Feasibility Of Social Networking Media In Project Management Communication

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1 Feasibility Of Social Networking Media In Project Management Communication Saw Jui Hau and Mohd Zaidi Abd Rozan Study has shown that project failure rate is high and project communication failure is the main reason. With the advancement of Internet communication tools, Internet users are utilizing highly functional communication tools found in Social Networking Media (SNM) for their own purpose. Thus, this study is to examine the feasibility of SNM toward Project Communication Management Processes (PCMP). This paper applied theory of task-technology fit (TTF) in SNM environments based on PCMP s activities and the relationship to relevant SNM's technology. Therefore, propositions were developed from the theory to guide further research. Field of Research: Project Communications Management, Social Networking Media, Task-technology Fit 1. Introduction Failure rate in projects still remained high, and the main reason behind the failure is communication (Ralf, M., 2003). Failures in communication in a project occur when project managers cannot make good communications with their team, as well as key stakeholders from the top management. Problems such as unrealistic schedules, unclear scope and, etc., will often happen along with failure in communication. With the advancement of Internet communication tools, Internet users are utilizing highly functional communication tools found in Social Networking Media (SNM) for their own purpose (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Besides that, SNM are does use for business purposes and is continually growing, as well as the use in educational programs. This study is to examine the feasibility of SNM s features toward activities that fall in Project Communications Management Processes (PCMP). Therefore, the study initiated with identification of the PCMP's activities and SNM s features through literature reviews. The study continued by categorizing these activities and features into relevant task environments and technology dimensions. Finally, Task-technology Fit (TTF) model was applied on fitting SNM's features on PCMP s activities. As the result, propositions had been developed from the theory to guide further research. Saw Jui Hau, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Systems (FSKSM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia [email protected] Mohd Zaidi Abd Rozan, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Systems (FSKSM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia [email protected]

2 2. Literature Review 2.1 Project Communication Management (PCM) PCM includes Identifying Stakeholders, Planning Communications, Distributing Information, Managing Stakeholder Expectations, and Reporting Performance process (PMI, 2000). The goal of PCM is to ensure appropriate and timely generation, collection, dissemination, storage, and disposition of project information (Schwalbe, K., 2010). Table 1 has shown the activities that fall in each of the PCMP. Table 1: PCMP and list of activities (Jepsen, A. L. and P. Eskerod, 2009; Alex Sherrer J., 2009). PCMP Activities Identifying Identifying the stakeholders Stakeholders Determining contributions required from each stakeholder. Determining expectations and benefits desired by each stakeholder. Determining the power of each stakeholder. Decision about which strategy to use to influence each Planning Communications Distributing Information Managing Stakeholder Expectations Reporting Performance stakeholder. Determining what information stakeholder expects. Determining who receives what information. Determining when information will be provided. Determining how information will be delivered. Distributing the information. Retrieving project reports. Retrieving project records. Collecting lesson learned. Uncovering stakeholder issues. Addressing stakeholder issues. Resolving stakeholder issues. Gathering the information. Compiling the information. Distributing the information. Identifying Stakeholders process is executed in project initiating phase. This process involves identifying everyone involved in the project, as well as other parties affected by the project (Alex Sherrer J., 2009). These people are the project sponsor, project team, support staff, customer, users, suppliers, and even opponent to the project. This process determines the best ways to manage a relationship with them (Schwalbe K., 2010). Planning Communications process is executed in project planning phase. This process goal is to eliminate confusion among stakeholders and project members, and allow them to experience smoother project. This process covers both formal and informal communications that occur within the project (Alex Sherrer J., 2009). Distributing Information process is executed in project executing phase. This process executes the communication management for the distribution of information to those who need it (Alex Sherrer J., 2009). Thus, technology has been used to enhance information distribution and the right medium can facilitate the

3 process of information distribution. Both informal and formal distribution methods can ensure effectively and timely manner of distribution (Schwalbe K., 2010). Managing Stakeholder Expectations process is executed in project executing phase. This process involves communications with project stakeholders and mainly to satisfy needs and expectations on a project, as well as to resolve issues occur along the project (Schwalbe K., 2010). For resolving issues, project manager and project member should reach a mutually agreeable outcome of the issues with stakeholders (Alex Sherrer J., 2009). Reporting Performance process is executed in project monitoring and controlling phase. This process performance reporting is to keep stakeholders informed about how resources are being used to achieve project objectives (Schwalbe K., 2010). This process focus on performance reporting with scope, schedule, cost, or quality at the baseline, Distributing Information process is mainly on general project information (Alex Sherrer J., 200). 2.2 Social Networking Media SNM is defined as websites that allow people to form online communities and share user-created contents (UCCs) through the Internet (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Table 2 has shown a list of SNM, which had over 30 million registered users in These SNM are constantly developing new features and improvises existing features. Therefore, describing full details of all the features from these SNM are not practical. However, by studying the primary objectives of SNM, the essential features can be identified. Table 3 has shown the list of essential features that fall in most of the major SNM. Personal profiles feature allows a user to input their detail based on the option provided by SNM. SNM allows members to customize the privacy setting in profile (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Establishing online connections feature is allowing a user to create more networks and connections via the Internet. Some SNM include automatic discovery existing members. Others may include friendrecommendation engine that suggests friends of friends, and keyword-based search engine for looking up other member s name (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009).

