with the sound. I had to repeat the video tape a few times to understand all the words. The people spoke very fast. I wrote down the new words. Even though I had to repeat the video, I found that I could understand more than before Following the first class (Wednesday 21 October), student S38 borrows an audio tape and did the accompanying exercises. On Friday, she works on a very specific grammar point (the definite and indefinite articles). Her diary entry for that day does not mention her team preparation for their contribution to the class the following week. On Monday, she borrows another audio tape, and on Tuesday, she re-directs her actions towards the aural comprehension post-test by borrowing a video tape and by replicating, on her own, the different phases stipulated in the test instructions and guidelines. At no time 164

184 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence does she refer to either teamwork nor to what happens in class. Yet, we know that she was present when the other two students prepared their extract for their class presentation 25 (see Example 6-24 and Example 6-25 above). The division of labour as it was described by student S12 is therefore more complex than initially thought. Even though the three students had less than a week to prepare a common presentation for their class, each of them reports different chains of actions following their initial teamwork. While student S12's diary would suggest that peer collaboration, and therefore a certain level of interdependence, mediates her actions oriented towards aural comprehension as an object of the language learning activity, both S17's and S18's diaries point to a much lesser degree of interdependence. Yet, it would appear that the three students focused on aural comprehension during the week, albeit in their own independent ways. Discussion For most students, peer collaboration mainly took place when they were due to present a video in class (i.e. twice in the semester). In most cases, different teams were constituted each time and the initial division of labour was re-organised for the purpose of this task only. Whereas it had been hoped that students would organise a horizontal division of labour to help them achieve their goals in relation to the consolidation or improvement of aural skills, the reality is quite different: peer collaboration can be seen as momentarily disturbing the main language learning activity, which remains centred on learner independence. 25 We do not know, however, whether she contributed to the class presentation or not. 165

185 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Such a contradiction corresponds to the Level 3 contradictions identified by Engeström (1987) and discussed in Chapter 3 (section 3.2.4). In this case, the 'more culturally advanced' activity system, characterised by the requirement to work in small groups, encounters some 'resistance' within the main activity as it is being realised (see Figure 6-5). Figure 6-5 Aural comprehension sub-activity - Level 3 contradictions More culturally advanced aural comprehension sub-activity Main aural comprehension subactivity Interdependence Teacher initiated Independence Student initiated The aural comprehension sub-activity, and consequently the overall language learning activity, thus took a different direction from the one intended by the design team. Previous sections have already established a number of departures from the original syllabus as it has been realised and constructed by the student community. In particular, an imbalance between language and strategies and transferable skills was observed. The above discussion also highlighted a strong focus on independence despite some timid attempts at peer collaboration, thus conflicting with the emphasis on interdependence as it had been translated into the syllabus through the organisation of the aural comprehension work. The students' emphasis on independence in relation to the aural comprehension subactivity can be partly explained by their previous experience and individual histories. The aural comprehension section of the Leaving Certificate examination is an individual 166

186 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence exercise involving answering (in English) some questions based on an audio tape. It is likely that students approach the new task with old habits. Students are indeed the product or outcome of the Leaving Certificate activity. Now the subjects of the DCU aural comprehension sub-activity, they bring a range of procedures and tools, cognitive or metacognitive, which they have previously internalised, and which conflict with the requirements of this new activity. Forced to work on their own, some students revert to what they know best: the Leaving Certificate audio tape format. However, the aural comprehension sub-activity cannot be fully understood in isolation. Indeed, it interacts with other sub-activities such as the vocabulary or 'diary' subactivities. For instance, the requirement to keep a diary incites students to carry out a range of individual actions, including aural comprehension exercises, so that they have 'something to write about' as explained by student S19 (Example 6-27): Example 6-27 S19-60:65 <L2SUOB>Tout d'abord, si on ne fait pas des exercises en français,</l2suob> <L2SUOB>c'est impossible d'ecrire quelque choses</l2suob> <L2SUOB>Donc il faut qu'on fasse un exercise</l2suob> <AC2>et puis</ac2> <AC1>ecrit</AC1> <AR2>dans le journal</ar2> First of all, if you don't do exercises in French, it is impossible to write something. So you have to do an exercise and then you write it up in the diary. Therefore, aural comprehension exercises are not only motivated by the need or desire to improve comprehension skills, but also by the need to undertake, independently, some language learning actions that can be reported on in the diary. The aural comprehension sub-activity thus partially shares its object with the diary sub-activity. As the latter emphasises students' independence at the expense of interdependence, tensions are emerging within the organisation of the division of labour in the overall language learning activity. These tensions remind us of Engeström s (see Chapter 3, section 3.2.4) quaternary contradictions, which are represented in Figure 6-6 below by the blue lightning strokes, 167

187 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence occurring between the sub-activity of interest and its neighbouring activities. Furthermore, as the aural comprehension sub-activity works through these contradictions, primary contradictions emerge within the subjects and object of the activity system respectively: Figure 6-6 Aural comprehension sub-activity - Level 4 and Level 1 contradictions Leaving Cert. activity Leaving Cert. product vs. Subject of new activity Improve aural comprehension vs. Aural test vs. Diary Aural comprehension sub-activity Diary sub-activity The contradictions represented in Figure 6-6 above point to a fundamental tension resulting from the design of the course itself. Encouraging students to take control of their language learning through the diary, and providing them with tools and artefacts to exercise their independence, has introduced some tensions into the language learning activity, which may well have constrained the exercise of interdependence and consequently the development of learner autonomy Independence as object of the language learning activity As recalled earlier, the development of learner independence, through the acquisition of language learning strategies and transferable skills, was generally not perceived as a motive directing the language learning activity. The analysis of students' independent actions (INDEPENDENTSTUDY) reported in section suggests nevertheless that an 168

188 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence increased independence from the teacher, imposed by the syllabus through a combination of rules and division of labour, was a recognised and accepted feature of the language learning environment. The development and exercise of independence thus provided a motive directing students' actions, even though different degrees of awareness of this motive can be found in the bilans. For many students, the exercise of independence may have remained a rule imposed from the outside rather than a motive or object giving sense and direction to their actions. Students' reflection or lack of reflection, with respect to the development of learner independence should therefore provide some insights on independence as an object under construction and on the tensions and contradictions that occurred during the semester. These reflections should also provide an indication of the degree of learner intentionality, considered by Little (1996b) as an essential attribute of learner autonomy. Students reflections with respect to learner independence Only two students, S19 and S38, use the word autonomie in their bilans. Student S19 (Example 6-28) starts his bilan with his reflections on learner autonomy as he understood it, i.e. in terms of learner independence. For him, learner autonomy is probably the most striking difference between learning French at university and learning French in secondary school, and he finds it difficult: Example 6-28 S19-1:5 <L4>Tout d'abord ce semestre était vraiment différente</l4> <L2DLOB>C'était à nous d'apprendre les choses</l2dlob> <DL2>Il y avait beaucoup d'autonomie</dl2> <L2SUDL>Moi je sais que c'est bon pour l'avenir</l2sudl> <L2SUDL>mais maintenant c'est très difficile</l2sudl> First, this semester was really different. It was up to us to learn things. There was a lot of autonomy. Me, I know it is good for the future but now it is very difficult. 169

189 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Later on, he volunteers his own definition of learner autonomy, which he identifies as the most important learning outcome of his language learning experience: Example 6-29 S19-29:31 <L2SUOB>Le secret d'autonomie a mon avis est de savoir quoi faire et puis le faire</l2suob> <L2SUOB2>C'est difficile à faire</l2suob2> <L2SUOB2>mais si on le fait c'est très bon</l2suob2> <OU1>Donc j'ai amelioré mon français sans doute,</ou1> <OU2>mais, peut-être le plus important etait que maintenant je sais comment apprendre le français dans un moyen positif, effectif</ou2> The secret of autonomy in my opinion is to know what to do and then to do it. It is difficult to do but if you do it, it is very good. Therefore I have probably improved my French, but, perhaps the most important is that now I know how to learn French in a positive and effective manner. Student S38 also starts her bilan by stating her change of attitude towards this new independence that was forced on her: Example 6-30 S38-4:11 <AC2>Au début,</ac2> <L2SUOB>j'etais un peu sceptique</l2suob> <L2SUDL>Je n'ai pas pensé que j'ai pu apprendre le français toute seule</l2sudl> <L2SUDL>Mais ça marche!</l2sudl> <L3>La notion d'autonomie etais nouveau pour moi,</l3> <OU2>mais j'espère que j'avais développer une certaine autonomie moi-même</ou2> At the beginning, I was a bit sceptical. I didn't think that I could learn French on my own. But it works! The notion of autonomy was new to me, but I hope that I have developed some autonomy myself. Other students, although they do not explicitly use the terms autonomy or independence, still refer to the difficulties that independent learning entails, while acknowledging its benefits, as illustrated by student S15's comments: Example 6-31 S15-18:25 <L2SUOB2>C'etait difficile</l2suob2> <AC2>au debut</ac2> <L2SUOB>mais j'ai realisé</l2suob> <AC1>que le travaille que j'ai fait</ac1> <AC2>en dehors de la classe</ac2> <OB1>sur mes points faibles</ob1> <L2SUOB1>est beaucoup plus utile</l2suob1> <OU1>et je pense que j'ai fait un peu de progrès</ou1> It was difficult at the beginning but I realised that the work I did outside the class on my weaknesses was much more useful and I think I have improved a little Most students, however, react to their experience of autonomy in relation to their experience with the diary itself. Student S22 points to two conflicting attributes of the diary (Example 6-32). Keeping a diary entails choosing tasks according to one's 170

190 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence preferences and reflecting on them, thus allowing greater control over the learning content and process. At the same time, it requires taking responsibility for correcting the entries 26, which is deemed as difficult: Example 6-32 S22-52:60 <L2SUOB1>Je sens que le journal est bon</l2suob1> <L2SUOB>parce qu'on choisi le travail qu'on aime</l2suob> <OU2>et on s'évolue</ou2> <L2SUOB1>C'est utile aussi</l2subo1> <TO1>car tu dois penser sur</to1> <AC1>l'exercice que tu as fait</ac1> <L2SUOB2>Le journal est très difficile cependant,</l2suob2> <L2SUDL>parce que vous devez corrigez vousmême</l2sudl> <L2SUOB2>C'est très dur</l2suob2> I feel that the diary is good because you choose the work you like and you develop. It is useful too because you have to think about the exercise you have done. The diary is very difficult however because you have to correct yourself. It is very difficult. For some students, the difficulty lies in the necessity to carry out a variety of tasks outside the classroom, independently of the teacher (Example 6-33). For others, it is the diary writing process itself, which creates difficulties (Example 6-34): Example 6-33 S14-47:52 <L2SUOB2>Je n'ai pas trouvé ce tâche facile</l2suob2> <AC2>A l'école,</ac2> <RU1>si on doit faire un journal de bord,</ru1> <DL2>le prof voudrait le voir chaque jour</dl2> <AC2>mais ici,</ac2> <RU1>si je ne le veux pas faire, je ne le doit pas faire</ru1> (I did not find this task easy. In school, if you have to keep a diary, the teacher would like to see it every day, but here, if I don't want to do it, I don't have to do it) Example 6-34 S03-10:12 <AC2>[ ] au début du semestre</ac2> <L2SUOB2>j'ai trouvé qu'il était difficile de résumer mes activités</l2suob2> <AC1>sans regardant</ac1> <AR1>au dictionnaire</ar1> [ ] at the beginning of the semester, I found it difficult to summarise my activities without looking in the dictionary Very few students found keeping a diary interesting. Student S08 is a rare example of such students: 26 During the semester, the teacher did not correct every single entry. She however selected some passages where she indicated the errors and provided some guidance to correct them. Students were then expected to correct the other entries before the final submission at the end of the semester. However, language was not graded. 171

191 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-35 S08-46:57 <L2SUOB1>C'était intéressant de tenir un journal</l2suob1> <AR2>Le journal</ar2> <TO1>vous concentre</to1> <AC1>en faisant des choses</ac1> <AC2>régulièrement</AC2> <L5SUOU>Aussi on apprend plus</l5suou> <AC1>en le rencontrant</ac1> <AC2>au fin du jour</ac2> <AC1>J'essayais de le tenir</ac1> <AC2>chaque soir</ac2> <L4>mais si je ne pourrais pas</l4> <AC1>je notais ce que je faisais</ac1> <L2SUOB2>C'était difficile de trouver les choses différentes à écrire chaque fois. </L2SUOB2> It was interesting to keep a diary. The diary focuses you to do things regularly. Also, you learn more by meeting it at the end of the day. I was trying to write every night but if I could not, I was noting what I was doing. It was difficult to find different things to write every time Example 6-35 above illustrates not only a number of contradictions or tensions but also how these have been resolved by the student: when other activities interfere with the language learning activity, and prevent the student from attending to her diary, student S08 takes a different action (I was noting what I was doing). This, along with her effort to write something different every time, also reveals her intentionality. In addition, S08 provides another instance of the diary dual characteristic of tool and object discussed in section 6.1.4: the diary helps the student discipline herself and gives some direction to her work. As such, it is a tool enabling self-regulation from the outside (Chapter 3). While student S08 may be an exception in so far that she actually found the task of keeping a diary interesting, other students found it a good or excellent idea. For student S01 too, the diary plays an important role in helping her take responsibility for her own learning as well as helping her sustain her effort over time: Example 6-36 S01-1:4 <L2SUOB1>Pour moi, ce journal est une très bonne idée</l2suob1> <L2SUOB>Je sens que je n'aurais rien fait</l2suob> <RU1>s'il ne fallait pas que je le garde</ru1> For me, this diary is a very good idea. I am aware that I would have done nothing if I did not have to keep it Student S29 introduces a new dimension to the role of the diary. In line with the examples discussed in on page 154, he sees the diary as a tool enabling some interaction with the teacher who signals his mistakes, which he then corrects. His 172

192 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence corrections are accompanied by some reflection, indicating the development not only of language awareness but also of his own learning process: Example 6-37 S29-25:35 <L2SUOB1>Je suis d'avis que le journal de bord est une bonne méthode</l2suob1> <SU1>pour les étudients</su1> <OB1>pour s'améliorer leurs français</ob1> <L2SUAR>Je crois que le plus important chose sur le journal de bord</l2suar> <DL2>est quand l'enseignante les corrige</dl2> <L2SUOB1>parce que je pense que c'est bien</l2suob1> <L2SUOB>d'apprendre après avoir faire des erreurs</l2suob> <DL2>Après l'enseignante a corrigé mon journal</dl2> <AC1>j'ai fait des corrections</ac1> <L2SUTO1>et ç'a m'aidé bien</l2suto1> <L2SUTO1>Je suis d'avis que on pense plus sur les erreurs après on les corrige</l2suto1> I am of the opinion that the diary is good method for students to improve their French. I think that the most important thing about the diary is when the teacher corrects it because I think it is good to learn after having made mistakes. After the teacher had corrected my diary, I did the corrections and that helped me. I think that you think more on the mistakes after you correct them Student S20 also reflects on the role of errors in the language learning process and adopts a problem solving approach. For him too, the diary and the interaction with the teacher are instrumental in helping him improve his language competence: Example 6-38 S20-34:35 <AC2>Au début,</ac2> <L2SUOB>j'ai pensé qu'il serait très étonnant que tout se passe conformément aux prévisions</l2suob> <L5SUOU1>Mais cela n'a aucune importance que j'ai fait beaucoup d'erreurs</l5suou1> <L5SUOU1>Je crois que si je fais une erreur c'est une bonne chose</l5suou1> <L2SUOB>Il faut de trouver le problème</l2suob> <L2SUOB>et puis de résoudre la situation</l2suob> <AC2>À plusieurs reprises</ac2> <L2SUOB>j'ai réalisé que mes problèmes ont été très insignifiants</l2suob> <TO1>et il est vrai que j'ai résolu la situation très vite</to1> <AC2>quand</AC2> <AC1>j'ai utilisé l'information</ac1> <DL2>que mon prof de français m'est donné</dl2> <RU1>Il faut au courant de la grammaire</ru1> <OU1>et j'ai un fort sentiment quand j'etude que la langue devient plus facile</ou1> <L2SUOB1>Je crois que le journal de bord est une excellente idée</l2suob1> <L2SUTO1>et c'est une bonne forme de travail</l2suto1> At the beginning, I thought that it would be very surprising if everything was going according to plan. But it does not matter at all that I made a lot of mistakes. I think that if I make a mistake, it is a good thing. You have to find the problem and then resolve the situation. Several times, I have realised that my problems were insignificant and it is true that I resolved the situation very fast when I used the information that my teacher gave me. You have to know the grammar and I strongly feel that, when I study, the language becomes easier. I think that the diary is an excellent idea and it is a good form of work. For some students, the diary was useful to keep track of their work and progress. For others, it helped them improve their written fluency. Some students however went through the motion of keeping a diary without any enthusiasm or any awareness of its 173

193 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence potential for language learning. One student in particular still remains to be convinced of its usefulness and even challenges the rules imposed on him by the syllabus: Example 6-39 S03-39:45 <L2SUOB1>3. Pour moi, j'ai trouvé que cette tâche de tenir un journal était un peu inutile</l2suob1> <L2SURU>Je ne sais pas pourquoi on doit décrire les activités qu'on a faites</l2suru> <L2SUOB1>Pourtant, le seul avantage, à mon avis, de tenir un journal était qu'on a reçu la chance d'ameliorer l'expression écrite</l2suob1> <L2SUOB>Je suppose qu'il y ait d'autres avantages mais je ne pouvais pas les trouver</l2suob> <L2SUOB1>Cependant, bien que je n'aime pas tenir un journal,</l2suob1> <L2SUOB>j'ai fait un grand effort l'écrire franchement</l2suob> For me, I found this task of keep a diary a bit useless. I don't know why we must describe the activities we did. Yet, the only advantage in my view, of keeping a diary is that we got the chance to improve the written comprehension. I suppose that there are other advantages but I could not find them. However, even though I don't like keeping a diary, I made a great effort to write it frankly Yet, he kept to the rules and performed the task as well as possible. S03's remarks illustrate the tension that many students felt: they do not like the diary but they comply with the rules imposed by the teacher. While some express rather timidly their feelings about it, student S03 clearly states his opposition to the diary. Not fully dependent anymore but not quite independent yet, student S03 is thus moving into a 'counterdependent' phase (Boud, 1988). Discussion The above discussion suggests that both the diary and the bilan have been instrumental in assisting the development of learner autonomy, in terms of independence from the teacher. Yet, the mediating role of the diary emerged as a result of explicit rules imposed by the syllabus and the teacher. Paradoxically, the imposition of rules restricting learner control over the learning content and process such as the requirement to keep a diary and therefore potentially hindering the exercise of learner autonomy, also enables its development. As in the case of the aural comprehension sub-activity discussed in section 6.2.1, the contradiction between rules and object of the language learning activity occurred as a result of decisions 174

194 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence made during the instructional design phase. In both cases, these contradictions are a potential source of development with respect to learner autonomy. For the development of learner autonomy to occur, they must however be resolved, either at the collective level (e.g. through changes in the syllabus) or at the individual actions level (e.g. through the construction and adoption of new tools and procedures) Resolving contradictions In relation to the aural comprehension sub-activity, the tension between independence and interdependence was not resolved during the semester. By contrast, the contradictions between rules and object of the activity were partially resolved by individual students. Indeed, the previous discussion suggested that the diary mediated language learning for those students who also demonstrated a certain level of intentionality. The short extracts discussed above also highlighted the capacity for some students to go beyond their dislikes or frustrations, and to reflect on the usefulness of the exercise. In doing so, they resolved some of the tensions between themselves as subjects of the language learning activity and various elements of the activity, including its object. Other students, while able to identify and express these tensions, through French, did not attempt to resolve them. Most bilans point to some resolution, undoubtedly in response to the question If you were to start again, would you change anything? Why? What advice would you give to future students?" (see Appendix B3). The resolution of contradictions indicated by students can take different forms. A different course of action is often suggested, especially in terms of frequency. For example, student S33 would like to use the facilities in SALLU more often (Example 6-40), while students S34 and S19 recommend writing in the diary more often, if not every day (Example 6-41 and 175

195 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-43). Students S34 and S19 also propose new procedures in relation to the diary (Example 6-42 and Example 6-43). Similarly, student S33 encourages future students to learn new computer skills (Example 6-40). Example 6-40 S33-56:52 <L2SUOB>Si je devais recommencer,</l2suob> <OB3>je pense que j'essayerai de</ob3> <AC2>visiter SALLU</AC2> <AC2>plus frequent</ac2> <L2SUOB>Je conseillerai aux étudiants futurs</l2suob> <L2SUTO2>de trouver comment on utilise les ordinateurs</l2suto2> <AR1>et les CD audios</ar1> If I had to start again, I think I would try to visit SALLU more often. I would advise future students to find out how to use computers and the audio CD. Example 6-41 S34-43:47 <L2SUOB>Je parlerais aux étudiants futurs</l2suob> <AC1>du travailler sur</ac1> <AR2>ses journals beaucoup</ar2> <AC1>et pour écrire des entrées</ac1> <AC2>presque chaque nuit</ac2> I would tell future students to work on their diary a lot and to write entries nearly every night Example 6-42 S34-37:40 <L2SUOB>Si je devait recommencer,</l2suob> <AC1>j'écrivais plus</ac1> <AC1>et j'écrivais</ac1> <AR2>mes mots nouveaux aussi</ar2> If I had to start again, I would write more and I would write down my new words too Example 6-43 S19-71:80 <L2SUOB>Mon conseils serait de</l2suob> <AC1>faire votre journal</ac1> <AC2>presque tous les jours</ac2> <AC1>et d'ecrit</ac1> <OB3>vos objectifs</ob3> <OB3>Moi j'avais toujours les objectifs</ob3> <L2SUOB>mais je ne les ai pas ecrit</l2suob> <OB3>Aussi essayez de trouver un projet de travail</ob3> <AC2>par exemple, tous les mardi</ac2> <TO1>je ferai quoi et ainsi de suite</to1> My advice would be to do your diary nearly every day and to write your objectives. Me, I always had objectives but I did not write them down. Also, try to find a small project, for example, every Tuesday I would do this, and so on Student S23, on the other hand, indicates at the very start of her diary, that she wished she had spent less time on it (Example 6-44). She confirms this wish later on by expressing the difficulties she encountered during the semester (Example 6-45). Yet, her last comment suggests that writing the diary on a regular basis has become routinised. She thus resolved earlier tensions and eventually adopted a procedure, which was new to her and imposed from the outside. 176

196 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-44 S23-1:6 <L2SUOB>1) Si je devait recommencer le journal, je changerais un chose</l2suob> <L2SUOB>Je préfèrerais</l2suob> <AC1>d'écrire</AC1> <AR2>dans mon journal</ar2> <AC2>une fois par semaine seulement</ac2> <AC2>au lieu de chaque jour</ac2> If I had to start the diary again, I would change one thing. I would prefer to write in my diary once a week only instead of every day Example 6-45 S23-24:34 <AC2>Au debut</ac2> <L2SUOB2>je l'a trouvé assez difficile</l2suob2> <OU1>et je n'ai pas vu des progrès</ou1> <AC2>mais peu à peu</ac2> <OU2>on a realisé mes points faibles</ou2> <OB1>et j'ai travaillé sur eux</ob1> <L2SUOB2>Deuxièmement je l'ai trouvé difficile</l2suob2> <AC1>d'écrire</AC1> <AR2>dans le journal</ar2> <AC2>chaque fois qu j'ai faite quelque chose</ac2> <L2SUOB>Maintenant c'est l'habitude</l2suob> At the beginning, I found it very difficult and I could not see any progress, but little by little, I have realised my weaknesses and I worked on them. Secondly, I found it difficult to write in the diary every time I did something. But now, it is a habit In Example 6-46 below, student S02 proposes a form of reorganisation of the division of labour associated to a new rule, which would assist students in achieving their objective sooner, which she defines as the identification of errors. She thus suggests a revision of the rule stipulating that the diary had to be handed in to the teacher at least twice during the semester, including the final submission. It is not clear, however, whether this rule should be left to students discretion or imposed by the teacher. Having identified her own needs for more advanced artefacts, student S02 also suggests that new tools and artefacts be made available to students (Example 6-47). Example 6-46 S02-82:84 <L2SUDL2>Je crois qu'il serait bénéfique de remettre le journal au professeur de façon régulière </L2SUDL2> <OB3>afin d'identifier les erreurs plus rapidement</ob3> <L2SUDL2>Peut-être quatre fois pendant le semestre</l2sudl2> I think it would be beneficial to hand in the diary to the teacher regularly in order to identify errors quicker. Perhaps four times during the semester 177

197 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-47 S02-41:44 <L3>Je crois qu'il serait intéressant de pouvoir louer ou emprunter des films français ou des documentaires</l3> <L2SUAR2>Le choix d'émissions sur TV5 est assez limité</l2suar2> <L3>Il serait très utile d'avoir accès aux autres chaines françaises ou belges telles que 'M6', TF1 ou ARTE</L3> <L3>La possibilité d'emprunter des cassettes de musique ou des CD audios d'artistes francophones serait aussi la bienvenue</l3> I think it would be interesting to be able to hire or borrow some French films or documentaries. The choice of programmes on TV5 is quite limited. It would be useful to have access to other French or Belgian channels such M6, TF1 or ARTE. The possibility of borrowing music tapes or audio CDs from French speaking artists would also be welcome. Discussion The above students are thus in the process of creating new tools or procedures, which could contribute to the expansive transformation of the collective activity (see Chapter section 3.2.5), should they be adopted by the community and integrated into the language learning environment. They also propose new individual actions, which may or may not be carried out in the near future. Some of these individual actions, such as planning new ways of doing things or setting new objectives, can also be seen as metacognitive strategies. In line with the arguments presented in Chapter 3, these metacognitive strategies emerge as the result of contradictions arising as the activity unfolds, which are identified and made explicit upon reflection. In many cases, this reflection is itself triggered by the teacher s request to write a bilan. This constitutes another instance of the mediating, yet conflicting, role of rules imposed from the outside (see section 6.2.2, on page 174): rules, which impose the production of reflective accounts, generate opportunities for the identification and the resolution of contradictions at both the collective activity and individual actions levels. The next section will examine to what extent the capacity to identify and to resolve contradictions can be seen as an additional attribute of learner autonomy. To do so, it will revisit the learner autonomy profiles used to assess the learner diaries and described 178

198 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence in Chapter 5 (section 5.1.3) and reappraise their value as an instrument to measure learner autonomy in the lights of the findings discussed so far. 6.3 Revisiting the learner autonomy profiles The learner profiles described in Chapter 5 (section 5.1.3, see also Appendix C) give a description of student behaviours and attributes, which are related to different levels of autonomy, the latter being primarily defined in terms of independence and interdependence, motivation and direction. They provided the teacher with an evaluation grid to assess the diaries in line with the rules governing the continuous assessment process. At the end of the semester, the teacher thus assigned each diary to one of the five learner autonomy profiles or levels. Furthermore, she gave detailed feedback on the diaries and suggested directions for further work based on her intimate knowledge of the class and of the course. These comments were also tagged and encoded according to activity theoretical concepts and principles (Chapter 5, section 5.3.2). The teacher's assessment of the diaries and her accompanying comments essentially focus on students' individual account of their use of metacognitive and socio-affective language learning strategies, such as those defined by Oxford (1990). This section examines whether the activity theoretical analysis of the teacher's feedback confirm the new insights emerging from earlier sections The teacher s comments: overview The analysis of the tagged and encoded teacher s comments with the programme WORDLIST from WORDSMITH TOOLS returns the frequency of each category used by the teacher in her feedback as summarised in Table 6-4 (on page 181). The number of 179

199 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence segments relating to the actions (Group 1) carried out by students (28%) is similar to those found in the students bilans (29%, see Table 6-1, on page 137), consistent with the fact that the teacher summarised the range of actions carried out by individual students. However, the frequency lists for the segments allocated to the description of the activity system (Group 2) and to the contradictions (Group 3) differ between the teacher s comments and the students bilans: in the teacher s comments, 26% of the teacher s segments belong to Group 2, compared with 39% in the students bilans. Similarly, 46% of the segments belong to Group 3 as opposed to 32% in the students bilans. These differences can be explained by the nature of the two data sets: a bilan provides an account of the student s experience whereas the teacher s comments focus on the strengths and weaknesses of this experience as it is related in the diary. This also applies to a number of specific categories. For example, since language was not graded, it is not surprising that only 0.8% of the teacher s segments focus on language outcomes (OU1), as opposed to 8.8% in the students bilans. As in the case of the bilans, the teacher s segments relating to language as the object of the language activity (OB1) are among the most frequent ones in Group 2 (6.48%). Similarly, those referring to strategies and transferable skills as object of the language activity (OB2) are among the less frequent ones (0.7%), thus confirming that the development and consolidation of language skills were the primary object of the language learning activity. Segments relating to the horizontal division of labour (DL1) are however more frequent in the teacher s comments than in the bilans, albeit marginally (1.4% for the teacher s comments and only 0.7% in the bilans). The same pattern is observed with respect to the categories indicating subject division of labour contradictions (2 % in the teacher s comments compared with 0.83% in the 180

200 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence bilans). Yet, the low frequency of segments relating to the division of labour also confirms the strong focus on independence identified in earlier sections. Table 6-4 Number of segments per category (teacher s feedback) Segment category Frequency Percentage GROUP 1 (ACTIONS) AC2 CONTEXT OF ACTION AC1 ACTION TOTAL % GROUP 2 (DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITY SYSTEM) OB1 OBJECT/ GOALS (LANGUAGE) AR1 ARTEFACTS USED BY LEARNERS TO3 TOOLS (TECHNOLOGY SOFTWARE) TO2 TOOLS (TECHNOLOGY - HARDWARE) DL1 DIVISION OF LABOUR (HORIZONTAL) OB3 OBJECT/ GOALS (DEFINE GOALS OR OBJECTIVES) OU2 OUTCOMES (STRATEGIES AND TRANSFERABLE SKILLS) TO1 TOOLS (COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE) AR2 ARTEFACTS CREATED BY LEARNERS OU1- OUTCOMES (LANGUAGE) OB2 OBJECT/ GOALS (STRATEGIES AND TRANSFERABLE SKILLS) SU1 SUBJECT DL2 DIVISION OF LABOUR (VERTICAL) RU1 RULES (IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT) TOTAL % GROUP 3 (CONTRADICTIONS) L5SUAR2 (SUBJECT - LEARNER CONSTRUCTED ARTEFACT) TOTAL L2SUOB (SUBJECT OBJECT) TOTAL L2SUTO (SUBJECT TOOL) + TOTAL L2SUAR (SUBJECT ARTEFACT) TOTAL L2SUDL (SUBJECT DIVISION OF LABOUR) 20 2 TOTAL L5SUOU (SUBJECT OUTCOMES) L4 EXTERNAL CONTRADICTION (BETWEEN NEIGHBOURING ACTIVITIES) L1 INTERNAL CONTRADICTIONS (WITHIN COMPONENTS) L2SUCO (SUBJECT COMMUNITY) L2SURU (SUBJECT RULES) L3 EXTERNAL CONTRADICTION (BETWEEN NEW ACTIVITY AND RESIDUE OF OLD ONE) TOTAL % TOTAL NUMBER OF SEGMENTS % The distribution of students among the different levels of autonomy (or profiles) as assigned by the teacher was given in Figure 5-3 (on page 107). It is useful to recall that Level 3 (15 students) constitutes what can be reasonably expected of all students registered for the module FR

201 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Example 6-48 below illustrates some of the characteristics that can be found in the diaries allocated to Level 3 (see Appendix C2): Example 6-48 (translation) Level 3 (S15) Diary kept regularly. At the beginning, as you observe it yourself, you mainly focused on classroombased activities but you then understood that you had to select some outside class and you have used SALLU for the videos, the television and the computers. Good effort with the Internet. You could have given more details on what you were doing or looking at. You say for example several times that you have done some grammar but you don't specify which book you used nor which type of exercises you have done. Conscientious revision work and learning of vocabulary, in particular from TV documents. You have re-read your diary several times to check that you were following your objectives and you have re-oriented your efforts in consequence. This is good! You have also discovered the benefits of team work, you will be able to continue in the second semester. Good planing effort but you could have followed a clearer plan and given the impression that the work you were doing had a goal. Student S15's development with respect to learner autonomy matches the desired outcomes set out by the syllabus. The student has shown regularity in her efforts to engage in both classroom and independent tasks. She has engaged in collaborative learning, and she acknowledges its benefits. Her account however is still fragmented and is marked by a lack of details and direction, even though she appears to have set some objectives, which she tried to follow. In addition, the teacher notes that student S15 has been able to identify some contradictions in the course of the activity and to resolve them. In particular, her diary moved from a single focus on classroom-based tasks to a description of independent tasks, which she initiated herself Learner independence as the capacity to resolve contradictions While Level 3 suggests a general pattern for the whole group, levels on either side point to particular characteristics that may help discriminate between different levels. These characteristics were identified with the help of the program KEYWORDS from WORDSMITH TOOLS (Scott, 1997). The program identifies key words, i.e. words, which are unusually frequent (i.e. presenting a positive key-ness) or infrequent (i.e. presenting 182

202 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence a negative key-ness) in one or more given texts in comparison with a reference corpus. Before running KEYWORDS, a minimum of two word lists must be created. Smaller lists correspond to the chosen texts, while the reference list is calculated from the reference corpus. The program then calculates the key words by comparing the frequency of each word occurring in a given smaller list with that of the same word in the reference list. It performs a Log Likelyhood Test, which works reasonably well with both large and small text samples and allows direct comparison of the significance of rare and common phenomena (Dunning, 1993), and displays the key-ness of identified key words along with the corresponding p value. The latter indicates the risk (or probability) of being wrong in identifying a given word as unusually frequent or infrequent in the smaller corpus in comparison with the reference one. The key-ness thus indicates the level of outstandingness of a particular term (see Scott, 1997). KEYWORDS can also identify linked key words, or associates, i.e. key words that co-occur. From the tagged and encoded bilans on the one hand and from the teacher s feedback on the other, word lists were created, which correspond to each level of autonomy. KEYWORDS was first used to identify those categories and their associated descriptors that are likely to be unusually frequent or infrequent in each subset of tagged and encoded bilans 27, in comparison with the full corpus. Key words were then calculated for the corresponding teacher s comments. The resulting students and teacher s key words highlight attributes of learner autonomy that emerge as a result of the activity theoretical approach as it has been adopted in this thesis. No significant key words were found for either the bilans belonging to Level 3 nor the associated teacher s comments. This confirms that students in this group constitute the 27 i.e. all bilans written by students which were assigned by the teacher to the same level of autonomy 183

203 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence expected norm from which other groups deviate. Table 6-5 (below) and Table 6-8 (on page 186) show the results returned by KEYWORDS with respect to the students' bilans for Level 2 and Level 4 respectively. Table 6-6 (on page 185) and Table 6-7 (on page 186) present the most significant key words found in the teacher s feedback for the same profiles. Given the limitations of a KEYWORDS analysis with small corpora, only the most significant key words are considered for analysis and interpretation. In relation to the bilans in Level 2, KEYWORDS returned the greatest keyness value for the category DL2 (vertical division of labour) and the linked descriptor TEACHERQUESTION (Table 6-5). This, in fact, is due to student S30's bilan, which presents a distinctive trait: student S30 is the only student who copied the list of suggested questions in her bilan and proceeded to answer each question in turn. This in itself suggests a high dependence on the teacher, which is translated by a dependence on teaching materials. The next most frequent words are L2SUAR1 (indicating a positive attitude towards artefact) and its associate LIKE. Students assigned to Level 2 are thus more likely to comment on the artefacts they enjoyed using than students in other levels. Table 6-5 Level 2 Key Words (Students' bilans) N CATEGORY OR DESCRIPTOR FREQUENCY (LEVEL 2 ) % (LEVEL 2) FREQUENCY (ALL) % (ALL) KEYNESS P 1 TEACHERQUESTION DL L2SUAR LIKE TENSES SATISFIED TASKS OB The negative keyness for the category OB1 (in italics) also appears to be a distinctive trait in Level 2, thus suggesting that students in this level do not make the goals of their actions explicit in their bilan. These preliminary findings are supported by a closer 184

204 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence examination of the key words returned for the teacher's evaluations (Table 6-6) for this group of students, and more particularly of the descriptors associated with CONTENTMISSING: Table 6-6 Level 2 Key Words (Teacher's evaluations) N CATEGORY OR DESCRIPTOR FREQUENCY (LEVEL 2 ) % (LEVEL 2) FREQUENCY (ALL) % (ALL) KEYNESS P 1 SATISFACTORY CONTENTMISSING SOME TEACHEREVALUATION L2SUOBT TOOSHORT TOPIC Indeed, while most students wrote in their diary regularly (SATISFACTORY), the teacher remarks that information regarding the objects or goals of their actions e.g. details, type of tasks, topics, etc. is missing in all eight diaries in this group. Similarly, she notes a general lack of direction for all students (L2SUOBT) as illustrated by Example 6-49 below: Example 6-49 S30 <L2SUOBT>Vous ne vous fixez pas</l2suobt> <AC2T>régulièrement</AC2T> <OB3T>d'objectifs</OB3T> <L5SUAR2T>et vous n'analysez pas</l5suar2t> <OU1T>votre progression</ou1t> <AC2T>au cours des semaines.</ac2t> You don't set yourself objectives regularly and you don't analyse your progression over the weeks This would suggest that the actions carried out and reported by students at this level are principally oriented towards "direct object" artefacts, rather than towards objects of a higher order. By contrast, OB1 emerges as a key word in the teacher's evaluations of diaries allocated to Level 4 while CONTENTMISSING returns a negative keyness (Table 6-7). Students in this group thus appear to have provided in their diaries the information requested from them. 185

205 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Table 6-7 Level 4 Key Words (Teacher's evaluations) N CATEGORY OR DESCRIPTOR FREQUENCY (LEVEL 4 ) % (LEVEL 4) FREQUENCY (ALL) % (ALL) KEYNESS P 1 OB BILAN CONTENTMISSING As she summarises the actions carried out by students in this group, the teacher highlights the broad range of objects attended to and reported in the diaries, as illustrated by Example 6-50: Example 6-50 S21 <L2SUTO2T>Vous avez bien utilisé les facilités de SALLU</L2SUTO2T> <OB1>mais aussi travaillé la lecture,</ob1> <OB1>la rédaction</ob1> <AR2>(lettres),</AR2> <OB1>l'expression orale</ob1> <L2SUDL1>et découvert les avantages d'expliquer à quelqu'un d'autre ce que vous savez déjà.</l2sudl1> You have used the facilities in SALLU well but also worked on reading, writing (letters), oral expression and discovered the benefits of explaining to somebody else what you already know. The first key word with respect to the students' bilans is the descriptor STUDENTRESOLVE as shown in Table 6-8. Whereas students at all levels have suggested ways of resolving tensions, students in Level 4 are more likely to do so than in other levels. When discussing the content of their diary (L5SUAR2 and CONTENT), they are less likely to adopt a text organisation directly derived from the structure implicit in the questions given to students. Students in this level tend to organise their bilans in a more personal way, more suited to the expression of their own reflection. Table 6-8 Level 4 Key Words (Students' bilans) N CATEGORY OR DESCRIPTOR FREQUENCY (LEVEL 4 ) % (LEVEL 4) FREQUENCY (ALL) % (ALL) KEYNESS P 1 STUDENTRESOLVE TASKS DIARY L5SUAR CONTENT The activity theoretical analysis of the teacher's comments confirmed the focus on independence highlighted by earlier analyses of the students bilans (Section 6.1). 186

206 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence Furthermore, the above KEYWORDS analyses, despite their limitations given the small size of the corpus, confirmed a number of emerging traits that can assist in identifying different levels of autonomy. In particular, the above discussion suggests that the actions carried out by less autonomous students (e.g. by students who are still teacherdependent and show an overall lack of directions) are more likely to be directed towards direct object artefacts than towards goals of a higher order. Furthermore, while those students may exercise some control over the choice of artefacts, they tend to focus more specifically on those they like. It was also shown that more autonomous students (e.g. students who are more independent, motivated and self-directed) are more likely to resolve the contradictions occurring as the language learning activity unfolds. 6.4 Summary and conclusion This chapter presented and discussed the findings of an activity theoretical analysis of students reflective accounts written at the end of the semester. The analysis and its subsequent interpretation were organised in three stages. The first stage sought to unravel the complexity of the collective language learning activity through a detailed study of the actions carried out by individual students. The analysis of the data revealed the multivoiced construction of the objects of the activity by the students. A shift between tools and objects was also observed and the concept of "direct object" artefacts, which possess the dual characteristic of artefact and object, was elaborated. The second stage looked at some of the contradictions that arose as the activity unfolded. It demonstrated that the activity transformed itself, sometimes in unexpected ways, in response to external and internal contradictions. In particular, it was proposed that contradictions arising from the design of the course itself were constraining the development of learner autonomy with respect to the notion of 187

207 Chapter 6 - Empirical analysis 1: Focus on independence interdependence. It was then suggested that the capacity to resolve internal or external contradictions, whether at the collective activity or individual actions levels, constituted an attribute of learner autonomy. This suggestion was further explored in the third and final stage of the study. Following an activity theoretical analysis of the teacher's comments, a number of distinctive and observable traits emerged, which allow identifying groups of students who deviate from the norm. In particular, students who had been assessed by the teacher as less autonomous were more likely than others to direct their actions towards "direct object" artefacts, while students that are more autonomous tended to formulate explicit goals and objects of a higher order. Likewise, the latter showed a higher propensity to resolve contradictions that arise in the course of the activity, thus confirming the hypothesis that the capacity to resolve contradictions was an observable attribute of learner autonomy. These traits or 'attributes' do not readily reveal themselves by analyses that are primarily rooted in more widely spread approaches to learner autonomy, such as those embedded in the assessment grid given to the teacher and underpinning her interpretation of the diaries. While the latter still provides a useful description of individual behaviours and attributes as well as a tool to distinguish between students demonstrating a different level of autonomy, the activity theoretical approach taken thus far highlights the role of systemic contradictions in the development and exercise of learner autonomy. Rather than focusing primarily on individual and psychological constructs, it locates these in the transformations of the overall language learning activity and points to a dynamic relationship between collective activity and individual actions. These points will further explored in the next chapter. 188

208 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Chapter 7 Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Following an activity theoretical analysis of learner diaries kept by learners as part of the module FR130, the previous chapter (Chapter 6) highlighted some structural contradictions, arising from the design of the course, which were seen as providing opportunities for the development of learner independence as well as constraining the exercise and development of learner interdependence. It then proposed that the capacity to resolve contradictions was an observable attribute of learner independence.. In Semester 2, the module FR140 (see Chapter 5, section 5.1) not only introduced a new object the collaborative construction of a website targeting French-speaking students wishing to study in DCU but also a new division of labour (e.g. students work in teams) and a new range of tools and artefacts (e.g. technology). The new internal structure of the language learning activity, and more specifically the new division of labour, placed interdependence at the centre of the learning process: students could not attend to the object of the language learning activity by acting in isolation of each other. In other words, the exercise and development of learner independence was constrained by that of learner interdependence. According to activity theory, the adoption of these new elements and of 'a culturally more advanced object' is likely to introduce some secondary as well as tertiary contradictions into the language learning activity system (Chapter 3, section 3.2.4). In turn, these contradictions may trigger a series of expansive transformations (Chapter 3, section 3.2.5). The exercise of learner autonomy, as evident in the capacity to resolve contradictions, thus potentially leads to the emergence of expansive cycles. The empirical analysis reported in this chapter (Chapter 7) therefore aimed to identify 189

209 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence emerging contradictions and to establish whether their resolution led to an expansive transformation of the activity associated with the module FR140. The analysis focused primarily on the roles of the horizontal division of labour, computers and language in promoting learner autonomy and language use. Starting with an overview of the collective and individual outcomes, section 7.1 analyses the FR140 language learning activity from the perspective of teams and individual students and draws preliminary conclusions with respect to the development and exercise of learner autonomy. Section 7.2 then further explores the transformation of the activity resulting from the formation and resolution of contradictions, with a particular focus on the tools and the division of labour mediating the activity. 7.1 Analysing the activity system As outlined in Chapter 5, the collective activity associated with FR140 is motivated by the collaborative construction of a website targeting French speaking students interested in coming to DCU. In their drive to construct the website, individual students and teams (see Chapter 5) carried out a number of actions, which were mediated by tools and artefacts, and by a certain division of labour. These actions contributed to the transformation of the object of the activity into two broad outcomes of particular interest for this thesis Collective and individual outcomes The first outcome of interest for this thesis is the artefact constructed by the students, i.e. the actual website as it was published on the World Wide Web at the end of the semester. Indeed, the website embodies the mediated actions carried by individual students in their constituted teams i.e. the Technical team, the Journal team and six 190

210 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence content teams (see Chapter 5). It is a material or rather virtual artefact, whose existence is the direct outcome of the collective activity. The second one is the range of learning outcomes as they were perceived by individual students. As indicated in Chapter 5 (section 5.3), the development of language competence did not constitute an object of this study. However, language performance as assessed by the teacher (e.g. assessed reports, oral presentations, etc.) provided some additional information, which was triangulated with students' perceptions. Collective outcome: the website At the end of the semester, the web site Salut les copains! was put on line on the DCU student server 28. The website contains detailed and practical information on life in and around Dublin City University, which was accurate at the time (May 1999). The site is divided into seven sections, with six sections corresponding to the themes chosen by the content teams. The seventh section was created by the Journal Team and provides information on some aspects of the project as it was realised by the students. Figure 7-1 below illustrates the structure of the website constructed by the eight teams. 28 The website can be consulted at 191

211 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-1 The website: Salut les copains! In total, fifty-nine HTML files had been generated by the end of the semester, accounting for 22,263 words overall. Table 7-1 below summarises the statistical information returned by WORDLIST for the corpus generated from the websites files. Only the pages containing some text are included in the statistics and welcome pages, which mainly contain links and images, are indicated in brackets. 192

212 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Teams Table 7-1 Statistical information (WordList) Number of students HTML Pages Tokens (Words) Types Types/ Tokens Overall Team 1 (Technical Team) Team 2 (Journal Team) Team 3 (Accommodation) Team 4 (Outside Dublin) 5 20 (+1) Team 5 (DCU Campus) 4 14 (+1) Team 6 (Transport) Team 7 (Cost of living) 4 4 (+1) Team 8 (Social life) 5 5 (+1) Table 7-1 above highlights the difference in terms of content production between the teams. The Technical Team did not produce any pages of their own but created the HTML code for the content teams. Team 4 and Team 5 produced more pages and text than any other content teams. Team 4 (Attractions outside Dublin) was particularly productive, with their section of the site representing 34% of the total number of pages and 39% of the overall number of words generated by the whole group. While the site is targeting foreign students intending to study at the university, it also reflects the interests and concerns of first year students: the information is practical and concrete, and relates to the daily life of the students. The terms used throughout the site are relevant and accurate, the register is appropriate, and the grammatical accuracy is very satisfactory for first year students (see Appendix I for extracts of each team's contribution). In most sections, it is impossible to guess who the authors of specific pages are, thus suggesting that the writing process was effectively a collaborative one, involving the students and their teacher, who provided continuous feedback throughout the writing stage. This is particularly evident in the case of the section produced by Team 4 (Attractions outside Dublin). While their section of the site is divided into four areas corresponding to the provinces of Ireland, each province adopts a similar structure and content: les sports (sports), les fêtes (festivals), l'hébergement (accommodation) and l'histoire (history). 193

213 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence The site design and its HTML source code also give some preliminary information on the interaction and collaboration between teams and individual students. Each team adopted a unique layout and selected their colours, fonts and navigational structure. Student S02, from the Technical Team, provided the graphics for the home page and the navigation within the site (e.g. UNDER CONSTRUCTION, EXIT, ). The code quality varied greatly between teams. Whereas the HTML code produced by Team 4 and Team 5 was of an acceptable quality, the code for the other teams had to be edited so that their sections could be effectively published. In many cases, this researcher had to clean up the code and link the different sections together so that the site could be put on line before the end of the academic year. The website is therefore the result of a collective activity, in which all members of the community participated, albeit in different capacities. Perceived individual outcomes: language and transferable skills At the end of the semester, each team presented the results of and their reflections on their work to their peers and to the teacher and this researcher. Each student attended a number of oral presentations and contributed to the discussions before writing their final report. In their final reports (Rapport Individuel 3), students detail the outcomes of the project, as they were perceived not only individually by themselves but also by the teams whose oral presentations they attended. Students thus outline the learning outcomes from a collective point of view (see Example 7-1 and Example 7-3 below) as well as from an individual perspective (see Example 7-2 and Example 7-4). 194

214 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-1 (Report 3) S08 Team 6 Nous avons appris beaucoup de choses au cours du semestre. Le plus bénéfique a été apprendre comment travailler en équipe. C'est utile pour chaque cours. Aussi, nous avons utilisé les ordinateurs et nous avons maintenant le savoir-faire pour les utiliser pour beaucoup d'autre choses. Surtout spellcheck en français. C'est très utile parce qu'on peut voir ses fautes et les corriger. À mon avis, je pense que notre niveau de français a amélioré. Nous avons pratiqué notre langue parlée pour la présentation orale quand nous avons eu besoin d'utiliser toute la français qu'on a su. C'était necessaire aussi de trouver des nouveaux mots pour expliquer et pour écrire la page donc notre vocabulaire est plus immense à la fin du semestre. Example 7-2 (Report 3) We have learned a lot of things during the semester. The most beneficial was to learn how to work in a team. It is useful for every subject. Also, we have used computers and we now have the skills to use them for many other things. Especially spellcheck in French. It is very useful because you can see your mistakes and correct them. In my opinion, I think our level of French has improved. We have practiced our spoken language for the oral presentation when we needed to use all the French we knew. It was also necessary to find new words to explain and to describe the page, thus our vocabulary is greater at the end of the semester. S14 Team 1 J'avais ammeliorer mon connaissance du HTML. Aussi j'ai trouvé que je suis plus compétente en Word et PowerPoint aussi. J'ai apprit comme on travailler dans un équipe. J'ai du travaillé avec des autres et les aider. Aussi j'ai dû accepter de l'aide et de la conseil à des autres aussi. Mon français technique a ammélioré et aussi mon abilité de communiquer des idées. La présentation m'aide avec mon français orale. Example 7-3 (Report 3) I have improved my knowledge of HTML. Also, I found that I more competent with Word and PowerPoint too. I have learned how to work in a team. I had to work with others and to help them. Also I had to accept help and advice from others. My technical French has improved and also my ability to communicate ideas. The presentation helped me with my spoken French. S16 Team 7 Pendant le semestre, en travaillant en groupe nous avons appris comment écouter des idées des autres, comment accepter la critique et aussi comment exprimer nos idées. Nous avons appris comment utiliser Topclass et de communiquer avec des autres en francais. Nous avons appris comment evaluer les sites de webs francophones et aussi comment utiliser Word pour corriger nos erreurs de langue. Aussi, chaque mercredi, il y avait un cours practique ou nous avons develloper notre competence sur les ordinateurs. Example 7-4 (Report 3) During the semester, by working in teams, we have learned how to listen to the ideas of others, how to accept criticism and also how to express our ideas. We have learned how to use TopClass and to communicate with others in French. We have learned how to evaluate French web sites and also how to use Word to correct our language mistakes. Also, every Wednesday there was a practical class where we have developed our computer skills. S29 Team 3 Pendant ce semestre j'ai appris de utiliser les ordinateurs avec français et aussi j'ai appris d'utiliser l'internet avec français. J'ai appris des petites choses aussi, par exemple je sais maintenant comment écrire "ç, é, è, à, ê, etc." avec les ordinateurs. Je crois aussi que mon niveau de français est plus haute que jamais, surtout quand j'écris en français et j'écoute des personnes françaises. Je suis d'avis que maintenant. je peux comprendre beaucoup de cette qui les personnes françaises disent. 195

215 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence During the semester I have learned to use computers with French and also I have learned how to use the Internet with French. I have learned small things too, for example, I now know how to write ç, é, è, à, ê, etc. with the computers. Relevant paragraphs or sentences were extracted from the final reports (Report 3) and encoded using the same categories OU1 (language outcomes) and OU2 (strategies and transferable skills) as in the previous chapter. The results are summarised in Table 7-2 and Table 7-3 respectively. A comparison between these findings and those reported in Chapter 6 returns interesting results. At the end of Semester 2, 69% of the learning outcomes cited in the final reports relate to transferable skills (OU2) against 16% in Semester 1. Conversely, only 31% of the expressed outcomes are related to language (OU1) in Semester 2 compared with 84% in Semester 1 (see Chapter 6). However, the acquisition and development of computer skills is in many cases intrinsically linked to the development of language use: not only can students use MS-WORD, they can use it in French and for French (see for instance Example 7-1, Example 7-3 and Example 7-4 on page 195). Table 7-2 Learning outcomes: language skills (OU1) Language skills (OU1) Number of citations % of language skills Improved Oral Expression 24 32% New Vocabulary 19 26% Improved Written Expression 10 13% Increased general proficiency 7 10% Grammar 5 7% Increased Self Confidence 5 7% Improved Aural Comprehension 3 4% Translation Skills 1 1% Total % 196

216 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Table 7-3 Learning outcomes: Transferable skills (OU2) Transferable skills (OU2) Number of citations % of transferable skills Computer skills 75 45% General 18 Access 1 Excel 1 French (in and for) 13 HTML (Team 1) 10 Internet 5 TopClass 8 MSWord 6 PowerPoint 7 WordSmith Tools 1 Operations 5 Team Work skills 44 27% General 24 Collaboration 9 ListenOthers 4 Compromise 2 Opinion 2 Criticism 1 Decide 1 Meetings 1 Research skills 17 10% Communication 9 5% Content 8 5% Project Management skills 6 4% Independence 3 2% Interviewing (Team 2) 3 2% Total % Table 7-3 above also highlights an emerging category of outcomes, which relates to the creation of content for the website. Many students report having learned about their environment through researching their chosen topics. Not surprisingly, the practical knowledge acquired by students varies between teams, which have focused on different themes or topics, as illustrated by Example 7-5 below: 197

217 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-5 (Report 3) S05 Team 1 En recherchant leurs thèmes, toutes l'équipes apprennaient sur leur thème, par exemple l'équipe du logement apprennions beaucoup sur le logemenet à Dublin - les prix, etc. L'équipe technique (nous) apprennaient le HTML pour écrire les pages web et, avec ça, ce sera plus facile de créer notre pages web! By researching their teams, all the teams have learned about their theme, for example, the accommodation team learned a lot on accommodation in Dublin prices, etc. The Technical Team (us) have learned HTML to write web pages, and with that, it will be easier to create our web pages! Assessed learning outcomes Although the development of language competence was not the focus of this study (see Chapter 5, section 5.3), it is useful to triangulate students' perception of their language learning outcomes with their actual performance as it was assessed by the teacher (see Appendix F). The students' individual performance during the end-of-semester oral presentations was assessed in terms of their pronunciation, richness of vocabulary, accuracy, fluency and comprehension (i.e. understanding of questions asked by examiners and peers). Students were also allocated a group mark reflecting the structure and content of their presentation which centred on the methodology adopted by each team, the problems encountered and their solutions, their perceived learning outcomes and reactions the originality and creativity of the delivery, and the co-ordination between the different team members. With respect to their written production, individual marks were allocated to the content and language accuracy of the students' individual reports and of the section of the website they directly contributed to. Group marks were allocated to the overall team web site and to the minutes of the team meetings, which had been corrected according to the teacher's feedback and collated at the end of the semester. In assessing the students' individual written and oral productions, the teacher applied the criteria she normally used with any first year group, irrespective of the adopted teaching methodology. Figure 7-2 below indicates the distribution of grades (according the DCU 198

218 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Honours classification) obtained by students for their individual reports and their individual oral performance at the end of the semester. The bulk of students achieved a Second Class Honours in both written and oral expression, thus suggesting that the overall language performance was at the level expected at the end of a first year language course in Dublin City University. Figure 7-2 Individual language performance as assessed by the teacher As illustrated in Figure 7-3 below, the group marks allocated to the oral presentations were generally very high in recognition of the quality not only of the content of the presentations but also of overall delivery. Indeed, most teams demonstrated a high level of internal organisation and originality while presenting a rich and honest content. During their oral presentations, and also through the completed website, students thus demonstrated the broad range of skills, which they had themselves perceived as learning outcomes. 199

219 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-3 Group oral presentations as assessed by the teacher The learning outcomes described in this section are the product of the actions carried out by teams and individual students in their drive to produce the website. By exploring these actions, the next section will focus on the process leading to these outcomes. In particular, it will highlight the interdependence between collective actions, team or individual actions and routinised operations Team and individual actions As in the case of the language learning activity associated with the first module discussed in Chapter 6, team and individual actions are distributed across time and place. Students attend their respective French classes for two hours a week in a normal classroom and a weekly lab session in SALLU. French classes and lab sessions are entirely conducted through French, and student-student as well as teacher-student interaction is actively encouraged at all times. These sessions bring together part of the community (i.e. one class group at a time) and follow the four stages of the project specified in the syllabus (see Chapter 5), which can be seen as four distinct yet connected sub-activities motivated by a specific object or goal: Stage 1: team formation and 'appointment' of team co-ordinator; 200

220 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Stage 2: evaluation of French sites with respect to technical characteristics and interest for the project, creation of corpus and extraction of relevant vocabulary; Stage 3: creation and production of content, and construction of site; Stage 4: preparation and delivery of oral presentations. During class time, students discuss their progress and the teacher provides detailed feedback on their written production. During the lab sessions, they familiarise themselves with the available technologies and learn the skills required to use them as illustrated by Table 7-4 (on page 202) in the case of the creation and evaluation of a French corpus. Through practice and repetition outside class, some of the actions performed in the lab sessions eventually become routinised operations that contribute to the actions carried out by students (Example 7-6): Example 7-6 (Report 1) S12 (Team 4) Le mardi, dans les classes a SALLU, j'ai appris comme on utilise Topclass, la Toile et Wordsmith. J'ai cherché des dix sites intéressants. Aussi, j'ai du évaluer les dix sites consultés. Comme trouver les sites, je suis allée à Yahoo et j'ai choisi quelques titres. J'ai cherché Yahoo des sites intéressants. Les sites ont du être lie à mon projet. Quand j'ai trouvé les sites, je les ai copiés sur une disquette. Puis, j'ai copié un fichier 'évaluation des sites' sur la disquette. J'ai fait les 'évaluations des sites' par évaluant chaque page sur certains titres -le contenu, la qualité technique, intérêt pour le projet etc. Après ca, je l'ai mis 'les évaluations des sites' dans Word et j'ai changé les fautes d'orthographes. On Tuesdays, in the labs sessions in SALLU, I have learned how to use TopClass, the web and Wordsmith. I looked for ten interesting sites. Also, I had to evaluate the ten visited sites. To find some sites, I went to Yahoo and I chose a few titles. I looked for interesting sites in Yahoo. The sites had to be related to my project. When I found the sites, I copied them on a floppy disk. Then, I copied a file 'site evaluation' on the disk. I did the sites evaluations by evaluating each page with regard to some titles content, technical quality, interest for the project, etc. After that, I put the sites evaluations in Word and I changed the spelling mistakes. 201

221 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Table 7-4 From collective activity to routinised operations in lab sessions (Stage 2) Collective activity Goal oriented actions Operations Stage 2: Creating a French corpus of relevant web sites and evaluating them Copy Access database from the shared directory onto a floppy disk Login on SALLU server Insert disk in drive A:\ Check disk with Antivirus software Open Windows Explorer Look for shared directory FR140 Copy file Evaluation des sites on disk Find a relevant French site Open Internet Explorer or Netscape Type in URL for search engine (e.g. Type in search word Choose site Click on link Save web page as text file Click on FILE Click on SAVE AS Select drive A:\ Select File Type: PLAIN TEXT (*.TXT) Enter name of file and extension.txt Click on ENTER Write evaluation in Access Database Open Access file Evaluation des sites on disk Click on FORMS Double click on Evaluation des sites Type in the file name in the first field Press TAB to go to next field Copy and Paste URL in URL field Press TAB to go to next field Between classes and lab sessions, each team meets regularly, without a teacher present, in different locations, and at different times. During these meetings, decisions are made, which are primarily motivated by the object of the collective activity i.e. by the construction of a website responding to the perceived needs of the target audience and which give directions to the actions subsequently carried out by individual team members who then report to their peers. Following a collective reflection, the outcomes of these individual actions form the basis for new team actions. Team members take turns in writing the minutes, which are then posted on TOPCLASS, in the folder Le Journal du Projet (see Appendix D), and handed in to the teacher for corrections and feedback. These minutes are available to the whole community and provide some 202

222 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence concise information on the objects of team meetings and on their associated actions summarised in Table 7-5 below: Team Table 7-5 Summary of teams meetings (extracted from the minutes) Number of meetings Average duration Location Objects of meetings and associated actions (summary) Team hr SALLU, library Planning, discussing home page, organising division of labour, structure of home page, structure and layout of site, production of site, preparing oral presentation Team hr 30 mn SALLU, canteen Organising ideas, discussing progress and formulating interview questions, reading teams minutes, structuring web page, reorganising division of labour, writing up web page, preparing oral presentation Team 3 9 n/a Canteen Planning, organising division of labour, individual progress, sharing ideas, liaising with technical team, finalise structure, content and layout of web page, preparing oral presentation Team hr Classrooms, library Team mn Computer lab, classrooms Team mn Library, classrooms Team mn/ 1 hr Classroom, Canteen Team hr Canteen, library, classrooms Organising division of labour, deciding on title, structure and content of web pages, discussing team and individual progress, selecting information, preparing oral presentation Discussing individual progress, planning, discussing structure of web pages, preparing oral presentation Discussing information and content, organising division of labour, planning, discussing individual progress, correcting texts, preparing oral presentation Organising, planning, writing, researching, structuring web pates Planning, discussing progress, revising work plan, discussing layout of web page, decide on layout, liaising with technical team, completing writing up, preparing oral presentation From the minutes of team meetings, and also from the individual reports, it is thus possible to derive a list of chains of actions that were carried by all teams (see also Table 7-5 above): Planning and organising (e.g. dates and location of meetings, lists of tasks to do, choice of tools and methods, setting up of deadlines, etc.); 203

223 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Dividing work and responsibilities between team members (e.g. appointment of team coordinators and meeting secretaries, distribution of tasks among team members, etc.); Information gathering and selecting (e.g. looking for information, constructing or using research instruments, understanding topic, and selecting information that is relevant for the project, etc.); Creating and producing content (i.e. structuring and writing up text for website, minutes of meetings and oral presentations); Structuring web pages and deciding on layout (e.g. number of pages, background colours, images, hyperlinks, position of text on page, etc.); Communicating and sharing with team members (e.g. sharing ideas and experience, taking stock of progress to-date, etc.); Liaising with other teams (e.g. getting information from and to the Technical Team and Journal Team, etc.). Some of these team actions closely resemble the metacognitive and social strategies usually explored in the literature at the level of individual learners (see Chapter 2, section and Chapter 3, section 3.1). They can thus be seen as collective metacognitive and social strategies (e.g. planning, organising, liaising and interacting with other teams etc.) that are consciously used by teams in their drive to achieve their objective. These collective strategies are both the product and the origin of individual metacognitive strategies called upon by team members. Individual goal-oriented actions emerge from the team activity and in turn trigger the transformation of the teams' objects or goals into outcomes as illustrated by the examples below (Example 7-7 and Example 7-8). The flowchart in Figure 7-4 (on page 206) represents the dynamics 204

224 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence between collective activity, teams and individual actions, and routinised operations emerging from the reading of the individual reports. Example 7-7 (Report 1) S17 (Team 5) Nous avons eu notre première réunion et nous avons décidé de partager le travail entre les facilités et la scolarité. S01 et moi ont pris les facilités à DCU. Donc, j'ai commencé ma contribution en faisant choisir et lire des sites et pages Web approprié à le thème. Après ça, j'ai les évalué en termes des mots clés; des liens avec d'autres pages ou sites; de la qualité du contenu; des caractéristiques techniques par exemple utilisation de graphiques, d'animation, de photos, de couleur etc.; des qualités techniques par exemple facile à lire, rapide à télécharger etc.; des idées pour notre projet, et du vocabulaire intéressant. Après cette mesure, nous avons eu une autre réunion quand nous avons discuté nos recherches ensemble. S01 et moi ont décidé de faire recherches sur les facilités présent et aussi les facilités nouveaux qui sont proposée à DCU. J'ai utilisé le prospectus DCU et le manuel de la Union Étudiants à DCU pour ma recherche. We had our first meeting and we decided to share the work between facilities and studies. S01 and myself choses the facilities in DCU. So, I began my contribution by selecting and reading some relevant sites and web pages. After that, I evaluated them in terms of key words; links to other pages or sites; quality of content; technical characteristics such as use of graphics, animations, pictures, colour, etc.; technical qualities such as ease of reading, quick to download, etc.; ideas for our project, and interesting vocabulary. After this, we had another meeting when we discussed our research together. S01 and I have decided to research the current facilities and also the new facilities that are planned in DCU. I used the DCU brochure and the handbook from the Student Union in DCU for my research. Example 7-8 (Report 2) S28 (Team 8) L'activité principale pendant cette période était de reassabler l'informations pour le projet, et aussi combiner et taper cette information sur l'ordinateur. Nous avons eu une réunion par semaine dans differentes chambres à l'université. Pendant ces réunions nous avons discuté comment on peut travailler pendant la prochaine semaine, et aussi nous avons eu des disscusions sur le presentation du site. Pour aider notre présentation du site nous avons pris des photos sur le campus et à Dublin.On peut contacter certain personne sur l'internet pour trouver l'information. Je dois rechercher des information sur les clubs et des sociétés dans DCU pour ma partie dans le project. Je doit contacter des autres clubs à DCU pour trouver des photo et des informations pour ma partie dans le projet et aussi je dois travailler comme secretaire de temps en temps pour mon groupe. The main activity during this period was to gather information for the project and also to combine and type this information on the computer. We met once a week in different rooms in the university. During these meetings we discussed how to work during the following week and also, we discussed the layout of the site. To assist our site layout, we took some pictures on campus and in Dublin. We can contact some people on the Internet to find some information. For my section of the project, I have to look for information on clubs and societies in DCU. I have to contact other clubs in DCU to find some pictures and some information for my section of the project and I also have to work as secretary from time to time for my team. 205

225 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-4 From collective activity to routinised operations The above flowchart highlights the pivotal role of team decisions in the overall activity. Initially arising from the teams' interpretation and construction of the object of the 206

226 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence collective activity, team decisions direct and emerge from individual actions while directly influencing the transformation of the collective object into the outcomes outlined in section (on page 190). Two categories of decisions appear particularly influential. The first one is self-evident and relates to the choice of topics by content teams, which directly contributes to the creation of content. Yet, these selected themes impact on the choice of mediating tools and subsequent actions taken by teams or individuals. The second one concerns the organisation of the division of labour, both within and between teams, and the type of mediated interaction taking place between participants. The next section (section 7.1.3) will discuss how this division of labour mediated the language learning activity during the third stage of the project. The use and role of mediating tools will then be explored in section (on page 217) The division of labour As recalled earlier in this chapter, Stage 3 of the collective activity focussed on the creation of content and on the construction of the website. The former was primarily attended to within teams and the latter involved close collaboration between the content teams and the Technical Team (Team 1). As indicated earlier (on page 203) a number of actions were however common to all teams. Yet, each team carried out these actions in different ways depending on their role and status in the overall activity. The Technical and Journal Teams (Teams 1 2) According to their second individual reports (Report 2), members of the Technical Team defined their main activity as being the construction of the website (see Appendix K), which involved firstly learning HTML and secondly interacting with the content teams. In addition, the team undertook to create some content for the welcome page of 207

227 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence the site. Weekly meetings were held to discuss progress and to share the newly acquired expertise in HTML: Example 7-9 (Report 2) S10 Team 1 Chaque semaine l'équipe technique avons eu un réunion à SALLU. Pendant les réunions nous avons discuté notre progrès et nous avons aidé les autres dans l'équipe avec les pages. Nous avons discuté des idées des autres équipes et avons recherche les sites différantes sur l'internet pour les images et les idées. J'ai travaillé beaucoup avec mon équipe - équipe 8 - pendant les semaines et nous avons eu des réunions chaque semaine. Nous avons discuté leurs idées là et ils ont donné leur travail pour la page. Every week, the technical team met in SALLU. During the meetings, we discussed our progress and we helped each other with the pages. We discussed the ideas of the other teams and we looked at different sites on the Internet for images and ideas. I worked a lot with my team Team 8 during the weeks and we met each week. There, we discussed their ideas and they gave me their work for the page. Example 7-10 (Report 2) S14 Team 1 Mon activité principale pour ce période a été la création des sites de web. J'ai trouvé que j'ai eu beaucoup à apprendre en HTML. Pour rectifier ça, j'ai trouvé des livres sur HTML et j'ai fait de recherche sur des autres sites pour améliorer ma connaissance de la langue. Aussi l'équipe technique avait décidé de faire un system ou un membre de l'équipe travailler avec un autre group pour les aider avec la création de leur site. Ils m'ont donné le coût de la vie et l'équipe de journal. Après ça, j'ai été prêt de commencer les pages. My main activity for this period was the creation of web sites. I found that I had a lot to learn in HTML. To rectify this, I found some books on HTML and I looked for some other sites to improve my knowledge of the language. Also, the technical team had decided to organise a system by which a member of the [technical] team works with another team to help them with the creation of their site. They gave me the cost of living [Team 7] and the Journal Team [Team 2]. After that, I was ready to start the pages. The above extracts (Example 7-9 and Example 7-10) illustrate the two forms of division of labour that mediated the team's actions. Firstly, students spontaneously engaged in peer-collaboration to support each other while learning HTML. In particular, students S02, S10 and S14, took on the role of technology experts as illustrated by the following examples (Example 7-11 to Example 7-13): Example 7-11 (Report 2) S02 Team 1 Gràce aux connaissances acquises depuis le début du projet, je suis maintenant en mesure de donner des conseils techniques à d'autres membres de l'équipe. Thanks to the skills acquired since the beginning of the project, I am now in a position where I can give some technical advice to other members of the team. 208

228 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-12 (Report 2) S10 Team 1 J'ai aidé avec le HTML et j'ai enseigne un peu à S05 I helped with HTML and I taught S05 a little. Example 7-13 (Report 2) S14 Team 1 J'ai le rôle de «l'expert technique» dans l'équipe, donc tous les autres ont vienne à moi quand ils ont eu des problèmes. J'ai eu le rôle de fixateur des problèmes [ ] Comme j'ai dit, je suis l'expert technique. Je donne des réponses a des questions techniques, j'aide les autres avec leurs sites et je donne des quelques conseils avec les programmes comme Word et Netscape. I have the role of "technical expert" in the team, so all the others came to me when they had problems. I had the role of problem fxer [ ]. As I said, I am the technical expert. I give answers to technical questions, I help the others with their sites and I give some advice about programs such as Word and Netscape. Secondly, as indicated by student S14 (Example 7-10, on page 208), a division of labour was formally organised: following a team meeting held on 5 March, each member of the Technical Team was allocated a specific content team (see Figure 7-5 below), whom they were required to contact. Consequently, students met with their content team on a regular basis to discuss the structure and layout of their section of the website, which they then coded: Example 7-14 (Report 2) S13 Team 1 C est moi qui est responsable pour l équipe du «clubs & socs» et j ai eu deux ou trois réunions avec l équipe pour discuter leur page. Ils m ont donné une plan pour leur page d accueil et aussi ils m ont donné la plusieurs part de leur travail. En ce moment je suis en train de construire leur page avec l aide du S14 et d Internet. J ai trouvé quelques petits icônes pour utiliser sur la page et aussi j ai trouvé un arrière-plan au site du Guinness pour utiliser sur la page du pubs. Je ne suis pas sûr si l arrière-plan va marcher la page mais néanmoins j ai contacté Guinness par courriers electronique pour leur demander l autorisation de utiliser cet arrière plan. I am responsible for the team clubs & socs and I had two or three meetings with the team to discuss their page. They gave me an outline of their home page and also they gave me most of their work. At the moment, I am creating their page with the help of S14 and of the Internet. I have found a few icons for the page and I also found a background on the Guinness site for the page on pubs. I am not sure whether the background will work but I nevertheless contacted Guinness by to get permission to use this background. 209

229 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-5 Organisation of the division of labour (Technical Team minutes) COMPTE-RENDU de l équipe technique Réunion tenue le à SALLU de 09h00 à 10h00. Personnes présentes : S05, S02, S10 Secrétaire : S02 Objectif de la réunion : Se réunir pour se mettre d accord sur le partage du travail. Sujets discutés : La prise en charge des pages Web d une équipe à thème par un membre de notre équipe. Décisions prises : On a attribué la responsabilité des pages Web de chaque équipe à thème, à un membre de l'équipe technique soit : Equipe 3 Le Logement S10 Equipe 4 L Irlande en dehors de Dublin S05 Equipe 5 L Université S02 Equipe 6 Le Transport S03 Equipe 7 Le Coût de la vie d un étudiant S14 Equipe 8 Les Associations et les clubs S13 Chaque membre de notre équipe doit se mettre en contact avec l équipe dont il s occupe pour planifier la mise en place des pages. Date et lieu de la prochaine réunion : le 11 mars à SALLU à partir de 13h00. Secrétaire : S10 Object of meeting: To agree work distribution Topics discussed: Allocation of content team pages to team members Decisions: Team 3 Accommodation S10 Team 4 Attractions outside Dublin S05 Team 5 DCU Campus S02 Team 6 Transport S03 Team 7 Cost of living S14 Team 8 Social life in Dublin S13 Each member of our team must get in touch with the team for whom s/he has responsibility in order to plan the setting up of The Journal Team (Team 2) adopted a similar division of labour to that of the Technical Team, as illustrated by the following account from student S18 (Example 7-15): 210

230 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-15 (Report 2) S18 Le groupe du journal rencontré chaque mardi dans Sallu et nous avons discuté notre progrès. Nous avons décidé que chaque membre devrait écrire sur un groupe particulier et son progrès. Nous avons également écrit une introduction pour notre page. Nous avons écrit quelques questions et nous avons demandé aux groupes de leur répondre. Nous avons posé ces questions sur Topclass. Nous avons également rencontré l équipe technique pour discuter la disposition de notre page. [ ] Dans l équipe de journal, j ai dû interviewer le groupe 5 et j ai dû découvrir ce quelles faisaient pour le page Web. Chaque semaine j ai dû découvrir comment elles ont réagi au page Web et j'ai noté que leurs avis ont commencé à changer. J'ai dû écrire un état sur cette équipe et j'ai dû la sauvegarder sur un disque. J'ai également participé dans les discussions pour la disposition de notre page sur l'internet. The Journal Team met every Tuesday in SALLU and we discussed our progress. We decided that each member should write on a particular team and its progress. We also wrote an introduction for our page. We have written a few questions and we asked the teams to answer them. We posted those questions on TopClass. We also met the Technical Team to discuss the layout of our page. [ ] In the Journal Team, I had to interview Team 5 and I had to find out what they were doing for the web page. Each week I had to find out how they reacted to the web page and I noted that their opinion was starting to change. I had to write a statement on this team and I had to save it on a disk. I also took part in the discussions about the layout of our page on the Internet. Content teams (Teams 3 8) The organisation of the division of labour in the case of both Team 1 (Technical Team) and Team 2 (Journal Team) was determined for the most part by the teams' dependence on the content teams outcomes (Team 1) and progress (Team 2). By contrast, the content teams organised their division of labour according to their chosen theme. All teams divided their main topic into sub-themes as illustrated for Team 4 (Attractions outside Dublin) and Team 8 (Social life in Dublin) in Table 7-6 below: 211

231 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Table 7-6 Examples of themes and sub-themes (Content Teams) Content Team Main Theme Sub-themes Team 4 Team 8 Attractions outside Dublin Social life in Dublin Four provinces (i.e. Connaught, Leinster, Munster, and Ulster) Historical sites Accommodation Sport activities Festivals DCU clubs and societies DCU Ragweek Dublin pubs Dublin nightclubs In most teams, individual students took entire responsibility for a specific sub-theme across the semester. Individually, they researched their topic, selected some relevant information and wrote their contribution to the site. The writing up stage entailed reformulating the information in French or translating it from English into French (see Example 7-19 on page 213), typing their text using Word, checking for mistakes using the spellchecker, and getting some feedback and corrections from the teacher. For some, it also involved liaising directly with the Technical Team as illustrated by Example 7-16 below: Example 7-16 (Report 2) S08 Team 6 J'ai trouvé l'information et les images des bus, de DART et des navettes entre l'aéroport et le centre ville. J'ai écrit l'information que j'ai trouvée dans mes propres mots. J'ai aussi fait un tableau de l'information sur les autobus à Dublin. J'ai mis toute l'information sur la même disquette. J'ai discuté avec S03 en ce qui concerne la disposition de la page. I found the information and images of buses, DART and shuttles between the airport and the city centre. I wrote the information I have found in my own words. I also did a table with the information on Dublin buses. I put all the information on the same floppy disk. I discussed the layout of the page with S

232 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-17 (Report 2) S11 Team 8 J'ai fait beaucoup de recherche sur les pubs à Dublin. J'ai visité beaucoup de pubs et j'ai demandé aux autres leurs opinions sur ces pubs. Cela a pris la majeure partie de mon temps mais c'était intéressant et je me suis beaucoup amusée. J'ai écrit des petits paragraphes sur les pubs qui sont populaires (ou impopulaires!). J'ai discuté environ dix pubs. J'ai essayé d'être objective mais pas trop sérieuse en même temps. Il était essentiel de faire un exposé intéressant. I did a lot of research on pubs in Dublin. I visited a lot of pubs and I asked the others what they thought about these pubs. This took most of my time but it was interesting and I had a lot of fun. I wrote small paragraphs on the pubs that are popular (or unpopular!). I discussed about ten pubs. I tried to be objective but not too serious at the same time. It was essential to do an interesting presentation. Example 7-18 (Report 2) S29 Team 3 Jusqu'à présent, mon activité principale était d'écrire sur les types différents des logements pour des étudiants en Irlande. J'ai reçoit de l'information sur les logements aux logements bureaux à DCU et aussi j'ai trouvé de bonnes idées quand j'ai lu les sites d'universités françaises. J'ai utilisé le site parce qu'il a les sites de toutes les universités françaises. J'ai trouvé ce site par hasard quand j'ai utilisé Up to now, my main activity was to write about the different types of student accommodation in Ireland. I have got some information on accommodation from the Accommodation Office in DCU and also I found some good ideas when I read the sites of French universities. I used the site because it has the sites of all the French universities. I found this site by chance when I used Some teams introduced a limited collaboration between their members. In Team 4 (Attractions outside Dublin) for example, two students shared a sub-topic, which led them to collaborate beyond their team meetings: Example 7-19 (Report 2) S12 Team 4 J'ai passé la sixième semaine cherchant de l'information. Je suis allée à Dublin Tourist Office où j'ai trouvé quelques brochures et des prospectus sur les sites historiques en Irlande surtout Leinster et Munster. S22 et moi avons travaillé ensemble quelques fois car nous avons fait le même thème. S22 fait les sites à Connaught et à Ulster. Quand j'ai eu l'information, j'ai commencé à traduire le texte d'anglais en français. J'ai cherché la Toile, des brochures, et des magazines des photos de sites historiques. Quand j'ai tapé l'information, j'ai changé les fautes d'orthographes. J'ai travaillé sur la structure de la page de mon thème. Nous avons eu une réunion sur la structure du site. Nous avons décidé d'avoir une carte d'irlande pour notre page d'accueil et d'avoir des liens aux quatre provinces. I spent the sixth week looking for information. I went to Dublin Tourist Office where I found a few brochures and some prospectus on the historical sites in Ireland, mainly Leinster and Munster. S22 and myself have worked together from time to time as we are doing the same theme. S22 does the sites in Connaught and Ulster. When I got the information, I began to translate the text from English into French. I searched the Web, brochures and magazines for 213

233 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-20 (Report 2) photographs of historical sites. When I typed the information, I changed the spelling mistakes. I worked on the page structure of my theme. We had a meeting about the site structure. We decided to have a map of Ireland on our home page and to have links to the four provinces. S22 Team 4 Chaque personne dans l'équipe a choisi un sujet. S12 et moi a pris les sites historiques en Irlande. S12 a fait Munster et Leinster et j'ai fait Ulster et Connaught. [ ] J'ai eu une petite réunion avec S12. Nous avons discuté de la mise de l'information. J'ai écrit une petite description sur chaque endroit intéressant dans chaque comté d'ulster et de Connaught. Pendant ces semaines, notre équipe avons des réunions et nous avons discuté de nos progrès. J'étais la secrétaire pour une réunion et j'ai fait un compte rendu. Je l'ai mis sur Topclass pour les autres équipes.. Pour l'équipe du Journal, j'ai répondu les questions qui étaient sur Topclass. J'ai lu aussi régulièrement les messages sur Topclass. Each person in the team chose a topic. S12 and myself have taken the historical sites in Ireland. S12 did Munster and Leinster and I did Ulster and Connaught. I found most of my information on the Internet. I had a small meeting with S12. We discussed the shape(?) of the information. I wrote a small description on each interesting location in each county of Ulster and Connaught. During those weeks, our team had meetings and we discussed our progress. I was the secretary for one meeting and I wrote the minutes. I put it on Topclass for the other teams. For the Journal Team, I answered the questions that were on Topclass. I also regularly read the messages on TopClass. Team 7 (Cost of living), however, adopted a very different division of labour, as explained by student S19 in Example 7-21 below. Rather than allocating a specific subtheme to each student, the members of the team worked together on every topic in sequence. The writing up was also done collaboratively, with one student typing while others dictated or checked the grammar and spelling: Example 7-21 (Report 2) S19 Team 7 Notre méthodologie etait simple. Nous avons recherché un sujet par semaine. Nous avons fait tout en groupe. C'est - à - dire que nous avons rassemblé l'information ensemble et puis nous avons écrit les articles ensemble. A mon avis cette méthodologie marche bien parce qu'on peut trouver les meilleures idées. Le premier sujet etait la nourriture, les prix dans la cafétéria et les prix dans le supermarché. Nous avons mis tous les prix en punts mais aussi en francs. Ensuite nous avons recherché les petits boulots - ou se trouve l'information, quelle sorte de travail et bien sur les taux. Puis nous avons fait les logements et les services. Nous avons pensé que ce serait une bonne idée si nous former un bilan des coûtes pour une année donc nous avons construit une liste des coûtes typiques pour un étudiant. Our methodology was simple. We researched a topic per week. We did everything as a group. That is to say, we collected the information together, and then we wrote the articles together. In my view this methodology works well because you can get better ideas. The first topic was the food, the prices in the cafeteria and the prices in the supermarket. We put all the prices in punts but also in francs. Then we researched student jobs where the information is, what type of work and of course the rate of pay. Then we did accommodation and 214

234 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence services. We thought that it would be a good idea if we did a summary of all the costs for one year, so we build a list of typical costs for a student. Tensions The above discussion provided an overview of the different organisations of labour that emerged in the course of the project as well as the wide range of actions carried out by different teams and by different students within any one team. This organisation of the division of labour provided students with opportunities to develop a wide range of transferable skills and the metacognitive strategies, which enabled them to take control of their learning (see section 7.1.1). In general, teams functioned well and managed to resolve the conflicts and tensions that unavoidably occur within teams as indicated by student's S07 comments (Example 7-22): Example 7-22 (Report 3) S07 Team 6 Je crois que toutes les équipes ont travaillé bien ensemble. Toutes les équipes ont divisé le travail entre tous les membres de l'équipe. J'ai l'impression que chaque personne a fait leur travail sauf peut-être l'équipe de la vie sociale à Dublin! Chaque équipe ont eu un coordinateur ou un coordinatrice. Leur tâche a été d'organiser leur groupe et de s'assurer que le travail de l'équipe progressait de manière satisfaisante. I think that all teams worked well together. All the teams divided the work between all the members of the team. I have the feeling that everybody did their share, except perhaps the Social life in Dublin [Team 8]! Each team had a coordinator. Their task was to organise their group and to ensure that the team's progress was satisfactory. The co-ordinator of Team 8 (Social life in Dublin) had indeed some problems with her group: Example 7-23 (Report 3) S11 Team 8 Je suis la coordinatrice de l'équipe. Franchement je suis soulagée que ce projet est presque fini. Quoi que j'ai appris beaucoup de choses, le projet m'a géné à temps. Comme la coordinatrice, j'avais trop de pression à mon avis. C'était tres difficile de motiver l'équipe. Honnetement, j'aurais préferé de faire le projet toute seule! I am the team co-ordinator. Frankly, I am relieved that this project is nearly finished. Even though I have learned a lot of things, the project annoyed me at times. As coordinator, I was under too much pressure, I think. It was very difficult to motivate the team. Honnestly, I would have preferred to do the project on my own! 215

235 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Other team coordinators found themselves under similar pressure and some of them had to manage difficult problems. For example, student S06 became the co-ordinator of his team after the initial co-ordinator left the course to transfer into a different programme. A few weeks later, another member gave up his studies. S06 thus found himself coordinating a team in great difficulty: Example 7-24 (Report 3) S06 Team 2 Comme coordinateur j'aime la contrôle et la résponsabilité mais, à le même temps, je le hais. J'étais mal à l'aise avec la situation; c'était difficile de donner des ordres aux autres étudiants. Je ne sais pas les détailes internes des autres équipes mais j'estime qu'il y a beaucoup de pression sous la coordinateur. Peut-être, c'était parce que nous avons perdu deux membres de notre équipe - je ne sais pas. As coordinator, I like the control and the responsibility, but at the same time I hate it. I was uncomfortable with the situation; it was difficult to give orders to the other students. I don't know the internal details from other teams, but I think that the coordinator is under a lot of pressure. Perhaps, this was due to the fact that we lost two members of our team I don't know. Getting others to work according to the deadlines proved difficult not only within teams but also between teams. In particular, the late submission of content to the Technical Team (Team 1) aggravated the time pressure felt by its members: Example 7-25 (Report 3) S05 Team 1 Notre (l'équipe technique) grand problème était le mauvaise structure du projet. C'était notre responsabilité de fixer des dates limites pour la remise du travail écrit par nos camarades de classes et, a cause de cela, nous avons reçu beaucoup d'information quinze jours après la date limite, ce que nous mis sous beaucoup de pression pour terminer le site web. Our (technical team) big problem was the bad structure of the project. It was our responsibility to fix deadlines for the submission of the written work by our class mates, and because of that, we got a lot of information two weeks after the deadline, which put us under a lot of pressure to finish the website. Similarly, the Journal Team's progress was impeded by the slow distribution of minutes and individual reports. These co-ordination difficulties were aggravated by the increasing demands made on students by other modules and by timetable constraints as explained by student S07 (Example 7-26): 216

236 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-26 (Report 3) S07 A mon avis, le problème le plus grand pour chaqu'une des équipes était de trouver le temps pour avoir des réunions. C'était le plus difficile pour l'équipe du journal et l'équipe technique à cause des différents emplois du temps des membres. C'était difficile même si les membres de l'équipe ont le même emploi du temps parce que tous les membres ont beaucoup à faire pour des autres sujets aussi. In my view, the main problem for each team was to find time for meetings. It was more difficult for the Journal Team and the Technical Team because of their members' different timetables. It was difficult even if the team members have the same timetable because all the members have a lot to do in other subjects. However these difficulties were eventually overcome and the project was completed on time Mediating tools and artefacts The flowchart in Figure 7-4 (on page 206) highlighted two broad categories of individual actions, i.e. information gathering and selecting, and producing content. While all students generally made use of the same tools and 'technologies' to produce content (e.g. personal notes, paper and pen, language, MS-WORD, etc.), information gathering drew on a number of tools and methods, which differed between teams. Information gathering tools and methods Not surprisingly, the choice of tools and methods to gather information was directed by the nature of the topic investigated and by the type of data sought. For example, members of Team 1 (Technical Team) relied on external artefacts (e.g. websites, webbased tutorials, books, etc.) to learn HTML and on direct participation or intervention to collect information from the other teams: Example 7-27 (Report 2) S02 Team 1 En tant que débutante en HTML, ma première priorité a été de récupérer des guides et des didacticiels depuis l'internet, afin de me familiariser avec ce "langage à balises". [ ] En passant par le moteur de recherche francophone" Yahoo", j'ai réussi à trouver une panoplie de sites qui m'ont permis d'apprendre tout ce qu'il faut pour monter un site Web. [ ] 217

237 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Une fois les bases acquises, j'ai fixé rendez-vous avec les membres de l'équipe chargée du thème "Le Campus de DCU" afin de déterminer les sujets dont chacune d'entre elles s'occuperait. On a d'abord discuté de l'ordre des pages Web, de leur forme, des images que l'on pourrait insérer pour égayer les pages, ainsi que des liens internes et externes à inclure. As a beginner in HTML, my first priority was to get my hands on guides and tutorials from the Internet, in order to familiarise myself with this "markup language".[ ] Using the French search engine "Yahoo", I managed to find a range of sites that enabled me to learn everything you need to create a website. Once I had acquired the basics, I set up a meeting with the members of the team in charge of "the DCU campus" in order to determine the topics each one of them was responsible for. We started by discussing the order of the web pages, their layout, the images we could insert to enliven the pages as well as internal and external links to be included. Team 2 (Journal Team), on the other hand, adopted techniques that closely relate to ethnographic methods: observant participation, interviews, use of text documenting the history of the project (i.e. individual reports and minutes of teams' meetings): Example 7-28 (Report 2) S06 Team 2 Nous avons fait des entrevues avec les autres équipes. Nous avons lu des comptes rendus et rapports individuels. [ ] J'ai posté un questionnaire sur TopClass récemment et la réponse était encourageante [ ] We interviewed the other teams. We read the minutes and individual reports. [ ] I posted a questionnaire on TopClass recently and the response was encouraging [ ] Example 7-29 (Report 2) S26 Team 2 Pendant les quatre dernières semaines je me suis chargé de rencontrer mon groupe et de les interviewer pour le journal. J'avais l'habitude cette entrevue et leur comptes-rendus pour écrire au sujet de ce que le groupe a fait chaque semaine. For the last four weeks, I undertook to meet my group and to interview them for the Journal. I used this interview and their minutes to write about what the group did every week. Depending on their chosen theme, content teams sought to collect either primary or secondary data. In the case of the latter, they relied essentially on websites or other artefacts produced by external agencies: 218

238 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-30 (Report 2) S22 Team 4 J'ai trouvé la plupart de mon information sur l'internet. J'ai visité beaucoup de sites sur les attractions historiques et les endroits intéressants et beaux en Irlande. J'ai obtenu des brochures dans une agence de voyages et des livres de l'irlande dans la bibliothèque. I visited a lot of sites on the historical attractions and on the interesting and beautiful spots in Ireland. I got some brochures from a travel agent and some books on Ireland in the library. In order to gather primary data, students deployed a variety of techniques, which reveal some degree of originality and creativity. While student S11 (Team 8) visited some well known pubs and asked her peers for their opinion (see Example 7-17, on page 213), student S23 (also from Team 8) visited nightclubs. Student S34 (Team 3) followed a trail (which however proved to be unsuccessful) to find out about student accommodation: Example 7-31 (Report 2) S34 Team 3 Je suis allée au bureau d'usit pour parler avec une personne au sujet du logement pour des étudiants. J'ai parlé avec une femme qui a dit que leur centre pour le logement est en UCD, et ainsi, elle a pris m'adresse pour envoyer les renseignements. Apres quelques jours, j'ai décidé envoyer un message sur l'internet. Alors, j'ai décidé contacter USI, par l'internet, mais il n'y pas une réponse après une semaine et j'ai renvoyer le message. I went to the USIT office to talk to somebody about student accommodation. I spoke with a woman who said that their accommodation centre is UCD (University College Dublin), and she took my address to send me some information. After a few days, I decided to send a message on the Internet. Then I decided to contact USI, via the Internet, but there has been no answer after a week and I sent the message again. Finally, members of Team 7 together surveyed and compared prices between the canteen and the local supermarket, looked for student jobs advertised in the Student Union magazine (An Tarbh) and called upon their everyday knowledge: Example 7-32 (Report 2) S16 Team 7 Premièrement, nous plus plus loin avons recherché sur le coût de nourriture. Ceci s'est composé de aller à la cantine et du faisant une liste toute la nourriture et leurs prix. [ ] Après celle, nous avons trouvé quelques informations sur les travaux de pair-temps et les cadences par heure, et cetera. Ceux-ci peuvent être facilement trouvées dans" An Tarbh " chaque semaine. 219

239 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence First, we further researched the cost of food. This consisted of going to the canteen and drawing a price list of all the food and their price. [ ] After that, we found some information on part-time work and hourly wages, etc.. Theses can be easily found every week in "An Tarbh". Information and Communication Technologies By contrast with the FR130 activity (Chapter 6), and to borrow Kuutti's (1996: 34) words (see Chapter 3, section 3.3.1), technology supported and penetrated the FR140 activity at all levels as illustrated by the comments extracted from responses to the end of year questionnaire (Example 7-33 to Example 7-35). At the level of operations, technology supported the collection and storage of information and a 'semi-automated' 29 spell- and grammar-checking. It also automated some communicative operations such as requesting information from participants or providing them with new information. At the level of actions, technology helped students manipulate and transform content as they worked towards the creation of the website. Finally, at the activity level, TOPCLASS connected the participants (Kuutti, op.cit.) and facilitated interaction between students from different programmes. Example 7-33 (Questionnaire 2) S08 Team 6 We used computers for the evaluations of different french websites. To do this, we had to learn how to use the Internet and also how to save sites onto disc. As well as that we learned how to use Microsoft Access to compile a database of all the information we got from the sites in relation to the project. When this had been compiled we then learned how to use Wordsmith tools to look for key words + find useful vocabulary. On top of this, we learned how to use spellcheck in French. This is extremely useful for all documents written in French to help us see the correct spellings + realise our mistakes. For the oral presentation we used PowerPoint. This was much easier to use than we thought considering the excellent results it gave. Finally, we used the computers for TopClass. I think TopClass is an excellent way for us to send important messages to each other or from the teacher to us. 29 The term "semi-automated" is used here as opposed to automated as students were advised not to turn on the automatic correction option in Word but to make their own decisions following the program suggestions. The rationale behind this was to encourage students to reflect on language and on their errors, but also to counteract the limitations of MS-Word spell and grammar checker. 220

240 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-34 (Questionnaire 2) S17 Team 5 Initially, we used them to become familiar with TopClass. In our first few practical classes in SALLU, we learned about the basic features and how it would help us during the semester. Secondly we used computers when evaluating the websites we chose. We used Yahoo to find the sites and then spent about 4 weeks evaluating them in SALLU. Finally, I used the computers when typing out my information for our own web site. I also used Topclass regularly during the semester ie to post up my comptes-rendus and individual reports and to read messages + send messages to other teams. Example 7-35 (Questionnaire 2) S27 Team 4 I have used computers in the french class to firstly explore the internet and save websites on to a floppy disk. Although I had used the internet before, I did not know how to save information from sites on to a floppy. We also used the computers to write documents in French. These individual reports were written with the help of French Microsoft word. We also used the computers to evaluate different websites and we created a database or corpus of vocabulary. Finally we used the Topclass system. The above examples also illustrate the shift between tools and object highlighted by Hasu and Engeström (2000) (see section in Chapter 3, and section in Chapter 6). Not only did technology support and penetrate the language learning activity, it was also one of its objects. All students report having learned how to use computers during the lab sessions. Some also describe the computer skills they learned independently: members of Team 1 (Technical Team) learned HTML in order to complete the project and encoded the pages using NOTEPAD, and others decided to learn and use POWERPOINT for their end of semester oral presentation (Example 7-33 above). With regard to the use of TOPCLASS, the log files generated by the tracking system during approximately eight weeks between 26 February and 15 April 1999 provide some indication of its actual use (Appendix M). The tracking system records those operations that occur when users carry out specific actions such as login in, posting a message to a discussion list or accessing course materials. For example, retrieving a posting may involve accessing the relevant discussion list, selecting a message by clicking on it and closing it once the message has been displayed on screen. Each of 221

241 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence these operations is recorded as a distinct hit. Therefore, the number of hits associated with the creation of postings is greater than the actual number of postings. Given the complexity of the data returned by the tracking system, which are primarily targeted at system administrators and programmers, an in-depth interpretation of the log files is not possible here. It is however possible to extract and synthesise some information that would not be available otherwise. For example, while the course management tools provide instructors with data on students' progress through the course materials, information on the retrieval or editing of postings can only be accessed through the log files. Table 7-7 below gives a summary of selected students' hits recorded during that period on discussion list postings which include retrieving, creating, previewing, editing, and deleting a message course materials, and teacher announcements. Table 7-7 Selected students' hits (TopClass, 24/02/99 15/04/99) Total number of students' hits 14,349 Number of logins 676 Logins from DCU 606 Logins from Home 70 Number of messages created by students Number of hits on postings (retrieval) Number of hits on course materials 517 Number of hits on Teacher's announcements 748 TOPCLASS was generally accessed from DCU (90% of the total logins), although 14 students accessed if from home at least once, mainly at week-ends. Hits on postings and course documents represent 70% and 3.6% respectively of the total number of hits, thus confirming that TOPCLASS was primarily used to facilitate communication between 222

242 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence participants 30. Students were more inclined to read messages posted by others than to send messages themselves, as expressed by student S07 in Example 7-36 below. This example further suggests that reading and sending messages may be actions directed towards distinct goals: the latter responds to a defined immediate need whereas the former allows students to monitor the progress of the collective activity: Example 7-36 (Questionnaire 2) S07 Team 6 I didn't put many messages on [TopClass] as I had no need to but I liked reading other people's messages to see how they were getting on with their project. The breakdown of hits per team, taken together with the number of posted messages (see Appendix M), allows for preliminary remarks to be drawn. Figure 7-6 and Figure 7-7 below show that, in average, members of Team 3 (Accommodation) and of Team 8 (Social life in Dublin) used TOPCLASS the least and sent the fewest number of messages. Team 2 (Journal Team), whose primary role was to monitor the progress of other teams, did not seek to communicate via TOPCLASS as much as expected. By contrast, Team 1 (Technical Team), Team 5 (DCU Campus) and Team 7 (Cost of living) appear to have been the most active. 30 These findings are hardly surprising since hard copies of the course materials had been distributed to all participants at the beginning of the semester. 223

243 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-6 Average number of logins and posting retrieve per student per team Figure 7-7 Number of messages created by each team The usage level of TOPCLASS thus differed between teams, even though individual reports suggest that it played an important role in enabling communication and collaboration between participants (see for instance Example 7-33, Example 7-34 and Example 7-35 on page 220). Similarly, differences between students' usage within teams can be observed. Table 7-8 below suggests that within each team some students, who are likely to be, albeit not necessarily, team coordinators (signalled by a *), engaged more than others in TOPCLASS mediated communication. 224

244 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Table 7-8 Number of messages created by students and teams Team 1 Team 2 Team 3 Team 4 S02 19 S06* 9 S20* 2 S12* 5 S03* 15 S18 4 S29 1 S21 2 S05 10 S26 1 S33 0 S22 2 S10 6 S30 1 S34 0 S24 2 S13 5 S35 0 S27 1 S14 5 S38 3 Total: 60 Total: 18 Total: 3 Total: 12 Team 5 Team 6 Team 7 Team 8 S01* 30 S07 9 S09 8 S11* 5 S04 10 S08* 9 S15 5 S23 2 S17 4 S25 1 S16 4 S28 1 S36 0 S31 1 S19* 2 S32 0 S37 0 Total: 44 Total: 20 Total: 19 Total: 8 One could be tempted to associate students' participation in TOPCLASS mediated communication with the teacher's assessment of their level of autonomy at the end of Semester 1 or with the level of team and individual engagement in the project. Yet, no correlation was found between the level of autonomy measured at the end of Semester 1 and the number of hits per category of operations or the number of posted messages (see Appendix M). This would suggest that measures of learner autonomy based on cognitive approaches do not allow making reliable predictions with respect to on-line collaboration 31. Whereas TOPCLASS may not have played a significant role in students' interaction with their team mates whom they met face-to-face every day, its potential role in mediating the collective activity is nevertheless acknowledged by some, as illustrated by S17's and S27's comments below (Example 7-37 and Example 7-38): 31 Recall the discussion on the relationship between learner autonomy and sustained exchanges in Chapter 2, section

245 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-37 (Questionnaire 2) S27 Team 4 [TopClass] allowed us to communicate with both students and teachers and whereas it was just as easy to talk to people within our class ourselves it was invaluable to those who had team members in different classes. Example 7-38 (Questionnaire 2) S17 Team 5 I liked TopClass. I thought it was a very good way for everyone to keep in touch with the progress of the project. Everyone had a chance to air their views and it was very useful for communicating with the students involved in the project but not in your class. While some students only used the discussion lists to post their individual reports or their minutes, the potential of TOPCLASS for enabling and supporting communication between students from different classes is apparent in a number of discussion threads as illustrated by the following exchange between Team 5 (DCU Campus) and Team 8 (Social life in Dublin). Having noticed a possible overlap between the two teams, students S01 and S17 (Team 5) request a meeting to discuss their respective topics (Figure 7-8). In the absence of a prompt response from Team 8, S01 follows this researcher's suggestion to 'meet' via TOPCLASS and raises the issues that require some negotiation and decision (Figure 7-9): Figure 7-8 Thread 1- Message 1 From: S01 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 9/3/ :59:03 Subject:Equipe 'Clubs &Socs' Salut! S01 et S17 ici, qui font partie du groupe 'les facilités à DCU'. Comme quelques facilités se lient avec quelques 'clubs' je crois que nous devons discuter qui va faire quoi. Nous sommes libres entre 2h et 4h aujourd'hui..mais si c'est trop tôt nous sommes aussi libre à 9h et à 1h demain? Ça ne doit pas prendre longtemps! Mais ce n'est pas grave si vous n'êtes pas libres! On peut se retrouver la semaine prochaine :o) A bientôt de vous lire! S01 and S17 Sarah et Joanne, ACL1 Hi! S01 and S17 here, who are part of the 'DCU Campus' group. As some of the facilities are linked to 'clubs', I think that we must discuss who is going to do what We are free between 2.00 and 4.00 today. But if it is too early, we are also free at 9.00 and at 1.00 tomorrow? It should not take long! But it is not important if you are not free! We can meet next week 226

246 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-9 Thread 1- Message 2 From: S01 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 12/3/1999 0:34:20 Subject:RE: Equipe 'Clubs &Socs' Oui..comme c'est déjà vendredi est nous ne sommes pas arrivés à se rencontrer, je crois qu'il faut discuter par Topclass.. Eh bien, tout d'abord je veux vous demander si vous faites 'Le Centre Sportif' comme partie des 'Clubs'. Comme c'est une facilité il faudra avoir au moins un lien de notre page à la votre si vous vous occupez du Centre Sportif. Si vous ne le faites pas, dites nous et nous le ferons. Deuxième chose: Je voulais mentionner les pianos à l'"inter-faith Centre" (*ahem* - comment ça se dit en français??)..mais je ne savais pas où je dois le mettre..peut-être que ça doit aller avec les 'Sociétés'de musique ('Contemporary Music Soc.' ou 'Folk Group') qui sont liés à l'"inter-faith Centre"? Etes-vous d'accord? Répondez aussitôt que possible s'il vous plaît! S01, ACL1 Yes since it is already Friday and we did not manage to meet, I think we have to talk via Topclass. Well, first I want to ask you if you do the 'Sport Centre' as part of the Clubs. As it is a facility, we must have at least one link from our page to yours if you deal with the Sport Centre. If you don't, tell us and we'll do it. Second thing: I wanted to mention the pianos in the Inter-Faith Centre (*ahem* - how do you say that in French??). But I did not know where to put it. Perhaps it should go with the music societies [ ]. Do you agree? Answer as soon as possible, please! Still no response S01 then tries to get Team 8's attention by sending a third message (Figure 7-10). Two weeks after S01's initial message, S11 and S23 from Team 8 finally react (Figure 7-11 and Figure 7-12). S11's and S23's answers raise additional concerns for S01, who decides that a face-to-face meeting is required (Figure 7-13). The discussion then continues until the students finally agree on a time and place to meet. Figure 7-10 Thread 1 - Message 3 From: S01 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 18/3/ :25:14 Subject:RE: Equipe 'Clubs &Socs' HELLO! Where are you?? COUCOU! Où êtes-vous?? 227

247 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-11 Thread 1 - Message 4 From: S11 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 24/3/ :35:00 Subject:RE: Equipe 'Clubs &Socs' salut les filles pardon pour la reponse tarde je me demande est ce que vous faites le bar avec les facilities parce que on le fait avec la vie sociale notre page va concentrer dans la vie sociale à DCU et à Dublin. Certes on va discuter les "Club et Socs" Hi girls! Sorry for the late reply. I wonder if you are doing the bar with the facilities because we are doing it with the social life Our page will focus on social life in DCU and in Dublin. Sure, we will talk about the clubs and socs. Figure 7-12 Thread 1 - Message 5 From: S23 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 24/3/ :35:03 Subject:RE: Equipe 'Clubs &Socs' S01 et S17 S23 ici. Nous sommes desolées pour la reponse tard. en réponse des votre questions. nous ne faisons pas le centre sportif. nous ne faisons pas les facilites à DCU seulement le bar. à mon avis je crois que vous devez mentioner les pianos dans la 'contemporary society'. S01 and S17 S23 here. We are sorry for the late reply In response to your questions. We are not doing the Sport Centre. We are not doing the facilities in DCU, only the Bar. In my opinion, I think you should mention the pianos in the "contemporary society". Figure 7-13 Thread 1 - Message 6 From: S01 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 24/3/ :31:36 Subject:RE: Equipe 'Clubs &Socs' Je crois que nous devons se réunir.. Nous avons beaucoup de choses à discuter.. Nous sommes libre demain de 11h (X201) à 3h je crois. Si demain ne vous convient pas suggerez une autre heure. (Même s'il n'y qu'une entre vous qui peut nous rencontrer ça suffira). Merci! S01 I think we must meet We have a lot to discuss. We are free tomorrow from (X201) to 3.00 I think. If tomorrow does not suit you, suggest a different time. (Even if only one of you can meet us, it will be enough). Thanks! S01 228

248 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Throughout the above exchange, the three students are thus involved in a reconstruction of the object of their respective 'sub-activities' (i.e. by delineating the boundaries of their theme) and a re-negotiation of the division of labour between their teams (i.e. by ensuring that certain topics are covered with a minimum of overlap). This transformation has been triggered by student S01, who has been particularly prolific in terms of messages posted to all teams (see Table 7-8 on page 225). Through her continuous active monitoring of other teams' activities, she contributed to the construction of a shared object between all participants. Indeed, she somewhat influenced the direction of the collective activity through her questioning of the teams actions, included her own. This was made possible by TOPCLASS, which thus has the potential to connect participants and to enable the co-construction of team objects and the renegotiation of the division of labour (Kuutti, 1996; see also Chapter 3, section 3.3.1) Preliminary conclusions So far, this chapter has explored the language learning activity associated with the module FR140 from the perspective of both individual students and teams. Following an overview of the activity outcomes, it focused on the mediating roles of the division of labour and of the technological tools made available to students. Earlier discussions and the examples given so far suggest that: Different teams constructed the object of the language learning activity in different but converging ways. Throughout the semester, team and individual actions were directed by the shared object of the collective activity, namely the construction of the website. This shared object constituted the 'problem space', which triggered various chains of team and individual actions. These actions resulted in the transformation of the object into an actual artefact: a website 229

249 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence published on the Internet. They also resulted in the transformation of the subjects (i.e. team and individual students) of the language learning activity, who report having developed their language skills, and also, by contrast with the previous module (FR130), a broad range of computing and transferable skills. The horizontal division of labour, both between teams and between individuals within a given team, played a significant role in the transformation of the activity. Rather than momentarily disturbing the main activity as was the case in Semester 1 (Chapter 6, section 6.1.5), it provided a central link between collective activity and individual actions. The division of labour within teams and between teams created some tensions. In particular, team coordinators felt under a lot of pressure as did the Technical Team and the Journal Team who were dependent on others to progress. However, all teams overcame these difficulties and despite the competing demands from other subjects completed the project on time. Technology penetrated and supported the language learning activity at all levels. It gave a direction to and supported individual actions (e.g. creation of web-site, information retrieval, production of content, etc.), and automated some previously conscious actions (e.g. distribution of learner-constructed artefacts to the community, spell checking, etc.). However, a shift between tools and object occurred at various times during the semester in response to the students' unfamiliarity with the technological tools available to them or to technological breakdowns. The adoption of a Virtual Learning Environment and more specifically of its embedded communication tools enabled and in some cases stimulated a renegotiation of the division of labour and consequently the transformation of 230

250 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence the collective activity through a realignment of team sub-activities. It provided students with opportunities to initiate new practices, even though these may have been resisted at times. The preliminary findings reported so far constitute some evidence of the development and exercise of learner autonomy, both at a collective and individual level. In line with Shetzer's and Warschauer's (2000) electronic literacy approach (see Chapter 2, section 2.3), students were autonomous in so far that they took charge of their own learning by working on a collaborative project that resulted in a web site accessible to local and global audiences. Furthermore teams and individual students exercised a high degree of control over the choice of topics and materials. They also controlled some elements of the activity, such as the division of labour and the tools and artefacts mediating their actions. The learning environment thus provided the community with opportunities for self-government (social or political autonomy). In line with Benson's (2001) arguments discussed in Chapter 2 (section 2.2.2), these opportunities for self-government influenced and were influenced by the teams' capacity to manage and control their own actions in other words, by the teams' capacity for self-regulation and to overcome interpersonal difficulties. From a psychological autonomy perspective, the teams' capacity for self-regulation influenced and was influenced by that of individual students. Teams and individual students demonstrated their ability to identify and to set goals as these emerged from the collective activity through the interaction between the various actors of the learning environment. Conversely, individual actions influenced the course of the collective activity (see the example of student S01 discussed earlier). Finally, teams and individual students also demonstrated their ability to work independently from the teacher and thus exhibited their capacity for a technical autonomy. 231

251 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence The discussion so far also points to a number of emerging tensions or contradictions. For instance, whereas the potential of TOPCLASS as an "enabler" (Kuutti, 1996) was established earlier, it has not been fully realised. The level of usage differed greatly between teams and individual users, with some teams not availing of the communication tools (see Table 7-8 on page 225). Teams experienced some difficulties in managing their time and in coordinating the work of their members. The contradictions that revealed themselves during the realisation of the activity and the transformations they triggered will be the focus of the next section. 7.2 Contradictions and the transformation of the activity The 'Journal of the Project' section of the students' website, written by the Journal Team (Team 2), provides some additional insights into the team actions leading to the final production of the site. It also confirms that tensions occurred during the realisation of the project, as illustrated by the team's welcome page given in Figure 7-14 below. Indeed, this introductory page implies that students faced some difficulties or disturbances, which they were not always able to resolve independently of their teachers. With their teachers' assistance however, students were able to resolve these contradictions. Their capacity to resolve contradictions without assistance and thus their autonomy (see Chapter 6) was therefore constrained by some factors, which need to be identified. The following sections examine to what extent the resolution of these contradictions, with or without assistance, led to the expansive transformation of the language learning activity. 232

252 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-14 The Journal Team s home page Le Journal du Projet Bienvenue à notre page d'accueil!! Nous avons la responsabilité de décrire les émeutes, réactions, etc. des équipes. Donc nous avons une grande responsabilité! Malgré ça, nous l'ignorerons et essayerons de créer un site intéressant, convivial et (quelques fois) humoristique... Ce projet est le fruit des étudiants de français à DCU. Sous la vraie direction de Francine et Françoise (nos profs de français), nous avons fini le projet. Sous notre direction... nous n'avons pas fait certaines choses. Malgré nos problèmes, cependant, nous avons terminé le projet, donc nous croyons que c'était un vrai succès. Nous espérons que vous obtiendrez une vraie image de ce projet et de ses gens. Finalement, nous espérons que vous aimez notre site. The Journal of the Project Welcome to our home page! We have the responsibility to describe the teams riots, reactions, etc. So, we have a big responsibility! Despite this, we will ignore it and we will try to create an interesting, userfriendly and (sometimes) humorous site This project is the result of students of French at DCU. Under the real direction of Francine and Françoise (our French teachers), we completed the project. Under our own direction we haven t done certain things. Despite our problems, however, we have completed the project, therefore we believe it is a true success. We hope that you will get a true image of this project and its people. Finally, we hope that you like our site Emergence of expansive cycles The weekly account of work in progress given by the 'Journal of the Project' (see Appendix N) offers some 'snapshots' of events as they were conveyed to the Journal Team by four teams (i.e. Team 1, Team 3, Team 6, and Team 7). In addition, the Journal Team co-ordinator (student S06) proposes his interpretation of the general mood as it evolved during the semester. Overall, the 'Journal of the Project' suggests that the activity underwent a series of transformations, from the initial enthusiastic adoption and appropriation of the new object of the language learning activity to the emergence of internal and external contradictions and the questioning of the activity by some students and teams, and finally to the completion of the project (Figure 7-15): 233

253 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Figure 7-15 Transformation of the activity (with translated extracts from the Journal of the Project) New Object New tools Enthusiasm, adoption and appropriation At the beginning, Team 6 was very excited. The team members thought that this exercise would help them greatly with their French. They thought that it would be very useful when they're abroad in France. They also thought that the web page would be practical for those who want to visit DCU (Week 1) We have chosen our topics for the website now. It is difficult to choose a topic because there can be some overlap between teams (Week 3) This week was "Rag Week". There were several activities in the bar and on campus this week. Of course, according to the old tradition, students did not attend classes. To cap it all, we haven't done the work. I have realised that the project will not go well in the next weeks! (Week 3) All journalists are somewhat pessimistic. Sure, we did not have pessimistic ideas about the project. But we found some pessimism among teams and in their minutes. Why? I don't know. I felt a fear among students, which was stopping their progress (Week 4) Internal and external contradictions begin to appear Some individual students or teams begin to question the object of the activity and/ or the established practice During the week, Francine asked Team 6 to surf the Internet to find more web pages. Each of them did it but unfortunately, they did not find it useful. They learn a bit of vocabulary on the computers, but not as much as they had hoped. At the moment, the team's opinion with regard to the web page is starting to change. They thought that researching more pages was a good idea. However, they thought that the evaluation of these pages was pointless. (Week 4) Outcomes The activity stabilises itself and the project is eventually completed This week Team 6 gave its information to the Technical Team to put it on the web page. The team had to write to a few people to ask them if it would be possible to use their pictures and their links. All their work is completed. (Week 8) 234

254 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence The successive transformations of the activity suggested by the 'Journal of the Project' remind us of Engeström's expansive cycles discussed in Chapter 3 (section 3.2.5). In some cases, the emergence of contradictions led to the creation of imaginative responses or solutions as exemplified by the following translated extract from the 'Journal of the Project' (Example 7-39, see original in Appendix N): Example 7-39 (Translated extract from the 'Journal of the Project') Week 5 S06 went to see the Accommodation Officer with Team 3. Team 3 needs information on accommodation. So they decide that the Accommodation Officer would be a good source of news. Unfortunately, the team encountered a set-back. S20 discussed their project and their idea to create a web page with the person in charge. Then, he asked her if she could give them some information on accommodation or on similar things. But she angrily replied that she already had a site for students and that she is the only one authorised to maintain a site like that. Having received such a response, the team needs a different approach. This was a serious set-back for the team. It was surprising that the accommodation officer lacked some understanding with regard to helping students. Yet, one can understand her reaction. Perhaps it was a mistake to try and create pages that already exist on the DCU site. Week 6 Ah what a trick!!! S33 from Team 3 was sent to the Accommodation Office. The team had a plan. In order to get some information on accommodation, they had to be cunning. S33 pretended to be a student who was badly treated by her landlord. So she needed information ah! Of course! It is up to you to decide but I think that the setting up of such a plan is superb. The above example describes a chain of actions triggered by a conflict occurring between two neighbouring activities, partially sharing an object (i.e. the provision of information on accommodation). This external (i.e. quaternary) contradiction (see Chapter 3, section 3.2.4) manifests itself in the accommodation officer's angry reaction to the students' initiative. It introduces a disturbance into the team activity: a secondary contradiction appears between the object or goals of the team actions (i.e. getting information from the accommodation officer) and the tool chosen by the team (i.e. direct interview). The unwelcoming and unsupportive response from the 235

255 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence accommodation officer prompts the students to reflect on and to question their chosen approach. Motivated by the need to get the required information, the team adopts a new strategy (i.e. the team creates a new tool), which consists in momentarily becoming the 'object' of the other conflicting activity (i.e. by tricking the accommodation officer into directing her actions towards the student in need of advice). Having succeeded in getting the information, the team can now progress to the next stage of their activity. By contrast, the extract given in Figure 7-15 (on page 234) suggests a different outcome of an apparently similar chain of events. In this case, a disturbance is introduced in the activity of Team 6 by the teacher who requests that more research on the Internet be conducted by the team. While complying with the teacher's request, the team identifies a misfit between the object and outcomes of the teacher-initiated task and what they perceive as the object of the activity. Consequently, the team members question this 'new' object, which was imposed from the outside and appears distant from their own motive. However, they do not question their own individual or team actions and simply dismiss the use value of the exercise. In this case, the questioning of the object and of the established collective practice did not lead to the creation of new tools or to the transformation of the activity. In both examples, the emergence of external contradictions resulted in the questioning of the object and practice of the activity. In the case of Team 3 (Example 7-39), this questioning led to the creation of a new strategy and contributed to the expansive transformation of the team activity: new knowledge was acquired, which allowed the team to move closer to their goal. This was not the case for Team 6 (extract in Figure 7-15) who did not resolve the identified contradiction. The previous chapter (Chapter 6) argued that the capacity to resolve contradictions was an attribute of learner autonomy. Thus far, this section would suggest that the capacity to resolve contradictions manifests 236

256 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence itself in new chains of actions. In order to contribute to the transformation of the object into new knowledge and skills, these transformative actions must however be expansive. In other words, they must lead to the creation and internalisation of new tools, which should promote learning. The next sections will further explore the contradictions that revealed themselves during the semester and will determine to what extent their resolution contributed to an expansive transformation of the learning activity Questioning the object and the established practice If indications of the emergence of the questioning of the object and established practice are found in the 'Journal of the Project' as discussed earlier (and also in Report 2), these are particularly evident in the final individual reports (Report 3). Section established that the acquisition of computer and transferable skills were perceived as the main outcomes of the language learning activity. In general, students reacted positively to the development of their computer skills, which they see as essential to function in today's society (Example 7-40 and Example 7-41): Example 7-40 (Questionnaire 2) S23 Team 8 Nowadays computers are used in all work places. There are needed. Anyone without basic knowledge would be very unlikely to get a job even with a degree. Example 7-41 (Questionnaire 2) S32 Team 8 Computers play a large part in industries today and I feel that it is every student's duty to be able to let go of their fear of technology and begin to experiment more with the computers available in SALLU and elsewhere in the college. Yet the apparent imbalance between the development of language and computer skills, both as outcomes and actual objects of the activity, is seen by most students as negative 237

257 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence and leads some of them to question the object of the activity and its established practice. (Example 7-42): Example 7-42 (Report 3) S11 Team 8 Tout le monde a pensé qu'on a appris plus d'information sur les ordinateurs que le français. Everybody thought that we learned more information on computers than French. In particular, the evaluation of French sites and the constitution of a corpus were perceived as a computing exercise rather than a language one. Furthermore, students did not recognise its usefulness or relevance as indicated earlier (section 7.2.1) and further illustrated by the following examples (Example 7-43 and Example 7-44): Example 7-43 (Report 3) S11 Team 8 J'ai remarqué que pas beaucoup de gens ont pensé que l'évaluation des sites des universités français était utile. On a passé beaucoup de temps en cherchant et en évaluant ces sites mais on n'a pas trouvé l'information utile. I have noticed that not many people thought that the evaluation of the French universities sites was useful. We spent a lot of time looking for and evaluating these sites, but we did not find the information useful. Example 7-44 (Report 3) S22 Team 4 Au début du semestre, ce n'était pas très clair ce quoi nous ferions pendant le semestre. A cause de ce, les sites evaluations n'était pas très utile et tout le monde ont pensé qu'ils étaient un perte du temps. At the beginning of the semester, it was not very clear what we would be doing during the semester. Because of that, the sites evaluations were not very useful and everybody thought that they were a waste of time. During the oral presentations and again in their final individual report (Report 3), most students expressed strong reservations about the focus and organisation of the classroom-based activities as illustrated by the following students' comments (Example 7-45 and Example 7-46): Example 7-45 (Report 3) S15 Team 7 Tout le monde a dit qu'on n'a pas appris beaucoup de français à cause de n'avais pas eu les cours ou nous apprenons la langue. Everybody said that we did not learn much French because we did not have the classes where we learn the language 238

258 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-46 (Report 3) S03 Team 1 Ma seule critique de ce projet est que les cours était une perte de temps. My only criticism about this project is that classes were a waste of time. However, not everybody agrees with the above reactions. As outlined in section 7.1.1, some students do declare having improved their French (see for instance Example 7-1 to Example 7-5, on pages ). Others eventually understand the purpose of the sites evaluations and retrospectively acknowledge its relevance for language learning (Example 7-47): Example 7-47 (Report 1) S27 Team 4 Au dèbut j'ai cru que les evaluations des sites ont été très dûr et je n'ai pas vu le point. Pourtant quand j'ai compris pourquoi nous avons cherché les sites pour obtenir un 'corpora' de vocabulaire, je l'ai trouvé plus facile, à mon avis li sera très pratique dans l'avenir. At the beginning I thought that the sites evaluations were very hard and I did not see the point. However, when I understood why we looked for sites to get a corpus of vocabulary, I found it easier, in my opinion, it will be very useful in the future. Conversely, whereas members of the Technical Team regret having spent more time learning HTML than French, students from other teams wish they had been given the opportunity to learn it: Example 7-48 (Report 3 Negative aspects) S01 Team 5 Que tout le monde n avait la chance d apprendre HTML That not everybody had a chance to learn HTML Example 7-49 (Report 3 Negative aspects) S21 Team 4 Nous n'avons pas appris le HTML. We did not learn HTML Finally, student S01 literally begs the teachers not to listen to students' criticism (Example 7-50): 239

259 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-50 (Report 3) S01 Team 5 Comme vous savez je veux bien parler en français dans les cours l année prochain. Mais je vous en pris de ne pas faire le grammaire! En dépit de ce que les autres disent le grammaire est ennuyant quand on fait des exercises, etc. Ils seront désolés d avoir demandé qu on fait des choses comme ça. J en suis sûre. Personnellement j avais la chance d avoir un bon prof pour le Leaving Cert, en fait pendant les six années que j ai passées à l école. Je ne peux pas croire que S05 n a même pas fait des accords!! Ça c est quelque chose que nous savions pour le Junior Cert!! C est fou! Et c est dommage que le niveau de français des profs secondaire en général est si bas. Mais je crois que parler la langue et être corrigé par les profs est la meilleure façon d apprendre la langue et aussi nous devrions avoir l opportunité de parler entre nous dans les cours. As you know, I would like to speak French in class next year. But I beg you not to do grammar! Despite what the others say, grammar is boring when you do exercises, etc. They will be sorry to have asked for doing things like that. I am sure of it. Personally, I was lucky I had a good teacher for the Leaving Cert, in fact for the six years I spent in school. I can't believe that S05 did not even do agreements!! It's crazy! And it is a pity that the level of French among secondary school teachers in general is so low. But I think that speaking the language and being corrected by the teachers is the best way of learning the language, and also we should have the opportunity to speak among ourselves in class. In the above example, S01 highlights two issues. The first one relates to students' beliefs and perceptions on language learning and the second one refers to past school experience. The latter is also noted by S33 (Example 7-51): Example 7-51 (Report 3) S33 Team 3 Le point principal négatif que presque tous les équipes ont identifié était que nous n'avons appris autant de français que le semestre dernier. C'est vrai que nous avons appris de nouveaux vocabulaire mais nous ne pensons que c'était suffisant. À cause du presentation oral la plupart des membres des équipes aurait voulu pratiquer leur francais orale et de pratiquer se discuter en français. La plupart d'étudiants ont venu des lycées ou ils ne parlaient pas en français plus souvent. The main negative point identified by nearly all the teams is that we haven t learned as much French as last semester. It is true that we have learned new vocabulary but we don t think it is enough. Because of the oral presentation, most team members would have liked to practice their spoken French and to practice discussing in French. Most students came from schools where they did not speak French that often. Example 7-50 and Example 7-51 above suggest a misfit or 'distance' between the internal structure of the FR140 activity and the participating students who are the 'product' or outcome of the secondary school language learning activity, where opportunities for student-student interaction through French in or outside the classroom 240

260 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence were rare 32. These tensions between the secondary school and university language learning environments on the one hand and between the subjects and the object of the activity on the other also appear in students' responses to the end of year questionnaire, as illustrated by Example 7-52 and Example 7-53 below: Example 7-52 (Questionnaire 2) S20 Team 3 I must admit that I was very surprised by what we had to learn. The journal and the tape test in the first semester were by all accounts very unusual compared to my expectations of the module. I was also very surprised by the second semester and the idea of the web site. It was totally different to the way I was taught in school, but indeed it was a lot more imaginative and involved a lot more creativity from the student. My initial expectations were of a french lecturer who spoke a little french in class and who concentrated on grammar and oral work. Such a change was not perceivable. Example 7-53 (Questionnaire 2) S18 Team 2 Initially I expected there to be more emphasis on grammar and written French. I expected teachers to explain everything and that I would be expected to just learn everything off by heart that was learnt in class. I never thought that learning French would be my own responsibility.in my opinion, there was too much of a change from secondary school to university in the way in which French was taught. I think that I am, frankly, too immature to have total responsibility for learning French. I personnally would have preferred to have been taught how to learn French on my own a little better. I would have been more comfortable if I thought that my French teacher would encourage me a bit more. I work a lot better when almost forced into it. The transition from this to learning for myself was too great and I feel that I only made this transition when it was too late. While student S20 (Example 7-52) emphasises the imaginative and creative aspects of the two French syllabi compared with the secondary school grammar approach, student S18 (Example 7-53) reflects on her lack of self-direction and states her need for more direction and assistance from the teacher. In both cases however, the distance between their initial expectations and their actual experience is beyond what they had envisaged. Regarding these students' level of autonomy at the end of Semester 1, it is interesting to note that S18 had been allocated to Level 2, whose main characteristic was teacher 32 Student S33's remarks also point to students' perception on what constitutes 'language practice' and on the role of the teacher in enabling student-student interaction through the target language. This will be revisited in the next section. 241

261 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence dependence, and S20 to Level 3. In fact, while different students responded to challenges and tensions in different ways, those with a lower level of autonomy at the beginning of the semester (i.e. Level 1 and L2) appear to have taken longer than others to adopt a new language learning practice (see discussion on the low usage of TOPCLASS by Level 1 students, Table 7-8 on page 225). The preliminary analysis of the activity according to the 'Journal of the Project' discussed in section and represented in Figure 7-15 (on page 234) suggested a relationship between the emergence of internal and external contradictions and the questioning of the object and established practice, consistent with Engeström's (2001) expansive cycles (see also Chapter 3). This is reinforced by the earlier discussion of Example 7-52 and Example 7-53, which suggests that the questioning of the object and established practice may have its origins in the activity system internal and external contradictions. This will be further explored in the next section with a particular focus on the tools and artefacts mediating the activity Formation and resolution of contradictions: the case of tools and artefacts As discussed throughout this thesis, internal and external contradictions manifest themselves through breakdowns, disturbances or tensions that characterise the relationships within or between activity systems. Section highlighted some tensions between language and technology not only as outcomes but also as objects of the language learning activity. However both are also tools, which mediate teams and individual actions, including communicative actions. 242

262 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Information and Communication Technology As expressed by student S21 below (Example 7-54), computers played a central role and were the primary enablers of the activity. Most students enjoyed using computers, which introduced an element of novelty in the learning experience (Example 7-55). For some, computers enhanced their writing process and outcomes (Example 7-56). However, a few of them disliked or even resented the challenges and difficulties they may have created (Example 7-57 and Example 7-58): Example 7-54 (Questionnaire 2) S21 Team 4 Without the computers we used in SALLU and the labs, we wouldn't have been able to get all the information for our French projects and we wouldn't have been able to do the website! Example 7-55 (Questionnaire 2) S27 Team 4 Obviously as a part of Computational linguistics class, I enjoy using computers. They are interesting, fast and a whole range of information is available at your fingertips as the interaction with the Internet has shown. The use of computers creates a different teaching element. It is a change from the usual lectures and the information is both interesting and practical in today's society. Example 7-56 (Questionnaire 2) S29 Team 3 [using computers] encouraged me to look forward to typing projects more than I normally would as I find it more interesting to type than write. It's also possible to check mistakes instantly and I found that this lead to less mistakes as time passed by. Example 7-57 (Questionnaire 2) S19 Team 7 I feel somewhat detached when using them as if not in control. There is always too much that can go wrong too much red-tape as it were. There is always so many new things to learn. You might think you are fully proficient at using some aspects of computers until you have to overcome something you are unfamiliar with. Then it is a big job to find out how to use this particular "new thing". Example 7-58 (Questionnaire 2) S28 Team 8 I find [computers] extremely antisocial. Once one gets addicted to computers, their whole life can solely resolve around them and the computer. I also find them extremely difficult to use. When I use a computer what can go wrong will go wrong for me. The extensive use of Information and Communication Technologies as tools mediating the language learning activity was indeed accompanied by breakdowns and 243

263 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence disturbances. During the semester, staff and students experienced a number of technical problems, which significantly disrupted the activity. Computer crashes and forgotten passwords are just examples of such breakdowns as illustrated by Example 7-59 and Example 7-60 below: Example 7-59 (Report 1) S23 Team 8 Premièrement, j'ai trouvé les sites que m'aiderais avec mon projet. Puis je les ai sauvegardé sur une disquette. En train d'une évaluation on a perdu tout. Je n'ai le pu pas trouver encore. First, I found some sites that would help me with my project. Then I saved them on a disk. While evaluating one site, we lost everything. I could not find it again. Example 7-60 (Report 1) S10 Team 1 Mon mot de passe pour TopClass a été cassé encore. Cette semaine, j'ai eu un nouveau mot de passe pour TopClass et j'ai lu tout là. My password for TopClass was broken again.[ ] This week, I got a new password for TopClass and I read everything there. If technological breakdowns are unavoidable and may momentarily disrupt the activity, other disturbances indicate more fundamental contradictions. For example, student S01 reports having great difficulties in finding suitable sites in the SALLU computer lab because the installed browser (an older version of Netscape) does not accept frames (Figure 7-16): Figure 7-16 Example of a technological breakdown (TopClass discussion list) From: S01 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 18/2/ :46:12 Subject:Grrrr! Je viens de passer un trois-quarts d'heure en cherchant de sites web interessants...mais presque tous les sites que j'ai essayé comprisent les frames et ces ordinateurs-ci (à Sallu) ne les prennet pas! Je m'énerve!! I have just spent three quarters of an hour looking for interesting sites But nearly all the sites I have tried have frames and these computers (in SALLU) don't take them! I am getting really annoyed!. Other students highlight the inadequacies of the computing facilities not only in SALLU but in the university in general. There are not enough computers in SALLU for the 244

264 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence number of students participating in the project, but these are the only computers in the university with the French proofing tools: Example 7-61 (Report 3) S22 Team 4 Les facilités à SALLU était insufficantes, et aussi il n'y a pas Microsoft Word en français dans les autres salles d'ordinateurs. The facilities in SALLU are not sufficient, and also, Microsoft Word in French is not in the other computer labs. Example 7-62 (Report 3) S12 Team 4 Les facilités pour les langues à DCU est très décevant. Il n'y a que dix ou douze ordinateurs avec Word en français. Les ordinateurs à Computer Applications n'ont pas Word en français, donc tout la classe a du utiliser les ordinateurs à SALLU. Les classes à SALLU a été trop courts et trop petites. The facilities for languages in DCU are very disappointing. There are only ten or twelve computers with Word in French. The computers in Computer Applications don't have Word in French, so the whole class had to use the computers in SALLU. The classes in SALLU were too short and too small. The above examples thus illustrate a secondary contradiction between the technological tools available to the community and the object of the language learning activity. Whereas a 'new' object has been introduced in the language learning activity, the existing technology is no longer adequate 33 : the language proofing tools and the concordancing software are only available in a small lab equipped with computers that cannot reliably perform the required tasks. Contradictions between the subjects of the activity and its object can also be identified. Notwithstanding the structural inadequacies outlined above, breakdowns and disturbances also occurred as a result of the students' initial lack of computer skills as illustrated by the following examples: Example 7-63 (Report 3) S29 Team 3 Au début, j'ai eu un problème avec "word" mais après j'ai demandé à Françoise sur le problème, c'est facile. Je n'ai pas sait comment à utiliser "spellcheck". 33 Indeed, the same facilities had been deemed excellent for language learning in Semester

265 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-64 (Report 1) At the beginning, I had a problem with "word" but after I asked Françoise about the problem, it is easy. I did not know how to use "spellcheck". S18 Team 2 J'ai pensé que les classes d'ordinateur étaient vraiment utiles. Mais j'ai toujours beaucoup de problèmes. À mon avis, il est difficile de charger des fichiers et d'accéder à de l'information. J'espère que, avec du temps, je deviendrai les ordinateurs d'utilisation beaucoup plus confiants. I thought that the lab sessions were really useful. But I still have a lot of problems. In my view, it is difficult to download files and to access the information. I hope that with time I will become much confident in using computers. Example 7-65 (Report 1) S33 Team 3 Le seule problem que j'avais en faisant ce projet était avec les ordinateurs, surtout quand je les ai utilisés pour les évaluations des sites. A cause de ces problemes, j'ai passé trop de temps en essayaient d'évaluer ces sites. The only problem I had while doing this project was with computers, especially when I used them for the sites evaluation. Because of these problems, I spent too much time trying to evaluate these sites. The last example (Example 7-65) begins to explain the emergence of the questioning of the sites evaluations as given object of the activity discussed earlier (section 7.2.2): technological breakdowns and disturbances interfered with the students' actions and triggered unanticipated and long-lasting focus shifts. As their computer skills improved in the course of the semester, students were eventually able to find some solutions to unexpected breakdowns. Their capacity to resolve these contradictions was however constrained by that of the whole learning environment. Some technological breakdowns had to be fixed by the SALLU technician within the limits of the infrastructure capabilities. Indeed, it was not possible to replace obsolete equipment or software as problems arose. Similarly, language proofing tools for Word could not be installed in other DCU computer labs until the following year. Resolving these contradictions during the semester was therefore beyond the control of 246

266 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence the participants, be they staff or students 34. Unresolved contradictions, combined with the lack of clarity at the time regarding the relationship between this stage of the project and the construction of the website (Example 7-47 on page 239), undoubtedly contributed to the students' questioning of the value of the exercise discussed in the previous section. It also led to an excessively prolonged focus shift between computer and language. A greater than anticipated amount of time had to be devoted to the development of technical skills and to technical support. For some students, this was done at the expense of the development of language awareness and vocabulary acquisition, which had been the ultimate motive for introducing the sites evaluations in the earlier stages of the project. More specifically, the exploration of the corpus with Wordsmith Tools remained superficial due to time pressure. The target language as a mediating tool As in the case of technology, the target language penetrated and supported the activity at all levels (see section on page 220) and was both a mediating tool and an object of the language learning activity. At the collective activity level, the target language mediated all interaction and communication: classes and lab sessions were conducted exclusively through French along with all TOPCLASS mediated communication. Instructions and guidelines were presented and discussed through French, along with the teacher feedback on work in progress including any oral explanation or clarification given in response to students' questions. The teacher's feedback primarily focused on students' use of language and on the content and internal organisation of their texts. In particular, teams' minutes and draft texts for the website were continuously reviewed 34 These structural contradictions were eventually resolved by the university. Additional resources were provided, which enabled the replacement of the obsolete equipment. The operating system and the language packs were also upgraded and installed in all computer labs in the university as new and stable versions were released by Microsoft. 247

267 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence and discussed with the teacher. In this case, language was both the tool and the object of the activity. Students thus 'practiced their French' by interacting through the target language, even though many did not perceive this authentic interaction in a classroom environment as language practice (see Example 7-51, on page 240). While the exclusive use of French throughout the course was thought to promote the development of language use, it also obscured at times the object of the activity as illustrated by Example 7-66 below: Example 7-66 (Report 3) S33 Team 3 Il fait un grand temps de s'habituer à écouter des profs qui parlent en français tous les temps. Quelque fois nous n'étions pas sûr ce que nous avons du faire parce que nous ne comprenions pas. It takes a lot of time to get used to listen to teachers who speak French all the time. Sometimes we were not sure what we had to do because we did not understand. At the team and individual actions, English was predominantly used. For example, student S07 remarks that the reason for not "learning much French" lies in the fact that most information needed for the project was in English (Example 7-67 below): Example 7-67 (Report 3) S07 Team 6 Quelques gens ont dit qu'ils n'ont pas appris beaucoup au niveau de la langue ce semestre. Nous avons passé beaucoup de temps de chercher de l'information. La majorité de ça a été en anglais. Nous avons appris la langue seulement quand nous avons écrit des ébauches de page avec l'information trouvée. Some people said that they did not learn much language this semester. We spent a lot of time looking for information. The majority of it was in English. We have only learned the language when we wrote draft pages with the information we found. Furthermore, the communication within teams was mediated for the most part by English, as this was quicker and easier as illustrated by the following examples (Example 7-68, Example 7-69, and Example 7-70): 248

268 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-68 (Report 3) S16 Team 7 [ ] pour tous les équipes c'etait plus facile de parler en anglais quand ils ont rencontré. For all teams it was easier to speak English when they met. Example 7-69 (Report 3) S23 Team 8 Pendant les réunions, tout le monde a parlé en anglais. Il a été difficile d'exprimer des idée en francais. During the meetings, everybody spoke in English. It was difficult to express ideas in French. Example 7-70 (Report 3) S11 Team 8 Presque tout le monde a parlé en anglais pendant les réunions et pas en français parce que c'était plus facile et plus vite. Nearly everybody spoke English during the meetings and not in French because it was easier and quicker. While student S13 acknowledges the teams' responsibility in electing to use English during meetings (Example 7-71), S18 indicates that most teams nevertheless tried to do so at the beginning (Example 7-72). Example 7-71 (Report 3) S13 Team 1 [ ] nous avons eu le choix de parler en francais ou en anglais mais malheureusement nous avons choisi de parler en anglais. Donc nous avons perdu l'occasion d'apprendre plus de français. [ ] we had the choice to speak French or English but unfortunately we chose to speak English. Therefore we lost the opportunity to learn more French. Example 7-72 (Report 3) S18 Team 2 il y avait une problème d'essayer de parler en français dans ces réunions. Il était plus facile de parler en anglais mais au début chaque équipe ont essayé d'ameliorer leur niveau de la langue par cette moyenne. There was a problem with trying to speak French in the meetings. It was easier to speak English but at the beginning each team tried to improve their language level this way. Student S19 offers an explanation to these difficulties (Example 7-73). According to him, the main obstacles in using the target language have their origin in the students' lack of confidence and of sufficient proficiency in French: 249

269 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence Example 7-73 (Report 3) S19 Team 7 Pour tous les equipes c'etait tres difficile de parler en français donc presque tout le monde a decidé de parler en anglais. [ ]J'aime l'idée aussi de travailler en groupe parce que nous apprenons comment exprimer nos idées, accepter la critique, etc. Mais c'est très difficile d'apprendre la langue quand on travaille avec des autres étudiants parce que c'est difficile de parler la langue. A mon avis nous n'avons pas la confiance de le parler, ou quelqu'un ne comprends pas tout et tout s'est passe tres lentement. Donc c'est plus vite de parler anglais et cette tentation est toujours la. For every team, it was very difficult to speak French so nearly everybody decided to speak English. [ ] I also like the idea of working in teams because we learn how to express our ideas, to accept criticism, etc. But it is very difficult to learn the language when you work with other students because it is difficult to speak the language. In my opinion, we do not have the confidence to speak it, or somebody does not understand and everything is very slow. So it is quicker to speak English and this temptation is always there. When faced with such a language barrier and left to their own devices in the absence of a teacher outside class, students thus opted for the easier option and reverted to the use of English. This is hardly surprising given that any group of individuals sharing the same mother tongue would find it difficult to maintain the use of a foreign language in a professional or social situation. Indeed, if no native speaker (or teacher assuming the role of a native speaker) is present, the transformation of such a 'professional' or social situation into a language learning one requires a high level of independence, motivation and strong willpower on the part of all participants. Some students avoided communicating through French outside class by bringing external technologies into the language learning activity: rather than using TOPCLASS to interact with their peers, a number of them used the synchronous and asynchronous communication tools available on the server maintained by the Student Union Network Society, Redbrick (Example 7-74): Example 7-74 (Report 3) S16 Team 7 C'était presque impossible de parler français quand nous avons rencontré et aussi comment comminiquer avec les autres groupes. Donc, quelqu'uns ont travaillé avec 'Redbrick' pour comminiquer en anglais. It was nearly impossible to speak French when we met and also to communicate with other groups. So some worked with 'Redbrick' to communicate in English. 250

270 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence The students' introduction of English and of new technologies in the language learning environment contributed to the transformation of the language learning activity in unplanned directions. It also partially explains the low usage of TOPCLASS communication tools highlighted in section While momentarily resolving some of the emerging contradictions, these new mediating tools introduced additional tensions, which were later identified upon reflection by some students: opportunities for language use and language learning had been lost. This suggests that, even though teams and individual students demonstrated their capacity to resolve contradictions and therefore some level of autonomy, the potential for an expansive transformation of the language learning activity was not fully realised with respect to the use of French: rather than creating or adopting new tools to help them practice or use French outside class, students reverted to familiar ones. At the same time, the resulting structure of the activity is seen by students as hindering the transformation of the object into what they believe to be the desired outcomes of a language course, namely increased language fluency and accuracy (see Chapter 5, section 5.2.3). Yet, despite the difficulties in meeting the demands of oral communication through French outside the classroom, students produced a large volume of text in the target language (i.e. individual reports, minutes of team meetings, website content, discussion list postings, oral presentations). These texts had their origin both in the interdependence between teams, students and teacher and in the tool-object characteristic of both computers and language. 7.3 Summary and conclusion The collaborative and interdisciplinary nature of the language learning activity associated with the FR140 module provided a wide range of opportunities for 251

271 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence collaborative and individual actions, which resulted in the exercise of a social and individual autonomy and in the development of new language and computer skills. It also presented students (and teachers) with a formidable challenge to which they rose with creativity and a high level of engagement. Being both objects and mediators of the language learning activity, computers and language penetrated and supported the activity at all levels. The use of computers in the language learning activity added some value to the learning experience and outcomes. It introduced a novelty element and contributed to the students' development of electronic literacies, which students saw as a positive outcome. It also supported and enabled a complex organisation of the division of labour, which played a pivotal role in the completion of the project and in the realisation of the desired outcomes. However, contradictions soon emerged, which could not always be resolved during the period concerned. In particular, technological breakdowns and the lack of students' computer skills significantly disrupted the language learning activity at times and introduced prolonged and often unwelcome focus shifts between computers and language. As a mediator, the target language also obscured the object of the activity and hindered student-student interaction outside the boundaries of the classroom, thus reducing the potential for language use afforded by the social organisation of the learning environment. Some of these contradictions were beyond the students' capacity to resolve them independently, which led them to question the object of the activity and the internal structure of the latter, including their own practice. In doing so, they pointed to a contradiction between 'the new' and 'the old' language learning activities. This is consistent with Engeström's (1987) concept of tertiary contradictions: a 'more culturally advanced' language learning activity is met by some resistance from elements of the 252

272 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence 'old' language learning activity. Students are still working through the tension between their engagement in the language course they attended and a more traditional view of academic subjects as separate entities and of language as the sole object of a language course. 253

273 Chapter 7 - Empirical analysis 2: Focus on interdependence 254

274 Chapter 8 - Conclusions Chapter 8 Conclusions The empirical analyses reported in the two previous chapters (Chapter 6 and Chapter 7) provided a rich description of the dynamics and complexities of two language learning courses mediated by a range of technologies and aiming to foster the development and exercise of learner autonomy. While the two language learning activities were driven by the same ultimate motive (i.e. the development of language skills, transferable skills and learner autonomy) and realised by the same students in the same educational context (consecutively), they presented distinctively different internal structures. The first module (FR130) was characterised by an explicit higher order object ( this semester, we are learning to become independent language learners and users ) and the second one (FR140) by the collaborative construction of a concrete artefact ( this semester we are creating a website together ). The organisation of the division of labour greatly differed between the two modules, mainly vertical in the case of FR130 (i.e. students worked independently of each other towards assignments created by the teacher and to some extent by themselves) and essentially horizontal in the case of FR140 (i.e. students worked in teams, which were themselves part of a network). In other words, whereas independence was the founding block in FR130, the realisation of FR140 was conditional on interdependence. Finally, new tools were introduced in the second module (e.g. a VLE) and old ones abandoned (e.g. videos). As the courses were delivered, different students showed different levels of engagement and followed different paths while attending to the shared object of the language learning activities in which they participated. The activities did not always unfold as planned and tensions within or between elements of the activity systems manifested 255

275 Chapter 8 - Conclusions themselves through disturbances, breakdowns or conflicts and, at times, through feelings of frustration and expressions of doubts about the whole enterprise ( I am learning more about computers than French ). Yet, both modules were successful in so far that the desired outcomes were largely met. Students developed their language skills as is evident not only in the artefacts they produced (e.g. diaries, listening test, reports, web site, oral presentations etc.) but also in their class interactions. They also became more independent as learners (e.g. they developed and demonstrated their use of a range of metacognitive strategies, initiated their own actions without the teacher s intervention, etc.) and developed a broad variety of transferable skills, of which they grew aware in the second semester. In fact, the construction of the website provided them which a rich learning experience, which they acknowledged and welcomed. They completed their first academic year of French at university proud of their collective and individual achievements: the website to which they all contributed was on-line and accessible by anybody from anywhere 35. This concluding chapter brings together the theoretical arguments and empirical findings of previous chapters by revisiting the research questions. In doing so, it highlights the main contributions of this thesis as well as its limitations and suggests directions for further research in the fields of CALL and learner autonomy. 8.1 Research questions revisited The relationship between learner autonomy, computers and language learning has been at the forefront of pedagogical debates in language learning since the early eighties. More often than not however, learner autonomy is understood in terms of independent 35 On an anecdotal note, students received messages from people visiting the site long after the project had been completed. 256

276 Chapter 8 - Conclusions and/or self-directed learning. Self-access, distance or computer-assisted language learning have become synonymous with learner autonomy. However, as it has been observed in many higher education language departments or language centres, learner autonomy does not just happen by placing language learners in front of state-of-the-art computers. Self-directedness is not an innate attribute. Against this background, this thesis set out to investigate the relationship between CALL and learner autonomy with a view to establishing some principles to assist the design and implementation of technology-rich language learning environments. Three questions thus constituted the initial focus of this research: Question 1: What factors contribute to or prevent the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments? Question 2: What do learners do when in the process of becoming autonomous language learners? Is it possible to give a description of this process? Question 3: Can we formulate principles and criteria for the design, implementation and evaluation of technology-rich language learning environments promoting the development and exercise of learner autonomy? In order to answer the above questions, the thesis took as its starting point a multidimensional perspective on learner autonomy i.e. integrating the social/political, individual/psychological and technical/automated dimensions which was defined in terms of social and individual control over the learning process and content (Chapter 2). Throughout the thesis, the relationship between CALL and learner autonomy was seen through the lens of cultural historical activity theory (Chapter 3). Its main tenets activity systems as the prime unit of analysis, multi-voicedness, historicity, contradictions as sources of change and development, and expansive cycles 257

277 Chapter 8 - Conclusions (Engeström, 2001) provided the conceptual and analytical tools underpinning the empirical studies reported in later chapters. To coordinate the individual and social dimensions of CALL and learner autonomy within an activity theoretical perspective, a number of methodological challenges and requirements were identified (Chapter 4). These requirements were met through a research design involving firstly the design and implementation of two French modules, and secondly the activity theoretical analysis of a range of artefacts created by students during the two semesters (Chapter 5). The analysis of these learner-constructed artefacts provided a representation of the language learning activities. It revealed some of the underlying internal and external contradictions (or systemic tensions), which emerged as the activities unfolded, and brought to light the transformations that occurred (Chapter 6 and Chapter 7). By bringing these findings together, answers to the research questions can now be put forward Question 1 What factors contribute to or prevent the development and exercise of learner autonomy in technology-rich mediated language learning environments? According to activity theory concepts and principles (Chapter 3), an activity is shaped and defined by its collective object, which provides the motive for the goal-oriented actions carried out by subjects, be they individual participants or groups. The triad subject-object-community forms the core of activity systems and the relationships between these core constituents are mediated by tools and artefacts, by a certain division of labour, and by a set of rules and conventions (Chapter 3, section 3.2.1). 258

278 Chapter 8 - Conclusions In the case of language learning activities taking place in the context of educational institutions, the triad subject-object-community encapsulates the social and individual dimensions of language learning environments, and consequently of learner autonomy. While individual language students attend to the object of the activity by carrying out goal-oriented actions, they do not act in isolation. They are part of a community of learners sharing the same object, even though they may not become aware of the latter until much later on. Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 illustrated the role of collective objects in shaping language learning activities. The level of students engagement and the outcomes of the language activity associated with the second module (FR140) further suggest that a concrete collective object (e.g. we are going to create a website ) is more likely to give a strong direction to teams and individual actions than a more abstract one (e.g. we are going to become autonomous language learners and users ). In fact, by triggering not only the emergence of converging individual goals but also an early awareness of the collective motive, such objects may thus contribute to an earlier transformation of groups of separate individual learners into a community of learners (i.e. into a group of learners sharing a common object), which is larger than administrative groupings delineated by class lists and assigned to a specific teacher. Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 also established that the mediating components of the language learning activity (i.e. rules and conventions, division of labour, and tools and artefacts) play a significant role in the development and exercise of learner autonomy. In particular, it was shown that the activity mediators potentially support and hinder the development and exercise of learner autonomy. In particular, the discussions in the two previous chapters suggest that: Explicit rules, such as the assessment schedule and the assignments format imposed by the curriculum or by the teacher (e.g. the requirement to keep a diary), constrain 259

279 Chapter 8 - Conclusions the exercise of learner autonomy (i.e. the learner s control over the content and management of her learning) while enabling its development (see Chapter 6, section 6.2.1). The organisation of the division of labour has a significant impact on the development and exercise of learner autonomy. While they both potentially enable the exercise of independence, a predominantly horizontal division of labour (i.e. collaboration between students within teams, but also between teams) is more likely to foster the development and of learner autonomy in both its social and individual dimensions, than a mainly vertical division of labour (i.e. individual students working independently under the teacher s guidance). Furthermore, a horizontal division of labour organised around small teams provides a bridge between collective activity and individual actions (Chapter 7, section 7.1.2). Tools and artefacts potentially enable and hinder the transformation of the object of the language learning activity into desired and unexpected outcomes. Technological tools, and in particular Computer Mediated Communication, enable and support a complex horizontal division of labour. They can provide students with opportunities to initiate new practices (Chapter 7, section 7.1.4), thus enabling and supporting a social autonomy as well as an individual one. They can however obscure the object of the activity as result of breakdowns or lack of students expertise (Chapter 7, section 7.2.3). Similarly, the use of the target language as a mediator of the language learning activity potentially enables the use and development of metacognitive strategies (Chapter 3, section 3.1), while obscuring the object of the activity and consequently hindering its transformation into the desired outcomes (Chapter 7, section 7.2.3). 260

280 Chapter 8 - Conclusions More traditional approaches to learner autonomy (e.g. cognitive approaches) and to Second Language Acquisition (e.g. interactionist approaches) primarily focus on the individual learner s capacity for independence and/or on the potential of a specific language task or CALL programme for language learning (Chapter 2). By contrast, the above discussion suggests that each single component of a language learning activity system potentially contributes or prevents the development and exercise of learner autonomy. Primary contradictions with respect to learner autonomy can thus be seen as pervading all elements of the language learning activity (see Chapter 3, section 3.2.4). Contradictions between elements of the activity systems under study, and between connected activity systems were also highlighted throughout Chapter 6 and Chapter 7. According to activity theory, internal and external contradictions are source of development (Chapter 3, section 3.2.4). This is also true for the development and exercise of learner autonomy (Chapter 6, section 6.2.3). Under certain circumstances, however, contradictions that cannot be satisfactorily resolved by the participating students or teachers such as those arising from the design of the course itself (Chapter 6, section 6.2.2) or from an inadequate technological infrastructure (Chapter 7, section 7.2.3) may hinder the development of autonomy by generating prolonged and unwelcome focus shifts (Chapter 7, section 7.2.3). Contradictions, or systemic tensions, occurring as a language learning activity unfolds are therefore the most significant factor contributing or preventing the development and exercise of learner autonomy Question 2 What do learners do when in the process of becoming autonomous language learners? Is it possible to give a description of this process? 261

281 Chapter 8 - Conclusions The artefacts constructed by the participating students over the two semesters (e.g. diaries, individual reports and minutes of team meetings, Journal of the Project section of the website, etc.) provided descriptions of chains of actions carried out by participants as well as reflective accounts of their language learning experience. The use of activity theory to analyse and interpret these accounts (Chapter 4 and Chapter 5) highlighted a number of processes, behaviours and practices that would have been difficult to identify otherwise. For example, in line with Engeström s principle of multivoicedness (Chapter 3, section 3.2.2), Chapter 6 showed that individual students construct the object of their language learning activity in different ways (section 6.1.5). Chapter 7 brought to light the central role of teams actions and decisions in linking short term individual actions and longer term collective activity (section 7.1.2). Other core processes uncovered by the analysis of the data have their origin in the activity theoretical concepts of contradictions and transformations of activities. As suggested by Chapter 3 (section 3.2.2), focus shifts appeared between tools and objects (e.g. as a result of particular learning outcomes or of technological breakdowns, etc.), and in particular between language and computers. For example, Chapter 6 (section 6.1.4) showed how the learner diary functioned as both the object of the language learning activity and a tool helping students to plan and carry out a variety of actions. Chapter 7 (section 7.2.3) discussed how computers became the object of the activity as a result of technical breakdowns or of students inadequate computer skills. In both semesters, the target language was the focus of students actions (e.g. producing text, focusing on errors signalled by the teacher, etc.) and a tool mediating classroom communication. Transformative cycles comparable to Engeström s (1999a) expansive cycles (Chapter 3, section 3.2.5) i.e. identifying emerging contradictions, questioning the established practice and resolving the contradictions by creating or adopting new 262

282 Chapter 8 - Conclusions tools or object (or by reverting to old tools) occurred at the level of individual students (Chapter 6, section 6.2.3) as well as that of teams or community (Chapter 7, section 7.2). In Chapter 6 (section 6.2.3), examples were given of students proposing new rules or procedures as well as a new organisation of the division of labour to resolve some of the difficulties they encountered during the semester. Chapter 7 (section 7.2) illustrated how the emergence of disturbances or breakdowns led some students to create imaginative responses (e.g. adopting new strategies to get information) or to question the object of the language learning activity (e.g. questioning the value of evaluating websites). A number of behaviours or practices were shown to be linked to the level of learner autonomy demonstrated by students. For example, Chapter 6 suggested that less autonomous learners directed their actions towards language related artefacts (e.g. video recordings, text books, exercises) and tools (e.g. grammar, vocabulary) which were likely to remain objects of the language learning activity over a long period of time. By contrast, more autonomous learners were seen to reallocate what had been their initial object to the role of tool (section 6.4). More autonomous learners were also more likely to identify and resolve emerging contradictions (section 6.3.2). The capacity to resolve contradictions was therefore seen as an observable attribute of learner autonomy (Chapter 6, section 6.2 and section 6.3). Furthermore, the resolution of contradictions resulted at times in the creation of new tools or procedures, thus contributing to the expansive transformation of the activity (Chapter 6, section and Chapter 7, section 7.2). 263

283 Chapter 8 - Conclusions Question 3 Can we formulate principles and criteria for the design, implementation and evaluation of technology-rich language learning environments promoting the development and exercise of learner autonomy? The theoretical and empirical arguments put forward so far allow us to derive principles for the design and deployment of the different components of the chosen activity system: Principle 1: As recalled earlier, and also in line with task-based approaches to language pedagogy, language learning activities are object-centred. Suitable objects for the development of learner autonomy include the students collaborative creation of artefacts whose purpose and life-cycle will go beyond those of the language course (e.g. artefacts which can be used by self or others, such as websites, brochure or booklet, electronic glossaries, interactive web-based exercises, digital films or photo stories, PowerPoint presentations, poster exhibition, etc.). The mediating elements of the language learning activity system should provide students with opportunities to construct the given object in different yet converging ways. Principle 2: The language learning activity should be mediated by a rich horizontal division of labour (this chapter, Question 1). In other words, the realisation of the object should require students to collaborate (i.e. it should not be possible for the object to be constructed by students working independently of each other). Principle 3: Technology and language should penetrate the activity at all levels. They should enable and support the collective activity as well as individual actions and operations. In particular, technology should enable and support a rich division of labour (Principle 2). Examples of suitable technologies include not only the communication tools integrated in Virtual Learning Environments (e.g. , 264

284 Chapter 8 - Conclusions discussion lists, chatrooms, etc.), but also technologies for collaborative authoring (e.g. the Wiki and glossary modules supported by the Open Source VLE Moodle). Furthermore, language and technology should both be seen both as objects of the activity and mediating tools. Carefully thought out focus shifts should be built into the syllabus to avoid prolonged and unwelcome disruptions. For example, students could first learn basic HTML (object) through French (tool), and then use HTML (tool) to construct a web page in French (object). Unforeseen focus shifts can then provide opportunities for further learning (e.g. a student does not understand a French term used to explain some HTML tags or needs to know more advanced HTML tags when writing a web page). Principle 4: Internal and external contradictions are fundamental to the development and exercise of learner autonomy. Rather than being systematically eliminated, they should be identified and built upon. Contradictions that cannot be resolved by the participants during the period allocated to the language course or tasks should constitute the basis for future design initiatives. For example, students should be encouraged and helped to identify emerging contradictions, to question the established practice (whether their own or that of the community), and to resolve them (i.e. by initiating a new practice, learning how to use a new tool, re-align their actions with the object of the collective activity, etc.). Following from the above principles, judgemental and empirical evaluations of CALL for learner autonomy can be conducted. Chapter 3 (section 3.3) proposed that such evaluations be not restricted to an assessment of the actual learning outcomes achieved by students (i.e. product ) but should also focus on the internal or external contradictions that may explain these outcomes (i.e. process ). A judgemental evaluation of a technology-rich language learning environment (or activity system) will 265

285 Chapter 8 - Conclusions seek to identify those elements and potential contradictions that may promote or prevent the development of learner autonomy and language use. An empirical evaluation of the same environment will seek firstly to identify the contradictions that actually emerged during the realisation of the activity and secondly to establish whether these have been resolved and resulted in an expansive transformation of the activity. Designers and teachers will then attempt to eliminate those unresolved contradictions for future instances of the learning environment (e.g. by replacing obsolete equipment, reorganising the division of labour, reformulating the object of the activity, introducing new tools, etc.). New tools or strategies for facilitating expansive transformations can also be researched and evaluated. 8.2 Strengths and limitations of the thesis The previous section identified key factors promoting or preventing the development and exercise of learner autonomy and recalled the dynamics of technology-rich language learning environments aiming to promote learner autonomy. It concluded by outlining some general principles for the design and implementation of such environments. Against the general lack of systematic data analysis supporting theoretical arguments about learner autonomy (Benson, 2001: 141; see also Chapter 1, section 1.2, and Chapter 2, section 2.3), this thesis thus succeeded in putting forward a conceptual framework substantiated by empirical evidence for describing and analysing the development of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments. In particular, it established that: The language curriculum promoting learner autonomy is object-centred as opposed to predominantly teacher-centred or learner-centred. The object of the collective activity shapes the social structure of the language learning activity, 266

286 Chapter 8 - Conclusions gives direction to individual actions and facilitates the emergence of individual goals; Emerging systemic tensions (or contradictions) are key factors potentially promoting or preventing the development and exercise of learner autonomy in language learning activities. The most important systemic tensions for the development of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments reside in the tool-object characteristics of language and technology and within the organisation of the division of labour; The capacity to resolve contradictions is an observable attribute of learner autonomy. The potential for the development and exercise of learner autonomy is enhanced by the activity system capacity to resolve its systemic tensions in expansive ways, i.e. through the creation and adoption of new tools by the participants. The main strength of this framework resides in its flexibility, which itself has its origins in the flexibility of activity theory concepts (see Chapter 3 and Chapter 4). The added attribute of learner autonomy defined as the capacity to resolve contradictions can be applied to whole activity systems, to communities or to subjects, be they teams or individuals. While delineating boundaries remains an issue (Chapter 4, section 4.1.1), this flexibility allows for the capture of both the social and individual dimensions of learner autonomy. It brings to light the dialectic relationship between collective activity and individual actions and the impact of this relationship on the development and exercise of learner autonomy. This conceptual framework remains however to be validated by other CALL researchers and practitioners working in other contexts. To understand the transformations of human activity systems, Engeström (1999a: 35-36) calls for the use of research 267

287 Chapter 8 - Conclusions interventions that aim at the construction of new models of activity jointly with the local participants based on empirical activity theoretical analyses of the activity system under study. He argues that such an approach requires researchers to participate jointly with the subjects of the activity in the creation of new artefacts and forms of practice (Engeström, 1999a: 36). He also argues that the validity and generalizability of the results will be decided by the viability, diffusion, and multiplication of those new models in similar activity systems (Engeström, 1999a: 36). Similar activity systems could include activity systems associated to language learning activities of various durations (i.e. spanning a full language programme, whole or part of a module, or simply a few weeks) and characterised by different given objects entailing the creation of a wide range of artefacts and different organisations of the horizontal division of labour. These new contexts would also provide opportunities to refine the methodological approach adopted by this thesis and to assert its trustworthiness. Furthermore, teams of researchers, as opposed to a single one, would be able to analyse longer term activities while engaging in more precise and direct research interventions. The analysis and interpretation of the data collected during such direct interventions (either on-line or face-to-face) would provide additional information on the processes and practices described in this thesis. The additional data resulting from such studies would indeed enrich the corpus of reflective accounts and would enable a more robust data triangulation. 8.3 Directions for future work As the work for this thesis progressed, a number of areas deserving further research revealed themselves. In particular, Kuutti s (1996) multi-level approach and classification of the potential role of IT in activities (see Chapter 3, section 3.3.1) opens promising avenues for further exploring the role of technology in the development and 268

288 Chapter 8 - Conclusions exercise of learner autonomy and language use. For example, it provides a basis for conducting judgemental evaluation of technology-rich language learning environments focusing on the potential role of available technologies in supporting the development of learner autonomy at the collective and individual levels 36. It also provides a basis for developing and deploying such technologies. Systems that would automate or enable focus shifts between language and computers could be designed and integrated in Virtual Learning Environments. One avenue being currently explored relates to the creation in Moodle (the Open Source VLE currently deployed in Dublin City University) of learner glossaries with auto linking functionalities and of group wikis enabling collaborative web authoring. Another development project involves the design and implementation of additional functionalities for Moodle, which will support oral communication outside the classroom. Work has already started on the integration of voice boards to enhance opportunities for oral communication outside the classroom. These development projects will make it possible to further research the systemic tension between technology and language as both objects and mediators of the collective the language learning activity. A second area deserving further research concerns language use and language acquisition. Time constraints and space limitations prevented an in-depth analysis of the above. Yet, the corpus created for the purpose of describing and analysing the development of learner autonomy also constitutes a valuable corpus of learner language spanning a full academic year, although restricted in terms of content and communicative situations (i.e. relating to the students reflective accounts of their 36 Given the complexity of this research project and space limitations, additional material based on Kuutti s classification had to be omitted from this thesis. Some of this material has however been published: Blin F. (2004) CALL and the development of learner autonomy: towards an activitytheoretical perspective. ReCALL, 16(2), pp

289 Chapter 8 - Conclusions language learning experience). The technological and pedagogical developments briefly outlined above would also enable the creation of a more varied corpus of data. The framework established so far with respect to the development and exercise of learner autonomy could be expanded to include the development of language use occurring as the language learning activity unfolds. In particular, the capacity to resolve contradictions could be examined with respect to the communication disturbances or breakdowns resulting from language use. Furthermore, the concept of focus shifts could be expanded to include instances of focus on form (see for example Doughty and Williams, 1998). The notion of focus on form is often associated to task-based approaches to language learning. While the meaning of "task" varies according to authors (see Oxford et al., 2004), a language learning task is often defined as a "meaningful, authentic, communicative activity" (Oxford et al., 2004: 7). Students engage in tasks that mirror real-life situations and provide them with opportunities to use language for an authentic communicative purpose. Language learning tasks provide students with a goal, resources and some methods to achieve the objective set by the teacher. They are normally organised around preparation action reflection cycles (see for instance Willis, 1996). The principles of Task-Based Learning (TBL) are thus very similar to those outlined above (section 8.1.3) and implemented through the modules studied in this thesis. Within the communicative language learning literature however, the terms activity and tasks are interchangeable (Oxford et al., op. cit). Within an activity theoretical framework, they mean different things. The activity can be seen as the realisation of the task, which acts as a stimulus, a framework providing an initial structure for the activity in which students and community are taking part (see for example Coughlin and Duff, 270

290 Chapter 8 - Conclusions 1994). The large body of research in Task-Based Learning and SLA, whether within a sociocultural or interactionist perspective, does not however embrace the dynamics between collective activity and individual actions. Language use and language acquisition tend to be studied from an individual and cognitive perspective. Viewed from an activity theoretical perspective (such as the one proposed in this thesis), Task-Based Language Learning appears to focus entirely on individual actions and operations. Furthermore, task condition, task planning and task difficulty are often the primary variables taken into account (see for example Ellis, 2005; Oxford et al., 2004). Not only is the collective activity dimension absent from research into TBL and SLA, but the fundamental contradiction triggered by the tool-object characteristic of language (as well as other tools and artefacts) is also largely ignored. The extent to which the resolution of this contradiction and the resulting transformation of the language learning activity account for language acquisition deserves to be further explored. Only then will we be in a position to better understand the process of language acquisition during the realisation of tasks. Finally, the use of activity theory as a conceptual and analytical framework to study the development of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments marked a departure from dominant approaches to CALL research. Indeed, while activity theory has attracted some interest among SLA researchers (Chapter 3, section 3.1.2), few have attempted to explore its applications for CALL research or development. The complexity of its underpinning philosophical and epistemological assumptions, which at times translate into somewhat obscure terminology and arguments, may have deterred many from engaging in activity theory based CALL projects. While it is hoped that this thesis succeeded in beginning to clarify the concepts and principles of activity theory 271

291 Chapter 8 - Conclusions and their possible application to CALL research and development, much remains to be done to make them accessible to the wider CALL community. Finally, the use of activity theory as a conceptual and analytical framework to study the development of learner autonomy in technology-rich language learning environments marked a departure from dominant approaches to CALL research. Indeed, while activity theory has attracted some interest among SLA researchers (Chapter 3, section 3.1.2), few have attempted to explore its applications for CALL research or development. The complexity of its underpinning philosophical and epistemological assumptions, which at times translate into somewhat obscure terminology and arguments, may have deterred many from engaging in activity theory based CALL projects. While it is hoped that this thesis succeeded in beginning to clarify the concepts and principles of activity theory and their possible application to CALL research and development, much remains to be done to make them accessible to the wider CALL community. 272

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307 Appendices Appendix A Aural comprehension task (FR130) A1 How to improve your aural comprehension course documents outline How to improve your aural comprehension Introduction Section 1: What are your objectives? Exercise 1: What type of document or message do you want to understand? Exercise 2: What difficulties do you encounter when you listen to a document or message? Section 2: How to work on aural comprehension? Organise and plan your work Select materials appropriate to your objectives and needs Use of authentic materials Standard aural comprehension exercises Section 3: Annotated list of available materials in SALLU Audio tapes with accompanying exercises Software Video tapes with accompanying exercises or transcriptions Video tapes without any written documentation and live TV Internet 288

308 Appendices A2 Instructions for pre- and post-test (extract) Phase 1 (25 minutes) 1. You are going to view a video extract for a few minutes without the sound. Concentrate on the images and take a few minutes to write down any expression that comes to your mind. 2. In small groups, describe what you have seen, formulate hypotheses about the topic of the video, write questions, etc. 3. Individually and in writing, answer the first question. Pay attention to your expression, try to use a varied vocabulary, check your syntax. Phase 2 (25 minutes) 1. You are now going to watch the video with the sound. Listen carefully and take notes if necessary. You will not be able to listen to it a second time. 2. Answer the second question. Here too, you must pay attention to your expression. A3 Question 1 (pre-and post-test) Phase 1 (25 minutes) You have seen the extract and you have discussed the content with your partner: you have described what you saw, imagined the topic and perhaps compiled a list of words that you may hear later on. Question: Describe what you have seen Summarise your discussion and explain the points of agreement and disagreement Suggest a list of words or expressions you think you will hear when you view the video with the sound 289

309 Appendices A4 Question 2 (pre- and post-test) Phase 2 (25 minutes) You have just viewed the video with the sound. You have taken a few notes and you have re-read what you wrote in Phase 1. Question: Summarise what you have heard Compare with what you wrote in Phase 1: were you on the right tracks? Do the images and the sound correspond? Etc. Give your personal reaction to what you have just heard 290

310 Appendices Appendix B Keeping a learner diary (extracts from FR130 course documents) B1 Understanding the concept of learner diaries (FR130) Note below any idea, word or expression that comes to your mind from the word journal With your neighbour, summarise, with the help of the illustrations below, the meaning you give to the word journal. For each picture, write a sentence containing the word journal. Le journal de bord B2 What should I write in my diary? Keep your diary very regularly Your diary is your memory Check that you have it when carrying out an activity in French Record your objectives, what you are going to do, how and why Describe what you have done (including duration and level of difficulty), give your reactions and evaluate the learning outcomes Indicate what you need to do next; should you review your objectives? should you contact your teacher? what is your plan for next week? The diary is not a vocabulary notebook Be sincere and don t hesitate to criticise the course 291

311 Appendices B3 Questions guiding the writing up of the last entry (bilan) 1 Le contenu de votre journal / The contents of your diary 1.1 Quelles sont vos réactions par rapport à ce que vous avez écrit depuis le début? (What are your reactions in relation to what you have written since the beginning?) 1.2 Pouvez-vous identifier des progrès dans votre expression écrite? (Can you identify some progress in your written expression?) 1.3 Avez-vous le sentiment que votre journal reflète le travail que vous avez accompli? (Do you think that your diary reflects the work done? 1.4 Votre journal paraît-il intéressant? Donne-t-il des indications sur la manière dont vous avez travaillé? (Is your diary interesting? Are any indication given on the way you studied?) 1.5 D après ce que vous avez écrit tout au long du semestre, quels sont les progrès qui vous restent à faire en français? (Basing your answer on what you have written in the course of the semester, in which areas do you need to improve?) 1.6 Votre journal donne-t-il une idée précise des activités que vous avez aimées? De celles qui vous ont semblé faciles ou difficiles, utiles ou inutiles? (Does your diary give a precise idea of the tasks/ activities you liked? Those you found easy or difficult? Useful or not?) 2 Bilan de ce que vous avez appris pendant le semestre/ Learning outcomes 2.1 Quels sont les domaines dans lesquels vous avez l impression d avoir le plus progressé? Que pouvez-vous faire maintenant que vous ne pouviez faire au début de l année? (In which domains do you think you have progressed the most? What can you do now that you could not do at the beginning of the year?) 2.2 Avez-vous beaucoup utilisé SALLU? Quel matériel avez-vous le plus utilisé? (Did you use SALLU a lot? Which resources did you use most?) 2.3 Quels sont vos objectifs pour le semestre prochain? (What are your objectives for next semester ) 3 Tenir un journal/ Keeping a diary 3.1 Avez-vous trouvé cette tâche facile? Difficile? Intéressante? Ennuyeuse? Pourquoi? (Did you find this task easy? Difficult? Interesting? Boring? Why?) 3.2 Si vous deviez recommencer, changeriez-vous quelque chose? Pourquoi? Quels conseils donneriez-vous aux étudiants futurs? (If you were to start again, would you change anything? Why? What advice would you give to future students?) 292

312 Appendices 3.3 Pouvez-vous donner des précisions sur la façon dont vous teniez votre journal? A quel moment de la journée? Où? (Can you indicate how you went about writing your diary? When? Where?) 3.4 Vous serviez-vous du journal pour décider de la suite de vos activités? Relisiez-vous votre journal de manière régulière? (Did you use your diary to decide what to do next? Did you read your diary at regular intervals?) 3.5 Autres commentaires? (Any other comments?) 293

313 Appendices Appendix C Assessing learner diaries C1 Five levels of autonomy and learner profiles Level 1: Dropping out (Fail) Diary generally very short with sometimes only one entry; Student rarely attends classes and gives hardly any indications concerning classroom activities; Student tries to maintain his/ her own level in the language but does not show any willingness to learn; very little individual work; Student has no direction nor objectives; Student perceives his/ her language competence as good, if not excellent, but he/ she does not really know how to assess himself/ herself; Often unsociable in class; student may consider himself/ herself as "better" than the rest of the class (NB: this may sometimes be the case at the beginning of the semester); Student is very much dependent on his perception of the teacher role; he/ she is sometimes afraid of the teacher; Student puts himself/ herself in a failure situation; he/ she has great difficulty to adapt to life in the university. Level 2: Dependence, irregularity, lack of direction and motivation, student does not like writing a diary (Pass) Entries are irregular, maximum one a week; Hardly any feedback on classes which are irregularly attended; Student engages in individual work but shows a lack of consistency and regularity; some skills are completely neglected (e.g. never reads); he/ she sometimes gives no indication concerning individual work; Student does not engage in collaborative activities unless by chance (e.g. conversation with native speaker at the bus stop ) Student does not attempt to organise his/ her work, does not set individual objectives and does seem to have any direction; Student is able to describe his/ her reactions and can observe some of the strategies he/ she uses; but his/ her account is very fragmented; Student does not act on advice and guidance given by teacher; he/she is dependent on her perception with regards to the role of the teacher, his/ her only model being secondary school teachers; Student is unable to evaluate his/ her language competence; Student does not like writing a learner diary, and does not know what he/ she should write; he/ she only writes to pass the module. Level 3: Dependence, affective factors are a barrier, lack of direction and organisation (H2.2) Entries are not always regular, the dates are sometimes vague; student may not write anything for long periods; Student attends classes regularly; class activities are described in great detail and some reactions are given; student shows difficulties in relating class activities to individual work and does not always understand the purpose of a given task; Student engages in individual study but does not provide much information; he/ she tends to focus on either written or oral skills and to neglect the other; however, he/ she functions very well in the context of a definite project; Student cannot yet initiate an individualised work plan but is beginning to identify the need to do 294

314 Appendices so; individual objectives and work plan are still vague. Affective factors seem dominant; student needs the "warmth" of his group and does not like plenary sessions; he/ she needs to establish a trusting relationship with teacher but also with peers; Self-evaluation is attempted but without much success; student compares himself/ herself to others in the class and lacks self-confidence; he/ she is, overall, teacher-dependent but is able to function independently in the context of a project. Level 4: Motivation, independence but still low interdependence (H2.1) Diary entries are regular, at least twice a week; Student attends classes regularly and provides an interesting feedback; he/ she begins to identify weaknesses and own needs but he/ she still has difficulties in independently applying strategies that have been explored in class; he/ she is able to place class activities in relation to the course objectives; A lot of individual study; student begins to value team work and to seek opportunities for collaborative learning; he/ she uses the facilities provided in SALLU; Individual study is distributed, in a balanced manner, between oral and written work; Student attempts to organise his/ her work; objectives are set but these are still vague; he/ she identifies the need to be organised and is aware of his/ her weaknesses in this area; he/ she stills needs a defined framework to work from; Student observes his/ her learning habits and successfully describes some of the strategies used; he/ she may be quite anxious and has difficulties in overcoming certain fears which are well described; Student identifies weaknesses and begins to acknowledge his/ her strengths; he/ she is aware of his/ her own progress but requires confirmation from teacher. Level 5: Motivation, direction, independence and interdependence (H1) Diary entries are regular, at least three times a week; Classes are regularly attended; student identifies new points and takes ownership of them; student uses what is done in class to give himself/ herself a personal direction and to engage in self-evaluation; Student engages a lot in individual and peer study; the facilities provided in SALLU are used on a regular basis. Individual study is distributed, in a balanced manner, between oral and written work; Student engages a lot in team work which is valued; Student organises and plans his/ her learning activities; the work plan is modified to take account of difficulties that have been encountered; student has a work plan for holidays and study weeks; Student observes strategies used and tries new ones; he/ she identifies factors that may prevent learning; Student identifies strengths and weaknesses; he/ she assesses overall work and results at the end of the semester and sets personal objectives for the rest of the academic year; he/ she relates the marks or grades obtained to own perception of progress and does not need his/ her results or performance to be validated or acknowledge by the teacher. In general, the student's attitude towards the course and language learning is positive; fears are controlled and do not prevent learning taking place. 295

315 Appendices C2 Examples of teacher s feedback (translations) Level 1 (Student S02) No bilan. Diary irregularly written. You understood on 20 November! that you should work a bit more for the French class. Your intentions were good but they were not followed. Your diary only reflects your work for Françoise's class but there is very little on what you had to do for my course. You went once or twice to SALLU, and that's all. You are preparing a joint degree and you must divide your time equally. You are part of a group and you must function within this group and not as an individual. Why buy some French CD-ROMs when you have the facilities in SALLU and in the library? And the Internet? You must seriously question your attitude towards the course if you want to succeed. Level 2 (Student S13) Diary kept fairly regularly but some gaps towards the end. You have carried out some activities outside class (videos, CD-Roms, reading, oral expression) but you haven't really described them in detail. For example, you don't say which CD-ROM you have used, you say you have read a book, but you don't talk about the theme, you mention two conversations with French people without detailing what you have talked about. Very often, you end your entries with some work intentions but these intentions rarely materialise. It is also a pity that your vocabulary research has focused on revisions of your Leaving Cert notes. You will have to organise your work in a more structured way and persevere in the learning of new methods. Level 3 (Student S15) Diary kept regularly. At the beginning, as you observe it yourself, you mainly focused on classroom-based activities but you then understood that you had to select some outside class and you have used SALLU for the videos, the television and the computers. Good effort with the Internet. You could have given more details on what you were doing or looking at. You say for example several times that you have done some grammar but you don't specify which book you used nor which type of exercises you have done. Conscientious revision work and learning of vocabulary, in particular from TV documents. You have reread your diary several times to check that you were following your objectives and you have re-oriented your efforts in consequence. This is good! You have also discovered the benefits of team work, you will be able to continue in the second semester. Good planing effort but you could have followed a clearer plan and given the impression that the work you were doing had a goal. Level 4 (Student S19) Diary kept regularly. You have expressed your fears very well at the beginning of the semester and, in general, you have analysed your feelings during the semester well. It was interesting to see how you have progressed from anxiety to frustration, anger, sometimes disappointment but also confidence and satisfaction. You have become aware of some weaknesses in your diary. Your objectives were not always specified, you have concentrated on aural comprehension and 296

316 Appendices grammar but you could have further explored the facilities in SALLU and in the library (newspapers, magazines, the Internet). You regularly analysed the tasks carried out in class and certainly made a good effort with grammar. As you realised, it would help if from time to time you could give me some exercises to correct. I told you so! You have also discovered the benefits of group work and you will have all of next semester to really appreciate it. Very good bilan. PS Francine or Ms O'Connell, but NOT Madam Francine! Level 5 (Student S08) Diary kept very regularly. Excellent work. You have defined your objectives nearly every week and tried to follow them, and you have very well described the activities carried out and analysed the language learning methods that you were using (very good work on grammar while reading newspapers). Very good work on oral expression with your friend. Your science project kept you busy and between and 11-12, you nearly exclusively talked about it. It is a pity! Very good bilan. 297

317 Appendices Appendix D About TopClass D1 Home Page D2 TopClass Utilities (course owner and administrator) TOPCLASS offered a number of utilities to the system administrator and course owners. The MESSAGE LOG and EXPORT RAW DATA utilities track the users actions. The MESSAGE LOG is an administrative function tracking all hits performed by every user on the system, and exporting them to a text file. The EXPORT RAW DATA is a utility providing the course owner with detailed information on students hits in a particular course. 298

318 Appendices D3 Discussion list (FR140) 299

319 Appendices Appendix E Questionnaires E1 Background Questionnaire - 1- This questionnaire is part of a research project designed to get an insight into your approach to language learning and to the use of Information and Communication Technologies in your learning experience. Your answers will also help your teacher to know you better. Should you not wish to use your name, please ask your teacher to provide you with a code. Please make sure to remember this code... The information provided is confidential and will not be used for grading. Your name and ID will not be disclosed nor used for any other purpose than educational research. Thank you for taking the time to answer this questionnaire. Françoise Blin September

320 Appendices Date:... ID1 Last Name:... ID2 First Name:... ID3 CAO ID Number:... ID4 Course attended: ACL 1 ; CF 1 ; ES 1 ; PF 1 ; (Tick ) ID5 Language studied: French ID6 Module: FR130 ID PD8 Date of birth:... PD9 Gender: F ; M ; (Tick ) PD10 Mother tongue:... PD11 Language you speak at home:... LS1 LS2 LS3 LS4 LS5 LS6 LS7 LS8 LS9 LS10 LS11 LS12 LS13 Do you enjoy learning? Yes No Do you learn best (Tick one) Through the ear? Through the eye? Through the ear and the eye? Do you learn best Do you prefer By trial and error? By imitation? To master each step completely before going into something new? To be exposed to many things without completely mastering all of them, knowing you will come back to them later? Do you think you are A good learner? An average learner? A poor learner? Do you prefer to study Alone? With friends? 301

321 Appendices TL1 TL2 TL3 Who should decide what to learn? The teacher? You? Both together? How do you see the role of the teacher? (1=always, 2=often, 3=sometimes, 4=rarely, 5=never) TL4 The person who makes decisions TL5 TL6 TL7 The person who provides assistance with materials The person who provides assistance with learning how to learn Do you feel it is your responsibility how much/ what you learn? Yes No LT1 LT2 LT3 Have you used computers in school? Yes No If yes, what for? Do you like using computers? Yes No LT4 Can you explain why? LT5 Have you got a computer at home? (Please specify) Yes No LT6 LT7 LT8 If yes, are you connected to Internet? Yes No Do you receive TV5 at home? Yes No If yes, can you record programs? Yes No 302

322 Appendices LL1 LL2 LL3 LL4 LL5 LL6 LL7 LL8 LL9 LL10 LL11 How long have you been studying French?... Have you ever spend some time in a French speaking country? Yes No (Tick ) If yes, for how long? In which context? How do you rate your overall proficiency in French as compared with the proficiency of other students in your class? (circle one) Excellent Good Fair Poor How do you rate your overall proficiency in French as compared with the proficiency of native speakers of French? (circle one) Excellent Good Fair Poor How important is it for you to become proficient in French? (circle one) Very important Important Not so important Do you enjoy language learning? Yes No (Tick ) Do you think that learning a language is difficult? Yes No (Tick ) What other languages have you studied?... What has been your favourite experience in language learning? What has been you worst experience in language learning? Do you mind making mistakes in the target language? LL12 In the classroom? Yes No (Tick ) LL13 When speaking to native speakers? Yes No (Tick ) LL14 Do you think it is important to learn the grammatical rules of a language before trying to speak it? Yes No (Tick ) 303

323 Appendices Why do you want to learn French? (Tick all that apply) LL15 LL16 LL17 LL18 LL19 LL20 LL21 LL22 LL23 LL24 LL25 LL26 LL27 I am interested in the language I am interested in the culture I have friends who speak French I need it for my future career It is a change from other subjects I am required to take a language as part of my course I need it to travel I will need it to study in a French speaking country Indicate the order of priority for each skill (1=most important, 4=least important) Understanding the spoken language Speaking Reading Writing What do you expect from the French course you are about to start (e.g. what are you going to learn? How? Etc.) When learning a foreign language, do you feel confident using: LM1 Books (novels, etc.) Yes No LM2 Dictionaries Yes No LM3 Textbooks Yes No LM4 Magasines/ newspapers Yes No LM5 Audiotapes Yes No LM6 Videotapes Yes No LM7 Computer programs Yes No LM8 Internet Yes No LM9 "Native speakers" Yes No LM10 "Friends" Yes No 304

324 Appendices E2 Questionnaire - 2 (extracts) This questionnaire has been designed to better understand your learning experience in French this semester. The results will be used for educational research but also to improve the French module you have followed so far and those you will follow in subsequent years. This questionnaire consists of two sections. The first section aims at finding out if some changes have occurred in the way you learn and view language learning since the beginning of the academic year. The second section aims at getting some feedback on your evaluation of the project you have just completed. Some questionnaire items are based on comments that students from many different countries have often made about their experience of Third Level teaching. They have been chosen to reflect aspects of teaching and courses that are generally important across a wide range of subject. Other items are based on comments you have made at various points during the semester, either orally or in your groups and individual reports. Please answer all questions. The information provided is confidential and will not be used for grading. Your name and ID will not be disclosed nor used for any other purpose than educational research and evaluation purposes. Thank you for taking the time to answer this questionnaire. Françoise Blin, April

325 Appendices PLT2 This year, you have used computers in the French class. What for? PLT3 PLT4 Did you like using computers? Yes No Can you explain why?

326 Appendices Appendix F Students results (Semester 1) F1 First semester grades given by teacher (FR130) Student Student origin Level of autonomy Diary (%) Post-test (%) Aural progression since pre-test (1-5) S01 CL S02 CL S03 ES S04 CL S05 CL S06 CL S07 CF S08 CF S09 ES S10 CL S11 CF S12 CL S13 ES S14 ES S15 ES S16 ES S17 CL S18 CF S19 ES S20 CL S21 CL S22 CL S23 CF S24 CL S25 CF S26 CF S27 CL S28 CF S29 CL S30 CL S31 CF S32 PF S33 CL S34 CL S35 CF S36 CL S37 PF S38 CL

327 Appendices F2 Second semester grades given by teacher (FR140) Student Team Parti cipation (%) Ind. Reports (%) Minutes of meetings (Group) (%) Web site (Group) (%) Web site (Ind.) (%) Oral (Ind.) (%) Oral (Group) (%) S01 Team S02 Team S03 Team S04 Team S05 Team S06 Team S07 Team S08 Team S09 Team S10 Team S11 Team S12 Team S13 Team S14 Team S15 Team S16 Team S17 Team S18 Team S19 Team S20 Team S21 Team S22 Team S23 Team S24 Team S25 Team S26 Team S27 Team S28 Team S29 Team S30 Team S31 Team S32 Team S33 Team S34 Team S35 Team S36 Team S37 Team S38 Team

328 Appendices Appendix G Team formation (guidelines FR140) Fiche Pratique 1 Formation d'équipes et choix des thèmes Construire un site web pour les étudiants francophones désirant venir étudier à dcu 1. Avez-vous déjà "surfé" sur la Toile? Dans quel but? 2. A votre avis, quelles qualités d'ordre technique un site Web doit-il présenter? 3. Votre troisième année se passera, en partie ou en totalité, dans un établissement d'enseignement supérieur en France Avant de partir, quelles sont les informations que vous aimeriez avoir? 4. Quels sont les thèmes les plus intéressants? Les plus importants ou les plus utiles pour les étudiants francophones? 5. Pouvez-vous identifier 6 thèmes différents? 6. Pour chacun des thèmes identifiés, quelles sont les informations importantes qui devraient être développées? Quelles seront vos sources d'information? Former une équipe 1. Aimez-vous travailler avec d'autres? 2. Quels sont les avantages d'un travail en équipe? 3. Quels en sont les inconvénients? 4. Quelles sont les conditions pour qu'un travail en équipe soit efficace? 5. Que pouvez-vous apporter à une équipe? (par ex.: organisation, sens des responsabilités, dynamisme, etc.) 6. Vous sentez-vous capable de co-ordonner une équipe? En avez-vous envie? Si oui, accepteriez-vous d'être chef d'équipe? 7. Aimez-vous l'informatique? Savez-vous vous servir d'un ordinateur? 8. Aimez-vous résoudre des problèmes techniques? 9. Aimez-vous aider les autres? 10. Etes-vous créatif? Méticuleux? Aimez-vous le travail bien présenté? 11. Si vous avez répondu oui aux questions 7-10, accepteriez-vous de faire partie de l'équipe chargée de la conception du site Web? 12. Aimez-vous le contact avec les autres? 13. Aimez-vous écrire? 14. Avez-vous le sens de l'humour? 15. Vous sentez-vous l'âme d'un reporter? 16. Aimez-vous la photographie? Vous sentez-vous à l'aise avec un magnétophone? 17. Si vous avez répondu oui aux questions 11-15, accepteriez-vous de faire partie de l'équipe chargée de la réalisation du "Journal du Projet"? 309

329 Appendices Appendix H Coding scheme used in empirical analysis 1 (FR130) H1 A raw or clean bilan (Student S19) Tout d'abord ce semestre était vraiment différente. C'était à nous d'apprendre les choses. Il y avait beaucoup d'autonomie. Moi je sais que c'est bon pour l'avenir mais maintenant c'est très difficile. J'ai fait beaucoup de choses en français mais la plupart d'activities etait sur la compréhension orale. Avec ces activities je sens que jai amélioré mon vocabulaire. Par exemple le pre-test pour moi etait vraiment difficile mais le post-test etait plus facile à comprendre. Aussi mon français orale est amelioré parce que maintenant je peux parle en français plus rapidement. Bien sur, il y a de fautes mais la plupart est correct. Ce que j'ai trouvé le plus utile etait les methodes de etudier et de travail. Par exemple Madame Francine nous a donné beaucoup de choses pour nous aider apprendre dans un moyens plus efficace. Quand je etude le français je utilise ces methodes, donc ils m'aide beaucoup. Le secret d'autonomie a mon avis est de savoir quoi faire et puis le faire. C'est difficile à faire mais si on le fait c'est très bon. Donc j'ai amelioré mon français sans doute, mais, peut-être le plus important etait que maintenant je sais comment apprendre le français dans un moyen positit, effectif. Nous avons fait la grammaire en cours, surtout le passé et le subjonctif. Je crois que j'avais apprendre comment utiliser ces choses. Mais malheureusement je n'ai pas fait assez exercises. Si j'avais montrée mon journal à Madame Francine, mes fautes seraient souligne. Maintenant cependant, c'est trop tard. L'année dernière, quand j'etude le français, je l'ai trouvé très difficile d'ecrire quelque chose parce je pensais en anglais. Maintenant je pense en français donc c'est plus facile d'ecrire plus. Aussi j'avais beaucoup de problèmes avec les pronoms mais maintenant je peux les utiliser. Voila mes domaines qui etait amelioré. Moi personnellement, je n'aime pas l'idée de tenir un journal. C'est bon pour organiser les choses et aussi c'est bon pour pratiquer ecrire en français mais c'etait tres difficile à faire. Tout d'abord, si on ne fait pas des exercises en français, c'est impossible d'ecrire quelque choses. Donc il faut qu'on fasse un exercise et puis ecrit dans le journal. C'est beaucoup de travail. Aussi c'est quelque chose qu'on fait très régulièrement donc il faut que on le fasse chaque semaine au moins. Autrement on oublies les choses qu'on avait fait. Mon conseils serait de faire votre journal presque tous les jours et d'ecrit vos objectifs. Moi j'avais toujours les objectirfs mais je ne les ai pas ecrit. Aussi essayez de trouver un projet de travail, par exemple, tous les mardi je ferai quoi et ainsi de suite. J'ai des objectifs pour l'année prochaine. J'ai l'intention de faire des exercices et les donner a Madame Francine. Aussi, je lirai mon journal et concentrai sur mes fautes. Je sais que je ferai l'electronique avec le français donc je peux lire les articles electronique pour pratiquer tous les terms. Moi j'aimerais beaucoup d'etre coupable parler le français et c'est à moi de l'ameliorer. H2 A tagged bilan (Student S19) <Level=4><S><P> <Student=S19><S><P> 310

330 Appendices <L4>Tout d'abord ce semestre était vraiment différente</l4><s> <L2DLOB>C'était à nous d'apprendre les choses</l2dlob><s> <DL2>Il y avait beaucoup d'autonomie</dl2><s> <L2SUDL>Moi je sais que c'est bon pour l'avenir</l2sudl> <L2SUDL>mais maintenant c'est très difficile</l2sudl><s> <AC1>J'ai fait beaucoup de choses en français</ac1> <AC1>mais la plupart d'activities etait</ac1> <OB1>sur la compréhension orale</ob1><s> <TO1>Avec ces activities</to1> <OU1>je sens que jai amélioré mon vocabulaire</ou1><s> <OB1>Par exemple le pre-test</ob1> <L2SUOB2>pour moi etait vraiment difficile</l2suob2> <OB1>mais le post-test</ob1> <L2SUOB2>etait plus facile à comprendre</l2suob2><s> <OU1>Aussi mon français orale est amelioré</ou1> <OU1>parce que maintenant je peux</ou1> <AC1>parle en français</ac1> <OU1>plus rapidement</ou1><s> <L5SUOU>Bien sur, il y a de fautes</l5suou> <OU1>mais la plupart est correct</ou1><s> <L2SUTO1>Ce que j'ai trouvé le plus utile etait</l2suto1> <TO1>les methodes de etudier et de travail</to1><s> <DL2>Par exemple Madame Francine nous a donné beaucoup de choses</dl2> <OB2>pour nous aider apprendre dans un moyens plus efficace</ob2><s> <AC1>Quand je etude le français</ac1> <AC1>je utilise</ac1> <TO1>ces methodes,</to1> <L2SUTO1>donc ils m'aide beaucoup</l2suto1><s> <L2SUOB>Le secret d'autonomie a mon avis est de savoir quoi faire et puis le faire</l2suob><s> <L2SUOB2>C'est difficile à faire</l2suob2> <L2SUOB2>mais si on le fait c'est très bon</l2sutob2><s><p> <OU1>Donc j'ai amelioré mon français sans doute,</ou1> <OU2>mais, peut-être le plus important etait que maintenant je sais comment apprendre le français dans un moyen positit, effectif</ou2><s> <AC1>Nous avons fait</ac1> <OB1>la grammaire</ob1> <AC2>en cours,</ac2> <OB1>surtout le passé</ob1> <OB1>et le subjonctif</ob1><s> <L5SUOU1>Je crois que j'avais apprendre comment utiliser ces choses</l5suou1><s> <L2SUOB>Mais malheureusement je n'ai pas fait assez exercises</l2suob><s> <L5SUAR2>Si j'avais montrée mon journal à Madame Francine, mes fautes seraient souligne</l5suar2><s> <L3>Maintenant cependant, c'est trop tard</l3><s><p> <AC2>L'année dernière,</ac2> <AC1>quand j'etude le français,</ac1> <L2SUOB2>je l'ai trouvé très difficile</l2suob2> <AC1>d'ecrire quelque chose</ac1> <L2SUTO1>parce je pensais en anglais</l2suto1><s> <AC2>Maintenant</AC2> <TO1>je pense en français</to1> <L2SUOB2>donc c'est plus facile</l2suob2> <AC1>d'ecrire plus</ac1><s> <L4>Aussi j'avais beaucoup de problèmes avec les pronoms</l4> <AC2>mais maintenant</ac2> <OU1>je peux les utiliser</ou1><s> <OU1>Voila mes domaines qui etait amelioré</ou1><s><p> <L2SUOB1>Moi personnellement, je n'aime pas l'idée de tenir un journal</l2suob1><s> <L2SUOB1>C'est bon pour organiser les choses</l2suob1> 311

331 Appendices <L2SUOB1>et aussi c'est bon pour pratiquer ecrire en français</l2suob1> <L2SUOB2>mais c'etait tres difficile à faire</l2suob2><s> <L2SUOB>Tout d'abord, si on ne fait pas des exercises en français,</l2suob> <L2SUOB>c'est impossible d'ecrire quelque choses</l2suob><s> <L2SUOB>Donc il faut qu'on fasse un exercise</l2suob> <AC2>et puis</ac2> <AC1>ecrit</AC1> <AR2>dans le journal</ar2><s> <L2SUOB1>C'est beaucoup de travail</l2suob1><s> <RU1>Aussi c'est quelque chose qu'on fait très régulièrement</ru1> <L2SUOB>donc il faut que on le fasse</l2suob> <AC2>chaque semaine au moins</ac2><s> <L2SUOB>Autrement on oublies les choses qu'on avait fait</l2suob><s><p> <L2SUOB>Mon conseils serait de</l2suob> <AC1>faire votre journal</ac1> <AC2>presque tous les jours</ac2> <AC1>et d'ecrit</ac1> <OB1>vos objectifs</ob1><s> <OB3>Moi j'avais toujours les objectifs</ob3> <L2SUOB>mais je ne les ai pas ecrit</l2suob><s> <OB3>Aussi essayez de trouver un projet de travail</ob3> <AC2>par exemple, tous les mardi</ac2> <TO1>je ferai quoi et ainsi de suite</to1><s><p> <OB3>J'ai des objectifs</ob3> <AC2>pour l'année prochaine</ac2><s> <OB3>J'ai l'intention de</ob3> <AC1>faire des exercices</ac1> <DL2>et les donner a Madame Francine</DL2><S> <AC1>Aussi, je lirai</ac1> <AR2>mon journal</ar2> <OB1>et concentrai sur mes fautes</ob1><s> <AC2>Je sais que je ferai l'electronique avec le français</ac2> <OB3>donc je peux</ob3> <AC1>lire</AC1> <AR1>les articles electronique</ar1> <OB1>pour pratiquer tous les terms</ob1><s> <OB3>Moi j'aimerais beaucoup d'etre coupable parler le français</ob3> <DL1>et c'est à moi de l'ameliorer</dl1><s><p> H3 A tagged and encoded bilan (Student S19) <Level=4><S><P> <Student=S19><S><P> <L4>LeavingCert Different</L4><S> <L2DLOB>StudentResolve StudentRole Learn</L2DLOB><S> <DL2>TeacherRole Independence</DL2><S> <L2SUDL>StudentResolve Independence Future Good</L2SUDL> <L2SUDL>Independence Difficult</L2SUDL><S> <AC1>Tasks Varied</AC1> <AC1>Tasks Most</AC1> <OB1>Aural</OB1><S> <TO1>Activities</TO1> <OU1>Progress Vocabulary</OU1><S> <OB1>TestPre</OB1> <L2SUOB2>VeryDifficult</L2SUOB2> <OB1>TestPost</OB1> <L2SUOB2>Easier</L2SUOB2><S> <OU1>Progress Speaking</OU1> <OU1>Progress Speaking</OU1> 312

332 Appendices <AC1>Speak</AC1> <OU1>Achievement MoreFluency</OU1><S> <L5SUOU>Errors</L5SUOU> <OU1>Achievement Accurate Most</OU1><S> <L2SUTO1>MostUseful</L2SUTO1> <TO1>Method</TO1><S> <DL2>TeacherInitiated</DL2> <OB2>Method</OB2><S> <AC1>Study French</AC1> <AC1>Use</AC1> <TO1>Method</TO1> <L2SUTO1>Help ALot</L2SUTO1><S> <L2SUOB>StudentResolve Autonomy KnowWhat DoIt</L2SUOB><S> <L2SUOB2>Difficult</L2SUOB2> <L2SUTOB2>If DoIt Autonomy VeryGood</L2SUTOB2><S><P> <OU1>Progress Overall</OU1> <OU2>Achievement Independence</OU2><S> <AC1>Tasks</AC1> <OB1>Grammar</OB1> <AC2>Classroom</AC2> <OB1>GrammarTenses</OB1> <OB1>GrammarTenses</OB1><S> <L5SUOU1>Thought Use LearnHowTo</L5SUOU1><S> <L2SUOB>Tasks NotEnough</L2SUOB><S> <L5SUAR2>StudentResolve TeacherSubmit ErrorsShown</L5SUAR2><S> <L3>TooLate</L3><S><P> <AC2>LeavingCert</AC2> <AC1>Study French</AC1> <L2SUOB2>VeryDifficult</L2SUOB2> <AC1>Write</AC1> <L2SUTO1>ThinkThrough English</L2SUTO1><S> <AC2>End</AC2> <TO1>ThinkThrough French</TO1> <L2SUOB2>Easier</L2SUOB2> <AC1>Write More</AC1><S> <L4>LeavingCert Grammar Difficulties</L4> <AC2>End</AC2> <OU1>Achievement Grammar Use</OU1><S> <OU1>Progress</OU1><S><P> <L2SUOB1>KeepADiary NotLike</L2SUOB1><S> <L2SUOB1>ToOrganise Good</L2SUOB1> <L2SUOB1>WrittenExpression ToPractice Good</L2SUOB1> <L2SUOB2>VeryDifficult</L2SUOB2><S> <L2SUOB>If NotDoExercises</L2SUOB> <L2SUOB>Write Impossible</L2SUOB><S> <L2SUOB>StudentResolve DoExercises Must</L2SUOB> <AC2>StudentResolve Later</AC2> <AC1>StudentResolve Write</AC1> <AR2>StudentResolve Diary</AR2><S> <L2SUOB1>MuchWork</L2SUOB1><S> <RU1>KeepADiary FrequencyOften</RU1> <L2SUOB>StudentResolve KeepADiary</L2SUOB> <AC2>FrequencyWeekly</AC2><S> <L2SUOB>IfNot TaskPrevious Forget</L2SUOB><S><P> <L2SUOB>StudentResolve</L2SUOB> <AC1>StudentResolve KeepADiary</AC1> <AC2>StudentResolve FrequencyDaily</AC2> <AC1>StudentResolve Write</AC1> <OB1>StudentResolve Objectives</OB1><S> <OB3>SetObjective</OB3> <L2SUOB>NotWrite</L2SUOB><S> <OB3>StudentResolve SetObjective SetProject</OB3> <AC2>StudentResolve FrequencyWeekly</AC2> 313

333 Appendices <TO1>StudentResolve Plan</TO1><S><P> <OB3>SetObjective</OB3> <AC2>NextS2</AC2><S> <OB3>Intention</OB3> <AC1>DoExercises</AC1> <DL2>TeacherSubmit</DL2><S> <AC1>Read</AC1> <AR2>Diary</AR2> <OB1>Errors</OB1><S> <AC2>NextFuture</AC2> <OB3>Intention Read</OB3> <AC1>Read</AC1> <AR1>Article Electronic</AR1> <OB1>Vocabulary Practice</OB1><S> <OB3>Wish OralExpression</OB3> <DL1>StudentRole Self Improve</DL1><S><P> 314

334 Appendices Appendix I Extracts from website I1 Team 2 (Journal Team) SEMAINE PAR SEMAINE Ce que nous avons fait pendant 12 semaines... (extraits) Semaine 1 << Au début, il y avait des difficultés pour faire des équipes, coordonner et assigner des tâches dans l'équipe chaque semaine >> Equipe 3 C'est vrai! Sans doute, nous sentions que les étudiants étaient << relaxes >>. Mais en même temps nous savions que le projet était difficile. Equipe 7 : L'Equipe a été sélectionnée. Ils ont décidé de faire leur partie du projet sur << le coût de la vie d'étudiant >>. Ils ont choisi ce sujet parce qu'il est important que les étudiants étrangers sachent combien cela coûte d'habiter à Dublin. Equipe Technique : En raison de leur intérêt pour les ordinateurs,ils ont décidé de former l'équipe technique. Ils ont employé topclass pour trouver le reste de l'équipe dans l'autre classe. Ils ont lu des brochures sur le HTML. Equipe 3 : Pendant cette semaine, Francine a informé toutes les équipes qu'elles devraient créer une page de Web comme partie de leur cours de français. Au commencement, l'équipe 3 a été très excitée. Les membres ont pensé que cet exercise les aiderait énormément avec leur français. Ils ont pensé que ce serait très utile quand ils sont à l'étranger en France. Ils ont également pensé que la page Web serait pratique pour ceux qui veulent visiter DCU. Ils ont discuté du contenu de la page Web dans la classe et ils ont commencé à constitsuer leur groupe. 315

335 Appendices I2 Team 3 (Accommodation) Les meublés Ce type de logement est vraiment populaire à Dublin, donc c est souvent nécessaire de lire des annonces dans les journaux. Toutefois, il y a un bureau de logement à DCU avec une liste des meublés à Dublin. Les Maisons: Ce type des logements est bien pour un groupe d amis. C est souvent difficile de vivre avec des personnes qu on ne connaît pas parce qu'il n y a pas beaucoup d intimité. D'habitude, une maison est assez grande pour quatre ou cinq personnes avec: trois ou quatre chambres une cuisine une salle à manger un salon une salle de bains avec une douche ou une baignoire Les Appartements: Ce type de logement est bien aussi pour un groupe d amis parce qu'il n y a pas beaucoup d espace et il n y a pas beaucoup d intimité. D'habitude, un appartement est assez grand pour deux à quatre personnes avec: une ou deux chambres une cuisine un salon d'habitude, il y a une salle de bains mais c'est possible aussi d'avoir une salle de bains pour plus d un appartement 316

336 Appendices I3 Team 4 (Attractions outside Dublin) Les Fêtes à Ulster Le Festival de Belfast Le Festival de Belfast à Queens est le plus grand festival d'irlande. Il a commencé au début des années soixante dans le campus de l'université de Queens mais aujourd'hui il attire les amateurs d'arts internationaux d'art. Le festival se passe dans vingt endroits au centre de la ville, le "Grand Opera House" et le"waterfront Hall" y compris. Il y a des programmes différents chaque weekend, avec trois mini-festivals de jazz, de comédie, et de musique folklorique. Un festival de littérature se tient aussi pendant le festival. Le festival de Clonmany Ce festival existe depuis trente ans et encore il offre des distractions pour toute la famille. Le premier festival de Clonmany était un festival pour les émigrants. Les gens qui habitent à Clonmany accueillaient leurs parents d Angleterre, d'ecosse et des Etats-Unis. Le comité de Clonmany organise une semaine de distractions diverses, ce festival attire beaucoup de touristes et profite à la ville de Clonmany. Le Festival de "Rhythm and Blues" de Monaghan Chaque année ce festival s améliore et on peut dire qu'il concurrence le festival de jazz de Cork. Le festival attire beaucoup de touristes mais aussi des musiciens et chanteurs célèbres comme Van Morrison, Tam White et LA Jones. Les visiteurs ne sont jamais tristes dans cette ville qui est très vivante avec une ambiance spectaculaire. Le Festival de Chorales de Bangor Si on aime la musique de chorale ou l'opéra, on doit assister a ce festival. Le Festival de Pêche Le festival du lac à Fermanagh est un festival qui attire tous les pêcheurs. Le Festival de Lumière du Nord Ce festival à Ballycastle dans le comté d'antrim offre un festival de musique et attire beaucoup de passionné de musique de chaque genre. Cliquez ici pour rendre un visite à Le Sport, Le Logement, ou L'Histoire Pour retourner à la carte d'irlande, cliquez ici 317

337 Appendices I4 Team 5 (DCU Campus) Le Centre des Étudiants Ce centre consiste en une galerie marchande qui a une supérette, une papeterie, une librairie, un service de secrétariat, une banque et USIT. Aussi, on trouve Le Bar du campus, La Salle De Jeux et les bureaux de l'union des Étudiants. En plus de ces facilités, il y a un photomaton et des téléphones. La Supérette : Le magasin est ouvert pendant le semestre chaque jour, sauf le dimanche, de 8h30 à 19h, et le samedi de 10h à 14h. En dehors du semestre, les heures d'ouverture sont de 8h30 à 17h30, et le samedi de 10h à 14h. Attention! S'il y a des changements dans les heures ci-dessus, les clients seront avisés à l'entrée du magasin. Le magasin offre une large gamme de produits de confiserie, d'épicerie, de fournitures de bureau, et aussi des services : nettoyage à sec, un service de développement de photos et location de vidéos. La Papeterie : La papeterie est ouverte chaque jour de la semaine, sauf le samedi et le dimanche, de 8h30 à 17h15. En plus des fournitures de bureau, la papeterie vend des sweart-shirts, des tee-shirts, des écharpes, des cravates et des souvenirs de DCU. La Librairie : Gérée par 'Hodges Figgis', la librairie est ouverte pendant le semestre chaque jour de la semaine, sauf le samedi et le dimanche, mais les heures d'ouverture varient selon les saisons - octobre et novembre - de 9h à 17h - de décembre à mi-juin - de 11h à 12h15 et de 13h15 à 17h. Aussi, la librairie est ouverte tous les mercredis soirs de 17h30 à 19h pendant le semestre. S'il y a des changements dans les heures ci-dessus, les clients seront avisés à l'entrée de la librairie. En plus de la gamme des livres scolaires qui sont essentiels et recommandés, la librairie vend aussi une large gamme de matériaux pour les cours qui sont produits par les enseignants. Le Service de Secrétariat : Operé par l'union des Étudiants, ce service offre une variété de services aux étudiants. Il y a un service de photocopie, de dactylographie, de fax et de reliure. On trouve trois photocopieurs dans le bureau où les cartes de photocopie sont en vente à 2 et 5. Aussi, pendant l'année, des promotions sont offertes. Si vous avez besoin du service de dactylo pour un projet, un CV, une thèse etc., des tarifs très bien sont offerts aux étudiants. Aussi, il y a un service de fax. Quand vous voulez envoyer un fax, il y a une 20% réduction pour un étudiant qui a une carte d'identité de l'université. Le bureau reçoit des fax pour les étudiants aussi à un coût minime. Le bureau offre un service de reliure professionnel et détaillé. Les tarifs sont très raisonnables par exemple, vous pouvez avoir votre CV relié pour Ici, vous pouvez aussi faire plastifier vos cartes d'identité, vos affiches etc. Les tarifs sont très acceptables aussi. 318

338 Appendices I5 Team 6 (Transport) L'Aéroport: L'Accès au campus de DCU. Quand on arrive à l'aéroport on peut prendre une navette d'autobus (no. 748) jusqu'au centre-ville. Elles partent toutes les 15 minutes et elles coûtent 3. Le trajet dure autour de 30 minutes. Aussi, le bus no. 41 passe par l'aéroport, il vient toutes les 15 minutes et il coûte 1-10 jusqu'au centre ville. Le 41 va à Eden Quay, à 10 minutes à pied d'o'connell Street. Il s'arrête aussi à Swords Road, à 10 minutes à pied de DCU. En Bateau: Si on arrive en bateau à Dublin, on peut prendre la navette d'autobus pour les voyageurs. Elle va à Bus Aras, la gare routière au centre-ville. Ce service est gratuit si on a un billet de bateau. Il y a un autre port à Dun Laoghaire. Si on arrive ici, on peut prendre le train DART jusqu'à Dublin. Le DART: Le DART n'est pas très pratique pour DCU mais si on veut découvrir les autres régions de Dublin, le DART est utile. Il va de Bray, au sud de Dublin, à Howth au nord. Les billets coûtent 1-20 minimum, le tarif général, et on peut les acheter aux guichets. Il faut composter le billet avant de monter dans le train. Les gares:- Bray, Shankill, Killiney, Dalkey, Glenageary, Sandycove, Dun Laoghaire, Salthill, Seapoint, Blackrock, Booterstown, Sydney Parade, Sandymount, Landsdowne Road, Pearse Street, Tara Street, Connolly, Clontarf Road, Killester, Harmonstown, Raheny, Kilbarrack, Howth Junction, Bayside, Sutton, Howth. Comment venir à DCU en autobus. En montant dans le bus, déclarez votre destination ou le tarif si vous savez combien le trajet coûte. Si on a un billet hebdomadaire d'étudiant, il faut le composter dans la machine à l'entrée. 319

339 Appendices I6 Team 7 (Cost of living) Les Services Il y beaucoup d'autres dépenses que vous aurez pendant votre séjour a DCU. Papeterie : Si vous avez besoin de faire des photocopies ou d'imprimer quelque chose, il faut acheter une carte de photocopie pour 2 (16F) pour trente cinq pages, et une carte d'imprimante pour 2 (16F) aussi, pour trente pages. Vous pouvez les acheter dans la bibliothèque et aussi à SALLU. Les Livres : Le prix des livres est très varie - ça dépend de votre cours. En général, cependant, vous pouvez acheter des livres neufs dans la librairie, Hodges Figgis, sur le campus à DCU. Ca vous coûtera entre 15 (120F) et 30 (240F), pour la plupart des livres.. Si vous preferez, vous pouvez mettre une petite annonce pour des livres d'occasion,(qui sont toujours moins chers), par par exemple. Evidement, vous pouvez emprunter les livres necessaires à la bibliothèque - ça ne coute rien mais c'est seulement pour une temps limité.mais ATTENTION!!! les amendes sont de 30p (24F) par heure pour certains livres!!! Le Médecin : Si vous tombez malade, après vous être couché tard si souvent, la bonne nouvelle est qu'une visite chez le medecin est graduite pour les étudiants de DCU!!! Aussi - comme vous serez étudiant étranger, il est imperatif que vous ayez votre formulaire E111. La Laverie : Il y a une laverie sur le campus dans la residence des etudiants. Ca ne coute pasa trop cher, c'est-à-dire 1.80 (14.4F) pour laver quelque chose et 1.20 (9.6F) pour faire sécher quelque chose. Les Sorties : Evidemment, ce n'est pas possible d'étudier tout le temp et d'éviter le coût des sorties. Si vous voulez plus d'information sur ce qu'il y a a DCU,sur les pubs, les boites de nuit et les cinemas, allez ici 320

340 Appendices I7 Team 8 (Social life in Dublin) Introduction : RAGWEEK. D.C.U Lundi 22 - Vendredi 26 février RAGWEEK, qu'est-ce que c'est? Toutes les universités d' Irlande ont au moins une semaine, chaque année, pendant laquelle les étudiants peuvent oublier les cours, et tout le travail. C'est la seule semaine del'année où les étudiants règnent et révèlent la «vraie vie de l'université». Traditionnellement c 'est plein d'action et très amusant et RAGWEEK 99 n'a pas été une exception. Si vous voulez de l'aventure, Dublin City University est l'endroit!!!! Jour 1, Lundi 22 février : Quelle meilleure façon de donner le coup d'envoi aux réjouissances qu'une promotion Guinness dans le bar du campus (dans quel autre prendre un pot en Irlande ).Il y a beaucoup de boissons à gagner. Plus tard il y a la première des excursions traditionnelles - «la sortie mystère».nous sommes allés à Navan pour aller dans une boîte. Tout le monde l' a aimé. Jour 2, Mardi 23 février : Malheureusement à D.C.U. il faut assister aux cours pendant RAGWEEK mais a vrai dire la présence était faible pour la plupart. Tout le long de la journée il y a eu un «penalty shoot-out» dans le complexe-sportif. Le soir, nous avons eu un karaoke au bar du campus et,après, le disc-jockey de la résidence a fini la soirée. Jour 3, Mercredi 24 février : Le mercredi de RAGWEEK est traditionnellement le meilleur jour de l'année à D.C.U. Le «voyage rag» a lieu. Cette année nous sommes allés à Cork, au sud de l'irlande. On est parti du campus à 9h du matin en autobus et on a commencé le long voyage jusqu'à Cork. 9h : départ de D.C.U. 13h : arrêt pour déjeuner à Kilkenny 16h : arrivée à Cork. Plusieurs heures à jouer au foot etc., dîner et ensuite nous sommes allés dans une boîte au centre ville. 1h : départ en autobus, pour le prochain endroit. 2h : A mi-chemin on s'est arrêté de nouveau et on est allé à une autre boîte. 5h : autobus et retour à D.C.U. Comme toujours il y a beaucoup de monde pour cette sortie, presque étudiants Jour 4,Jeudi 25 février : Après l'excitation de la veille, jeudi est une journée calme sur le campus. Le soir le grand bal à eu lieu au Temple Theatre, au centre ville. Jour 5, Vendredi 26 février : L' énergie et l'argent sont un peu rares à la fin de la semaine, donc,vendredi il y a beaucoup à faire pendant la journée au campus. Nous avons utilisé le "Jumping Castle" pour la dernière fois! 321

341 Appendices Appendix J Examples of minutes J1 Team 7 (cost of living), 18 March Message /Classes/French Language 4/Discussion/Le Journal du Projet/4éme compte-rendu From: S15 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 25/3/ :41:33 Subject:4éme compte-rendu Access: v--a v--a v éme Compte-rendu du groupe 7 Réunion tenue le 18/03/1999 à la cantine de 11h00 à 12h00 Personnes présentes: S19, S16, S09 et S15 Secrétaire: S15. Objectif de la réunion: Notre Objectif était de finir la nourriture et de commencer les petits boulouts. Sujets discutés: On a ecrit une introduction pour notre page. On a discuté des petits boulots. Quelle sorte de travail? Il y a beaucoup de pubs, restaurants et des magasins qui offrent les boulots aux étudiants. Où trouver l'information? par exemple notre magazine à DCU, An Tarbh donne de l information sur les petits boulots. Et très important,combien on peut gagner? En general 4.00 (32 F) de l'heure. Décisions prises: On a decidé de commencer la recherche sur les logements la semaine prochaine. Date et lieu de la prochaine réunion: La bibliothèque, le jeudi 25 mars. 322

342 Appendices Message /Classes/French Language 4/Discussion/Le Journal du Projet/4éme compte-rendu From: S15 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 25/3/ :41:33 Subject:Minutes n 4 Access: v--a v--a v th Minutes from Group 7 Meeting held on 18/03/1999 in the canteen from to Present: S19,S16,S09 et S15 Secretary: S15. Objective of meeting: Our objective was to finish the food and to start the jobs. Topics discussed: We wrote an introduction for our page. We talked about jobs. What kind of work? There are a lot of pubs, restaurants and shops that provide students with jobs. Where can we find some information? For example our DCU magazine, An Tarbh, gives some information on jobs. And very important: how much can you earn? Et très important,combien on peut gagner? In general 4.00 (32 F) per hour. Decisions: We decided to start researching accommodation next week. Date and location of next meeting: library, Thursday 25 March. Secretary: 323

343 Appendices J2 Team 1 (Technical Team), 18 March Message /Classes/French Language 4/Discussion/Le Journal du Projet/Compte-rendu de l'équipe technique. From: S03 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 23/3/ :45:27 Subject:Compte-rendu de l'équipe technique. Access: v--a v--a v Compte-Rendu de l'équipe technique. Réunion tenue le 18 mars 1999 à SALLU de quatorze heures à quinze heures. Personnes présentes : S03, S14, S13, S02, S10 et S05. Secrétaire : S03. Objectif de la réunion : Décider finalement de la structure de la page d'accueil. Sujets discutés : 1. Les possibilités techniques de la page d'accueil. 2. Le rôle precis de chaque membre pour les semaines à venir. 3. Trouver une photo intéressant de D.C.U pour notre page. 4. Le format d'autres pages qui sont liés à la page d'accueil, c'est-à-dire, l'emploi des images, de la couleur ecetera.. Décisions prises : 1. Pour la page d'accueil, nous avons décidé d'utiliser un cadre, une image de D.C.U. au milieu de la page et aussi un petit peu de texte au-dessous de l'image pour décrire l'origine de cette page. 2. Nous avons réussi à partager les tâches principales entre les membres afin d'avoir un site de haute qualité. 3. Ayant assisté aux réunions d'autres équipes cette semaine, nous sommes en train de dessiner les pages qui correspondent au thème des autres équipes. Date et lieu de la prochaine réunion : Le 25 mars 1999 à SALLU à quatorze heures à quinze heures. Secrétaire : 324

344 Appendices Message /Classes/French Language 4/Discussion/Le Journal du Projet/Compte-rendu de l'équipe technique. From: S03 To: French Language 4 (FR140) Date: 23/3/ :45:27 Subject: Minutes from the technical team. Access: v--a v--a v Minutes from the technical team. Meeting held on 18 March 1999 in SALLU from to Present : S03, S14, S13, S02, S10 et S05. Secretary : S03. Objective of meeting : To finalise the structure of the Home page. Topics discussed : 1. technical possibilities for the home page. 2. Precise role for everybody for the forthcoming weeks 3. Find an interesting photograph from DCU for our page. 4. Layout of other pages linked to the home page, i.e. use of images, colour, etc. Decisions made : 1. For the home page, we have decided to use a frame, a picture from DCU in the middle of the page and also some text below the image to describe the origins of this page. 2. We have succeeded in distributing the main tasks among the team members so that we can have a high quality site. 3. Having attended the other teams meetings this week, we are designing the pages corresponding to the themes of the other teams. Date and location of next meeting : 25 March 1999 in SALLU from to Secretary : 325

345 Appendices Appendix K Individual Reports 2 (Team 1) K1 Student S02 <Level=5> <Team=1> <Student=S02> <MAINACTIVITY> L'apprentissage du langage de programmation des pages Web soit le langage HTML. Consultations regulières avec les membres de l'équipe numéro 5 sur la mise en page des pages Web du campus de DCU. Réunions hebdomadaires avec les membres de l'équipe technique. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> En tant que débutante en HTML, ma première priorité a été de récupérer des guides et des didacticiels depuis l'internet, afin de me familiariser avec ce "langage à balises". Le langage HTML permet de coder une page Web à l'aide de commandes de mise en forme. Ces dernières sont ensuite interprétées par un navigateur tel que 'Netscape' et apparaissent sur l'écran. En passant par le moteur de recherche francophone" Yahoo", j'ai réussi à trouver une panoplie de sites qui m'ont permis d'apprendre tout ce qu'il faut pour monter un site Web. Cependant ma recherche n'était pas sans difficultés - j'ai dû passer par plusieurs sites qui ne méritaient pas le détour, avant de trouver quelques petits bijoux. J'ai commencé par la construction de la page d'accueil du campus de DCU - celle-ci a connu de nombreux changements au cours des dernières semaines. J'y ai inséré des images fixes et animées, des tableaux, des "marquees" qui permettent le défilement du texte, des liens hypertextes et des boutons personnalisés. J'ai également intégré du son dans cette page d'accueil, mais il faut avoir une carte son pour pouvoir en profiter. Une fois les bases acquises, j'ai fixé rendez-vous avec les membres de l'équipe chargée du thème "Le Campus de DCU" afin de déterminer les sujets dont chacune d'entre elles s'occuperait. On a d'abord discuté de l'ordre des pages Web, de leur forme, des images que l'on pourrait insérer pour égayer les pages, ainsi que des liens internes et externes à inclure. Toutes les semaines l'équipe technique s'est réunie à SALLU afin de planifier la structure globale du site Web, discuter des difficultés rencontrées en cours de route et aussi pour partager nos connaissances techniques. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> La plus grande partie du travail est faite et j'ai presque terminé la mise en forme d'une douzaine de pages sur le campus de DCU Malheureusement je n'ai toujours pas reçu la documentation de deux membres de l'équipe numéro 5, malgré de nombreuses demandes au cours des trois dernières semaines. Il reste également à mettre en forme des pages Web du journal du projet, mais cette tâche ne devrait pas prendre trop de temps puisque toute l'équipe technique participent à sa mise en place. Il faudra aussi insérer des liens entre toutes les pages du site pour permettre à l'utilisateur de passer d'un thème à l'autre sans être obligé de repasser par la principale page d'accueil. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> 326

346 Appendices Gràce aux connaissances acquises depuis le début du projet, je suis maintenant en mesure de donner des conseils techniques à d'autres membres de l'équipe. J'ai pris quelques photos de l'université afin d'éviter tout problème de droits d'auteur mais je ne suis pas sûre que la qualité de ces images sera suffisante pour pouvoir les insérer dans le site. Je dois d'abord les numériser pour savoir si la qualité d'image convient ou non. J'ai également offert plusieurs photos aux autres équipes pour les inclure dans leurs pages Web. Il s'agit de photos de monuments historiques et de paysages irlandais. Lors de nos réunions hebdomadaires, j'ai rempli la fonction de secrétaire à plusieurs reprises. En ce qui concerne la présentation orale, je serai la représentante principale de l'équipe technique. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Ce projet m'a permis d'enrichir mon vocabulaire français tout en apprenant à créer un site Web. Avant de commencer le projet, j'ignorais totalement l'existence des balises (les instructions en langage HTML) ou des cadres (ils permettent à une page Web de se voir divisée en plusieurs parties). Je me suis énormément amusée à construire les pages Web du campus de DCU. D'ailleurs au bout de deux semaines de travail, j'ai acheté une carte modem pour mon ordinateur personnel afin de pouvoir m'abonner à un fournisseur d'accès à la toile. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> K2 Student S03 <Level=3> <Team=1> <Student=S03> <MAINACTIVITY> Pour les quatre dernières semaines, l'activité principale a eté de créer la page d'accueil, c'est-à-dire, la mise sur l'internet de cette page. J'ai aussi mis au point une date pour la soumission de toute l'information de toutes les équipes. Je me suis appliqué aussi à la conception de la page de l'équipe de transport. Quant aux autres tâches, j'ai dû contacter Bord Failté pour obtenir l'autorisation d'utiliser un lien avec leur page et écrire un paragraphe sur les théâtres. D'ailleurs, il était nécessaire de prendre une photo originale de D.C.U. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> Au réunion particulier, j'ai discuté avec les autres la structure de la page, c'est-à-dire l'insertion d'une image et aussi l'emploi varié des couleurs pour rendre la page plus sympathique. J'ai aussi mis un message sur TOPCLASS pour avertir les autres équipes de la date finale pour la remise de l'information. Ayant assisté aux quelques réunions de l'équipe de transport, j'ai réussi à arranger toute l'information et créer leur page. De plus, j'ai contacté Bord Failté, par courrier électronique, pour chercher l'autorisation d'utiliser un lien avec leur site pour éviter le problème de droit d'auteur. De nouveau, afin d'éviter le même problème, une décision a eté prise de prendre nousmêmes une photo de D.C.U. A cause d'une petite omission, il incombe à l'équipe technique d'écrire une page minimum sur Dublin, donc, j'ai proposé d'écrire un paragraphe sur les théâtres. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> 327

347 Appendices Les résultats principaux, jusqu'à maintenant, y compris la création de la page d'accueil et aussi la page de transport. Ajoutons à cela nous avons reçu presque toute l'information avant la date finale pour la remise de l'information et nous avons aussi une photo de D.C.U pour notre page d'accueil. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Le travail principal pour moi, comme le coordinateur de l'équipe a eté, bien sûr, d'organiser les réunions hebdomadaires et aussi de définir le rôle précis qe chaque membre de l'équipe technique. Il y avait des petits problèmes, bien sûr, mais rien plus sérieux! Par exemple, je suis encore en train d'attendre une réponse de Bord Failté et nous avons des difficultés à procurer un appareil-photo, mais c'est résolu maintenant. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Pour la plupart, le déroulement du projet va bien en ce moment. Je suis plein d'espoir que tout le projet sera fini avant la date finale. Ajoutons à cela, il me semble que j'ai développé ma compétence informatique et aussi ma capacité d'aider aux autres à surmonter leurs problèmes. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> K3 Student S05 <Level=3> <Team=1> <Student=S05> <MAINACTIVITY> L'activité principale de ces quatre semaines a été de construire la page web. Avec un peu connaissance de HTML j'ai commencé avec la construction. En ce moment, cependant, le page va très bien. J'ai passé beaucoup de ceux quatre semaines en apprenant HTML pour le page et a désigné et analysé le page. Pour le contenu du page, j'ai trouvé des sites web qui donne des images gratuitement sur leurs pages web. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> J'ai trouvé quelques sites web avec les 'tutorials' a HTML. Il y a quelques-uns comme ca sur le web mais j'ai utilisé l'information que j'ai apprenne sur trois sites intéressant. Quand les images ont certaines pages web ne sont pas gratuitement, j'ai écrit un ' ' pour la permission d'utiliser leurs images sur notre page par exemple, le club du cyclisme d'irlande pour leur carte d'irlande. Pour le désigne et analyse de le page, je suis allée à toutes les réunions de l'équipe qui je m'occupe -l'équipe 4, Irlande, au dehors de Dublin, et j'ai travaillé avec tout membre pour décider la mise en page. Elles ont eu et encore ont beaucoup d'idées pour le page. Quelques membres du groupe me donné quelques renseignements, pour la plupart c'est seulement pour analyser le page avec les images et le texte. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> La principale résulte en ce moment est que mon page est presque finir. Il y a toujours, cependant, beaucoup de travaille à faire. Je sais que le site web est censé être finir aujourd'hui mais, en réalité ce n'est pas possible. Après ce projet, la plupart que j'apprenne sera dans HTML:). </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> 328

348 Appendices Ma place dans l'équipe est que je m'occupe équipe 4 - Irlande, au dehors de Dublin. J'ai travaillé avec l'équipe toujours pour constructeur le page. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Je pense, maintenant, qu'il y a plus travaille que j'ai pensé quand j'ai commencé ce projet. J'ai pensé que TopClass a marché mais, pendant ceux semaines, j'ai pris attention que ca ne marche pas. Dans quelques cas, quelques personnes n'ont écrit pas a TopClass et a un cas, une équipe n'ont, écrit pas! Et aussi, je ne pense pas que ce projet améliorer notre française. A cause du quantité de travail le projet retard en sur temps. Nous avons beaucoup d'autre travailles sur les autres sujets :( </IMPRESSIONS> <END> K4 Student S10 <Level=3> <Team=1> <Student=S10> <MAINACTIVITY> Pendant cette étape (étape 2), l'activité principale être la conception et réalisation du site Web. C'était une étape important pour l'équipe technique et pour moi aussi. Pendant les semaines passées nous avons très pressé avec tout le travail et aussi, j'ai été coincée ci temps en temps. J'ai rencontré avec l'équipe 8 beaucoup aussi. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> Chaque semaine l'équipe technique avons eu un réunion à SALLU. Pendant les réunions nous avons discuté notre progrès et nous avons aidé les autres dans l'équipe avec les pages. Nous avons discuté des idées des autres équipes et avons recherche les sites différantes sur l'internet pour les images et les idées. J'ai travaillé beaucoup avec mon équipe - équipe 8 - pendant les semaines et nous avons eu des réunions chaque semaine. Nous avons discuté leurs idées là et ils ont donné leur travail pour la page.. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> Je crois que j'ai développé quelques compétences pendant cette étape - par exemple, travailler comme une équipe et organiser des choses. Aussi, c'est vrai que ma compréhension de HTML améliore chaque jour avec ce projet. Je pense que mon français améliore aussi sans doute! </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Pendant cette étape j'ai travaille comme un secrétaire pour un réunion. Aussi, j'ai travaille pour l'équipe 8 et entre mon équipe et 'les logements'. J'ai aidé avec le HTML et j'ai enseigne un peu à S05 </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Cette étape a passe trop rapide, a mon avis! Au ce moment je suis très presse et il y a beaucoup a faire la semaine prochaine. Mais a l'autre part j'aime beaucoup ce que j'ai appris pendant les semaines passes. Je trouve ce projet, pour la plupart, intéressant et utile. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> K5 Student S13 <Level=2> 329

349 Appendices <Team=1> <Student=S13> <MAINACTIVITY> Pour cette période nous avons fait beaucoup. Nous avons continué a aider les autres équipes avec la présentation et la construction de leurs page. Aussi nous avons commencé le site du Web et maintenant il reste seulement de finir le site et finaliser les petits détails comme la colleur et cetera. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> C'est moi qui est responsable pour l'équipe du «clubs & socs» et j'ai eu deux ou trois réunions avec l'équipe pour discuter leur page. Ils m'ont donné une plan pour leur page d'accueil et aussi ils m'ont donné la plusieurs part de leur travail. En ce moment je suis en train de construire leur page avec l'aide du S14 et d'internet. J'ai trouvé quelques petits icônes pour utiliser sur la page et aussi j'ai trouvé un arrière-plan au site du Guinness pour utiliser sur la page du pubs. Je ne suis pas sûr si l'arrièreplan va marcher la page mais néanmoins j'ai contacté Guinness par courriers electronique pour leur demander l'autorisation de utiliser cet arrière plan. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> Notre page d'accueil est complète maintenant et la page d'accueil pour l'équipe du transport aussi. En ce moment je suis en train de construire la page pour l'équipe du «clubs & socs», mais j'ai besoin de l'aide. Je dois demander a S14 pour m'aider avec la construction de la page d'accueil et aussi avec quelques points technique que je ne comprends pas. J'attends encore pour le reste de l'information et aussi les images qu'ils veulent mettre sur la page. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> C'est moi qui est responsable pour l'équipe du «clubs & socs» et je dois les aider avec la présentation de leur page. J'ai commencé a apprendre HTML et aussi j'ai essayer a faire une partie de la construction du site. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Je suis encore satisfait et je pense que nous avons fait du progrès. J'ai commencé a apprendre HTML et je crois j'ai développé mon connaissance d'ordinateurs. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> K6 Student S14 <Level=5> <Team=1> <Student=S14> <MAINACTIVITY> Mon activité principale pour ce période a été la création des sites de web. J'ai trouvé que j'ai eu beaucoup à apprendre en HTML. Pour rectifier ça, j'ai trouvé des livres sur HTML et j'ai fait de recherche sur des autres sites pour améliorer ma connaissance de la langue. Aussi l'équipe technique avait décidé de faire un system ou un membre de l'équipe travailler avec un autre group pour les aider avec la création de leur site. Ils m'ont donné le coût de la vie et l'équipe de journal. Après ça, j'ai été prêt de commencer les pages. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> 330

350 Appendices J'ai parlé avec les autres équipes et aussi les autres membres de l'équipe technique sur ce qu'ils veulent sur leurs pages. J'ai le rôle de «l'expert technique» dans l'équipe, donc tous les autres ont vienne à moi quand ils ont eu des problèmes. J'ai eu le rôle de fixateur des problèmes donc je n'ai pas eu une méthodologie structurer pour faire mon travaille. Quand j'ai fait les pages, les autres me donnent l'information et je le mis sur mon espace personnel avec «geocities». </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> Maintenant j'ai trois pages sur l'internet avec geocities et je suis en train de faire trois autres, donc mon français et mon HTML améliorer par jour! J'ai appris beaucoup sur les ordinateurs parce que des gens me posent des questions peu communes, donc je dois faire de recherche mais je sais les réponses maintenant. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Comme j'ai dit, je suis l'expert technique. Je donne des réponses a des questions techniques, j'aide les autres avec leurs sites et je donne des quelques conseils avec les programmes comme Word et Netscape. J'ai dit que les autres me posent des questions à qui je n'ai peut pas repondres mais j'ai fait un peu de recherche et tous mes problèmes ont été rectifié. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Au début, j'ai eu des doutes, mais maintenant je peux voir les améliorations dans mon français et aussi dans ma connaissance d'html. J'aime beaucoup ce cours et je le trouve un moyen intéressant et effective d'apprendre la langue de Français. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> 331

351 Appendices Appendix L Individual Reports 2 (Team 4) L1 Student S12 <Team=4> <Student=S12> <MAINACTIVITY> Pendant les semaines 6 jusqu'à 9, j'ai travaillé sur mon thème pour le site Web. J'ai trouvé les renseignements, j'ai les tapé et j'ai trouvé des photos pour le site. J'ai travaillé aussi avec les autres membres de l'équipe et avec S05 (l'équipe technique). </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> J'ai passé la sixième semaine cherchant de l'information. Je suis allée à Dublin Tourist Office où j'ai trouvé quelques brochures et des prospectus sur les sites historiques en Irlande surtout Leinster et Munster. S22 et moi avons travaillé ensemble quelques fois car nous avons fait le même thème. S22 fait les sites à Connaught et à Ulster. Quand j'ai eu l'information, j'ai commencé à traduire le texte d'anglais en français. J'ai cherché la Toile, des brochures, et des magazines des photos de sites historiques. Quand j'ai tapé l'information, j'ai changé les fautes d'orthographes. J'ai travaillé sur la structure de la page de mon thème. Nous avons eu une réunion sur la structure du site. Nous avons décidé d'avoir une carte d'irlande pour notre page d'accueil et d'avoir des liens aux quatre provinces. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> Les réunions ont été très utiles. Tout le monde dans le groupe (et S05) partage leurs idées, et puis, le projet a été plus clair. J'ai amélioré mes compétences informatiques et j'ai appris des vocabulaires nouveaux aussi. Les membres du groupe travaillent très bien ensemble. J'ai amélioré ma compréhension de Word (en français), qui j'ai utilisé pour taper le projet. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Encore, je n'ai pas une place précise dans le groupe. J'ai été secrétaire à une réunion où j'ai noté le procès-verbal. Je serai secrétaire à une des réunions prochaines. A chaque réunion j'ai participé dans les discussions et j'ai donné mes opinions. J'ai aidé avec la structure du site. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> A mon avis, cette période a été plus intéressant que la première période. J'ai trouvé que le travail a été difficile et qu'il y a été de pression d'avoir les renseignements, de le tapé et d'avoir les comptes-rendus. J'ai eu du mal à traduire l'information, car on ne peut pas traduire d'anglais en français sans les fautes. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> 332

352 Appendices L2 Student S21 <Team=4> <Student=S21> <MAINACTIVITY> Trouvant l'information sur l'hébergement au dehors du Dublin. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> Mon groupe fait les choses à faire le week-end au dehors du Dublin. Nous avons décidé que tous les membres du groupe font un sujet, comme l'hébergement pour moi, dans chaque région d'irlande. J'ai trouvé une bonne liste de beaucoup terrains de camping sur le web. Aussi, j'ai trouvé l'information dans 'USIT' et quelques agences de voyage. Sur le web, j'ai vu quelques photos et j'ai donné l'adresse a S05 (membre de l'équipe technique) et je dois écrire au site pour la permission d'utiliser la photo dans notre page du web. J'ai trouvé beaucoup d'information sur les chambres d'hôtes. J'ai écris beaucoup sur l'hébergement au dehors du Dublin!! </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> J'ai appris que ce n'est pas facile de trouver ce que tu veux sur le web!!!! C' est difficile. Il y a beaucoup d'information mais quelques parts sont sans rapport. Quand tu cliques sur quelque chose tu reçois "error!!.il n'existe pas!!!" Alors, J'ai donné quelques informations a S05 mais j'ai besoin d'utiliser 'la grammaire et l'orthographe' dans Sallu avec un peu plus information. Puis, je le donnerai à S05 aujourd 'hui. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Je fais l'hébergement au dehors du Dublin. Nous avons des réunions et tous les membres font le travail a mon avis. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> J'aime faire ce projet parce que c'est très intéressant!! J'ai trouvé que j'ai utilisé le net beaucoup et je sais beaucoup des sites en France et en Irlande. Je pense que le projet est en retard sur le temps. J'espère que le projet sera fini la semaine prochaine. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> L3 Student S22 <Level=4> <Team=8> <Student=S22> <MAINACTIVITY> Je suis dans un groupe avec S27, S12, S24 et S21. Nous faisons 'Les Choses à Faire et à Voir'. Pour cette période, j'ai fait des recherches sur les sites historiques dans les provinces d'ulster et de Connaught en Irlande. J'ai trouvé l'information et je l'ai donné à S05 qui est un membre de l'équipe technique. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> Chaque personne dans l'équipe a choisi un sujet. S12 et moi a pris les sites historiques en Irlande. S12 a fait Munster et Leinster et j'ai fait Ulster et Connaught. J'ai trouvé la plupart de mon information sur l'internet. J'ai visité beaucoup de sites sur les attractions historiques et les endroits intéressants et beaux en Irlande. J'ai obtenu des brochures dans une agence de voyages et des livres de l'irlande dans la bibliothèque. 333

353 Appendices J'ai eu une petite réunion avec S12. Nous avons discuté de la mise de l'information. J'ai écrit une petite description sur chaque endroit intéressant dans chaque comté d'ulster et de Connaught. Pendant ces semaines, notre équipe avons des réunions et nous avons discuté de nos progrès. J'étais la secrétaire pour une réunion et j'ai fait un compte rendu. Je l'ai mis sur Topclass pour les autres équipes.. Pour l'équipe du Journal, j'ai répondu les questions qui étaient sur Topclass. J'ai lu aussi régulièrement les messages sur Topclass. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> J'ai trouvé beaucoup d'information sur les sites historiques dans chaque comté d'ulster et de Connaught. J'ai traduit le renseignement en français et j'ai appris des nouveaux mots et phrases. J'ai découvert beaucoup de nouvelles choses sur l'irlande. Maintenant, ma dactylographie est un peu meilleure parce qu'il y avait beaucoup à faire. A part du nouveau vocabulaire, mes français n'a pas amélioré beaucoup car la plupart de l'information que j'ai trouvé était en anglais. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Nous avons eu des réunions régulièrement. Pour notre équipe, j'ai étais la secrétaire et j'ai fait un compte rendu. Je l'ai mis sur Topclass pour les autres équipes et j'ai donné une copie de mon prof. Pendant les réunions, j'ai dit à les autres sur ma recherche et mon progrès. J'ai participé dans les discutions sur la mise de notre page dans le site Web. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Je pense que le projet est une bonne idée. Le site Web est très bon pour les étudiants étrangers mais le sujet est très grand. C'était impossible de couvrir tous les sujets pour un étudiant étranger en Irlande. Pour mon sujet dans l'équipe, c'était un peu difficile de trouver l'information sur les sites historiques surtout dans le nord de l'irlande. Il y a des listes sur les sites intéressants mais pas une bonne description du site. Egalement, la plupart des sites et brochures que j'ai trouvé étaient en anglais. Ca n'était pas bon parce que je n'ai pas utilisé mon français. J'ai pensé que c'était difficile d'avoir les réunions en français car quelquefois personne n'a pas compris la discussion. J'ai pensé que les compte rendus et les rapports individuels sont une bonne idée parce qu'ils améliorés mon français. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> L4 Student S24 <Team=4> <Student=S24> <MAINACTIVITY> Nous avons décider que tous les membres du groupe font un sujet, et je fais les activités sportives. Pendant ces semaines, j'ai fini mes recherches sur l'internet et j'ai commencé à organisé et réviser l'information. J'ai beaucoup d'information mais tous n'était pas relevant et j'ai trouvé que j'ai beaucoup d'organisation a faire. Apres j'ai fait cette organisation j'ai commencé à traduire tous l'information d'anglais à français. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> J'ai essayer de trouver dans tous mes informations, l'information signifiant et intéressant pour les étudiants français. J'ai essayé de 334

354 Appendices me rappeler que les étudiants français n'iront pas beaucoup d'argents à dépenser (ils ont un budget) et à cause de ca j'ai essayé d'écrire la plupart sur des activités pas trop cher. Aussi, j'ai du m'assurer que j'ai suffisamment d'information pour chaque province. Après organisé l'information j'ai commencé à le traduire. C'est très fastidieux </METHODOLOGY> <MYPLACE> Ma place dans l'équipe est que je fais des pages sur les activités sportives dans tous les quatres provinces. </MYPLACE> <RESULTS> En ce moment j'ai la plupart d'information traduire, je dois donner un peu au professeur pour corriger. Après ça, je dois le taper sur l'ordinateur et j'espère qu'après ça je suis fini! </RESULTS> <IMPRESSIONS> Je pense qu'en général le projet est e retard et peut-être nous ne sommes pas prêt pour les présentations! Le projet est difficile mes je pense qu'il a m'aider avec ma français, particulièrement le Français écrits. </IMPRESSIONS> <END> L5 Student S27 <Team=4> <Student=S27> <MAINACTIVITY> Pendant cette période j'ai continue de chercher pour information pour mon équipe et notre sujet "Quelques choses a voir et a faire en dehors de Dublin. J'ai du trouver mon information et après ca je l'ai du traduire en français. J'ai du arrange mon information par chaque province. </MAINACTIVITY> <METHODOLOGY> J'ai utilise Netscape pour chercher des détails sur les festivals en Irlande. J'ai utilise beaucoup de système de chercher comme "Infoseek", "Netsearch", et "Yahoo" mais a mon avis "Altavista" était le meilleur outil pour obtenir information sur la Toile. On peut poser une question a "Altavista" et il donnera tous les sites qui sont associe avec cette question. En général j'ai utilise les sites irlandais et souvent j'ai trouve les sites des conseils de chaque comte très utile. Quandj'ai eu toute mon information en anglais je l'ai traduit en français, la lectrice a le lu et elle m'a montre toutes mes erreurs. J'ai fait mes corrections, j'ai tapie cette information dans l'ordinateur et je l'ai sauvegardé suer une disquette. Cette disquette va a le membre d'équipe technique S05 qui nous avons aide designer notre page. </METHODOLOGY> <RESULTS> J'ai eu beaucoup d'information sur les festivals de chaque province en Irlande sur une disquette. J'ai aussi écrit deux rapports individuels et j'ai assisté beaucoup de réunions pour organiser et discuter notre projet. </RESULTS> <MYPLACE> Je suis la coordinatrice donc j'ai eu quelques responsabilités. J'ai parlé avec les autres coordinateurs et bien sûr tous les membres de mon équipe, donc j'ai su le travail que tout le monde a fait. 335

355 Appendices J'ai été élu la coordinatrice mais je n'ai pas trouvé le travail difficile parce que j'ai eu une bonne équipe, chaque membre a travaillé dur et j'ai eu pas de problèmes avec ils. </MYPLACE> <IMPRESSIONS> Au début quand j'ai eu le sujet 'festivals' j'ai cru que ce serait très facile de trouver beaucoup de détails mais malheureusement ce n'était pas le cas. J'ai pourrai obtenir beaucoup des dattes et des locations pour les festivals en Irlande mais c'était très difficile de trouver information sur ces festivals qui expliquait les festivals aux festivals. Finalement je dois dire que j'ai appris beaucoup d'information sur les activités que se passe en Irlande et peut-être j'irai à ces festivals cette année! </IMPRESSIONS> <END> 336

356 Appendices Appendix M TopClass logfiles (26 /02/99-15/04/99) - Extracts M1 Number of hits per student (selected operations) Student Number of messages Logins Posting Retrieve Posting Create Postings Edit Postings Preview S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

357 Appendices M2 Total number of hits per team Team Logins Posting Retrieve Posting Create Postings Edit Postings Preview Retrieve Course Page Announce Retrieve Team Team Team Team Team Team Team Team M3 Average number of hits per student per team Team Logins Posting Retrieve Posting Create Postings Edit Postings Preview Retrieve Course Page Announce Retrieve Team Team Team Team Team Team Team Team

358 Appendices M4 Correlation between level of autonomy and TopClass operations Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Logins Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Logins Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Posting Retrieve Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Posting Retrieve Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Posting Create Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Posting Create Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Postings Edit Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Postings Edit Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Retrieve Course Page Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Retrieve Course Page Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Announce Retrieve Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Announce Retrieve Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) Number of messages created Level of autonomy (Sem. 1) 1 Number of messages created

359 Appendices Appendix N The Journal of the Project Semaine 1 SEMAINE PAR SEMAINE << Au début, il y avait des difficultés pour faire des équipes, coordonner et assigner des tâches dans l'équipe chaque semaine >> - Equipe 3 C'est vrai! Sans doute, nous sentions que les étudiants étaient << relaxes >>. Mais en même temps nous savions que le projet était difficile. Equipe 7 : L'Equipe a été sélectionnée. Ils ont décidé de faire leur partie du projet sur << le coût de la vie d'étudiant >>. Ils ont choisi ce sujet parce qu'il est important que les étudiants étrangers sachent combien cela coûte d'habiter à Dublin. Equipe Technique : En raison de leur intérêt pour les ordinateurs ils ont décidé de former l'équipe technique. Ils ont employé topclass pour trouver le reste de l'équipe dans l'autre classe. Ils ont lu des brochures sur le HTML. Equipe 6 : Pendant cette semaine, Francine a informé l'équipe qu'ils devraient créer une page de Web comme parie de leur cours de français. Au commencement, l'équipe a été trèe excitée. Les membres ont pensé que cet exercise les aiderait énormément avec leur français. Ils ont penséque ce serai très utile quand ils sont à l'étranger en France. Ils ont également pensé que la page de Web serait pratique pour ceux qui veulent visiter DCU. Ils ont discuté au contenu du page de Web dans la classe et ils ont commencé à constitsuer leur groupe. Semaine 2 Pas d'inquiétude à ce moment-là mais nous croyions qu'il y avait un peu de confusion entre les étudiants. La plupart des équipes étaient formées mais les buts du projet étaient nébuleux dans notre esprit. Nous espérions que tout deviendrait clair dans un futur immédiat. Moi, je n'avais pas d'équipe! Je n'avais aucune idée sur le projet et ses buts. Mais je crois que j'étais l'exception. Je n'arrivais pas à choisir une équipe, donc... l'équipe a été choisie pour moi! Donc je suis devenu journaliste! ( Ce n'est pas une histoire impressionnante?) Equipe Technique : Ils ont organisé des réunions chaque semaine pour discuter de leurs progrés. Ils ont fait un projet pour le page d'accueil pour le site en utilisant des couleurs et des images. 340

360 Appendices Equipe 7 : Ils ont décidé de l'approche du travail de projet. Le sujet a été divisé en quatre catagories: installation, nourriture, services et travaux. Des idées importantes ont été mises en valeur. Un plan de recherche a été fait. Equipe 6 : Les équipe ont été formées pendant cette semaine et l'équipe a discuté les divers sujets qu'ils ont pensé seraient utiles pour la page de Web. Les membres ont proposé plusieurs idées mais par le suite ils ont décidé d'écrire au sujet du transport à Dublin. Ils ont mis cette information sur Topclass. Ils étaient désireux de commencer à rechercher l'information le plus vite. Semaine 3 Nous avons choisi nos sujets pour les pages de la Toile maintenant. C'est difficile de choisir un sujet parce qu'on peut se chevaucher avec les autres équipes. Cette semaine était << Rag Week >>. Il y avait plusieurs d'activités dans le bar et sur le campus cette semaine. Bien entendu, selon la vieille tradition, les étudiants ne sont pas allés au cours. Pour comble de malheur, nous ne faisions pas le travail. J'ai réalisé que le projet serait une affaire mauvaise dans les semaines dernières! Equipe Technique : Ils ont commencé à chercher des sites français pour s'aider à former leur site. Ils ont défini le rôle de chaque membre dans le groupe. Ils ont décidé de ce que chaque personne devrait faire. Equipe 7 : Ils ont décidé de faire le projet en tant que groupe. Des idées ont été notées pour chaque catagory. Ils ont décidé de se concentrer sur une catagory différente chaque semaine pendant quatre semaines. Ils ont discuté des sources pour trouver leur information. Equipe 6 : Cette semaine l'équipe a eu sa première réunion dans Sallu. L'équipe a élu son coordinateur et sa secrétaire. Clare est la coordinatrice de l'équipe. Ses responsablities incluent d'organiser toutes les réunions. Le secrétaire a écrit au sujet de ce qu'a été discuté pendant la réunion. Le secrétaire a écrit le compte-rendu. L'équipe a discuté de ce que leur page contiendrait. Cependant, il y avait un problème. Un autre groupe avait décidé d'écrireau sujet de la vie des étudiants en dehors de DCU et un autre groupe avait décidé d'écrire du coût de la vie. Tous les deux groupes devraient être contactés pour s'assurer qu'ils n'écriraient pas sur le même sujet. Semaine 4 C'est vrai, bien sur! Tous journalistes ont un certain pessimisme. Certes nous n'avions pas des idées optimistes à propos du projet. Mais nous trouvions optimisme dans les équipes et dans les comptes-rendus. Pourquoi? Je ne sais pas. Je sentais une peur entre les étudiants qui arrêter leur progrès. Voilà ma raison : 341

361 Appendices Chaque étudiant a un prof. Chaque étudiant a une peur de leur prof. Chaque prof demande des questions difficiles. Aucun étudiant n'aime pas questions difficiles. Donc : Chaque étudiant a une peur de leur prof ou leurs questions. Equipe Technique : Ils ont continué á regarder d'autres sites de Web. Ils ont lu des livres pour se familiariser avec le HTML. Equipe 7 : (La nourriture) Ils ont mangé á la cantine, au barre et á mégabytes au déjeuner. Ils ont comparé la nourriture et les divers prices.ils ont décidé que la cantine offrait la meilleure valeur. Le menu a été traduit avec les prix en livres et en francs. Ils ont enregistré le coût hebdomadaire pour une personne au supermarché et ont également donné ceci en livres et en francs. Equipe 3 : Cette semaine l'équipe a décidé de ce que leur page contiendrait exactement. Les membres ont décidé de ce que chaque membre ferait. Pendant cette semaine Francine a démandé à l'équipe de surfer l'internet pour trouver d'autres pages de Web. Chacun l'a fait mais malheursement ils n'ont pas trouvé ceci utile. Ils ont appris un peu de vocabulaire sur les ordinateurs, mais pas autant qu'ils avaient espéré. Eu ce moment l'opinion de l'équipe vis à vis de la page de Web a commencé à changer. Ils ont pensé que la recherche d'autres pages de Web était une bonne idée. Cependant, ils ont estimé que l'évaluation de ces pages était inutile. Semaine 5 Tadhg est allé à la responsable de l'hébergement avec des membres d'équipe 3. L'équipe 3 a besoin d'information sur les logements. Donc ils décident que la responsable de l'hébergement serait une bonne provenance de nouvelle. Malheureusement, l'équipe a suffi un contretemps. John a discuté le projet et leur idée pour créer un page sur la Toile, avec la responsable. Ensuite, il a demandé si elle pouvait leur donner des informations sur les logements ou des autres choses similaires. Mais elle répond avec colère qu'elle a déjà un site de la Toile pour les étudiants et elle a seulement l'autorisation de faire un site comme ça. En recevant une telle réponse, l'équipe a besoin d'une approche différente. C'était un contretemps sérieux pour l'équipe. C'était surprissent que la responsable manquait de la compréhension pour aider des étudiants. En revanche, on peut comprendre sa réaction. C'était une erreur peut-être essayer de créer des pages qui déjà existent sur les pages de DCU. 342

362 Appendices Equipe Technique : Ils ont affecté chaque membre du groupe à une équipe. Ils ont fait un projet de la structure des pages. Le plan de la page d'accueil a été terminé. Equipe 7 : (Le logement) Bien qu'il y ait un autre groupe qui s'occupe du logement, ils ont senti que c'était nécessaire de mentionner en bref les divers types d'accomadation. Les trois types principaux d'accomadation: les appartements, la résidence du campus et la vie avec une famille ont été discutés, et les prix ont été comparer. Il y aura un lien entre cette page et la page sur le logement. Equipe 6 : Cette semaine l'équipe s'est réunie à Sallu pour discuter du progrès. Chaque membre a recherché l'information pour la page. Ils sont allés à l'union des étudiants pour l'information sur les bus et d'autres formes de transport, leurs horaires, et leurs prix. Toute l'information a été rassemblée. Semaine 6 Ah la déception!!! XXX, de l'équipe 3, a été envoyée à la responsable de l'hébergement. L'équipe avait un plan. Pour obtenir des informations sur les logements, ils devaient être ingénieux. Teresa a fait semblant d'être une étudiante qui souffrait aux mains de son propriétaire. Donc elle avait besoin d'informations... ah! Bien sur! C'est à vous de décider mais je crois que la conception d'un tel plan est superbe. Equipe Technique : Ils ont choisi la date limite pour la soumission de toute l'information. Ils sont entrés en contact avec Bord Failte pour obtenir la permission d'utiliser un lien avec son site. Equipe 7 : (Les petits boulots) Différents types de boulots à temps partiel ont été examinés. Une liste de postes possibles pour des étudiants a été faite. Ces boulots sont en général le soir. Ils sont annoncés sur des panneaux dans l'université et dans An Tarbh, le magazine de l'université. Des barèmes de salaires moyens ont été faits en livres et en francs. Equipe 6 : Cette semaine l'équipe a écrit l'information qu'elle avai rassemblée. Les membres l'ont sauvegardée sur les disques et ils ont corrigé leurs erreurs. Ils ont pensé que les clases de français étaient une perte de temps parce qu'ils n'ont pas appris beaucoup de français. Ils ont passé la classe entière à discuter de la page de Web au lieu d'appendre le français utile. Semaine 7 Equipe Technique : Ils ont terminé la structure des autres pages. Ils ont commencé à trier de l'information et à créer les pages. Ils ont écrit une introduction sur Dublin. Equipe 7 : (Les Services a L'université) La photocopiage et la carte imprimante doivent être achetées pour le travail á 343

363 Appendices l'université. Les prix moyens des livres ont été demandés á la librairie. Des honoraires de dentiste ont été recherchés. Les visites chez le docteur de l'université sont gratuites mais les médicaments doivent être achetés si vous êtes malade. Les prix de la laverie ont été également cherchés. Equipe 3 : Cette semaine l'équipe a rencontré l'équipe technique pour discuter de la disposition de leur page. Ils ont mis toute leur information sur des disques. Ils ont décidé d'inclure quelques photogarphies sur leur page et ils ont décidé de mettre des liens avec Bus Eireann et Bord Failte. Ils ont décidé quelles couleurs utiliser sur la page également. Ils devrait rechercher des photographies pour la page. Semaine 8 Equipe Technique : Ils ont terminé les pages de transport. La majeure partie de l'information a été rassemblée. Equipe 7 : Le coût global pour habiter à Dublin pendant une année a été calculé. Le coût moyen par semaine a été aussi calculé. La structure du website a été discutée avec l'équipe technique. Des images ont été trouvées pour le site. Le reste du travail a été tapé et sauvegardé sur disquette. Equipe 6 : Cette semaine l'équipe a donné son information à l'équipe technique pour la mettre sur la page du Web. L'équipe a dû écrire à quelques personnes pour leur demander s'il serait possible d'utiliser leurs photographies et leurs liens. Tout leur travail a été terminé. 344