4 Table 2: List of SNMs with over 30 million registered users (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). No SNM Users (in millions) 1 Facebook MySpace Habbo Friendster 90 5 Hi Tagged 70 7 Orkut 67 8 Flixter 63 9 Reunion.com BlackPlanet Bebo Netlog LinkedIn Adult FriendFinder Odnoklassniki.ru 30 Table 3: Eight essential features of SNM (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). No SNM Essential Features 1 Personal profiles 2 Establishing online connections 3 Participating in online groups 4 Communicating with online connections 5 Sharing User-Created Contents (UCCs) 6 Expressing opinions 7 Finding information 8 Holding the users Participating in online groups feature allows a user to form new group or join existing group at the SNM. A manager set the privacy setting for member and non-member on availability of UCCs in the group (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Communicating with online connections feature allows users to communicate each other through SNM. The mediums included are , text and instant messaging, Internet phone services, and public and private bulletin boards. Some SNM provides updates and notices (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Sharing UCCs feature allows users to post created UCCs in SNM. These various types of UCCs included texts, bookmarks, micro-blogs, images, photos, music and videos. Members gained access to the UCCs created are allowed to view and play with these UCCs (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Expressing opinions feature allows users to leave comments and feedbacks on UCCs created by self or other members. Some SNM featured by voting features, which allow members to voting on UCCs (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Finding information feature allows users to find needed information on SNM. Browsing is to search UCCs and groups in a selected category. Keyword-based search engines can be used to search for names of people, groups and particular UCCs (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). Holding the users feature is designed for users to spend hours and access frequently on the SNM. Therefore,

5 these features are designed for that purpose. Some SNM displays data related to their members, such as recent news and popular updates (Kim, W., O.-R. Jeong, et al., 2009). 2.3 Task-technology Fit (TTF) TTF theory states information technology has a positive impact against performances. Thus, the theory shows the conditions of information technology capabilities are matching with the tasks that are needed to be performed. TTF theory has been applied by prior study for variety of context. One of the examples is TTF theory as fit profile between group task and Group Support System (GSS) technology (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Figure 1 has shown the general model of TTF as ideal fit profile for task and GSS technology. The specific task utilized GSS technology will end up increasing the group performance for the particular task. Figure 1: TTF as fit profile (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Task GSS Technology Fit Profile Group Performance Many prior studies had defined the task characteristics in different meaning and depend on the research context. From all of these studies, task complexity is the most studied task characteristics. Most of the prior studies at task classification have either included complexity as one of the several important task characteristics or focused directly on complexity. This paper is referring to Campbell, D. J. (1988) to define task complexity. There are five task categories. Each of these categories can be defined in terms of primary attributes that contribute to complexity. The four basic complexities against five task types have resulted in 16 task environments as shown in Table 4 (Campbell, D. J., 1988). Table 4: Task categories against Complexities (Campbell, D. J., 1988). Complexity Sources Simple tasks Problem tasks Decision tasks Judgment tasks Fuzzy tasks Solution-scheme No Yes No No Yes multiplicity Outcome No No Yes No Yes multiplicity Conflicting interdependence No Yes or No Yes or No Yes or No Yes or No Solution-scheme outcome uncertainty Not Applicable Low to High Low to High Low to High Low to High Solution-scheme multiplicity is defined as such: there is more than one possible path to attain a goal (Campbell, D. J., 1988). Examples for solution-scheme multiplicity

6 tasks are a jigsaw puzzle, a chess game, and employee scheduling. The existence of solution scheme multiplicity is inherent in the task and is unaffected by the task performers (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Outcome multiplicity is defined as there is more than one desired outcomes for a task (Campbell, D. J., 1988). Examples for these tasks are determining expectations for each stakeholder, and selecting a house from a set of alternatives based (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Conflicting interdependence may happen in solution-schemes where adoptions of possible schemes are conflicting among each other. Conflicting interdependence may happen among outcome where outcomes are conflicting with one another. Lastly, conflicting interdependence as well may exist where the situation of information is a conflict against another (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Solution-scheme/outcome uncertainty is defined as the extent to the uncertainty about whether a give solution scheme will lead to a desired outcome. If the range is high in uncertainty, the relationship between a solution scheme and the outcome is highly uncertain and vice-versa (Campbell, D. J., 1988). GSS has been defined as systems that combine communication, computer, and decision technology to support problem formulation and solution in a group meeting (DeSanctis, G. and R. B. Gallupe, 1987). There were prior studies that characterized technology in different perspectives. The most common themes defined GSS technology as a set of communication, structuring and information-processing tools. These tools were designed to support the accomplishment of group tasks (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Table 5 has shown examples elements for each GSS technology dimension. Table 5: Elements for GSS Technology dimensions (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Dimensions Elements Communication Support simultaneous input anonymous input input feedback group display Process Structuring agenda setting agenda enforce complete record Information-processing gather information share information aggregate information evaluate information structure information The communication support dimension is defined as any aspect of technology that supports, enhances, or defines the capability for group members to communicate among one and another. Therefore, this dimension includes several collaborative elements such as simultaneous and anonymous input, input feedback, and group display. Messaging in a group or between individuals can be considered part of input and display. Physical configurations for communication channels are included in communication support as well. As the result, these configurations define the way group members communicate (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Process structuring has been defined as any aspect of the technology that supports, enhances, or defines the process among group interaction. Therefore, process structuring includes

7 elements such as capabilities for agenda setting and enforcement, facilitation, and creating a complete record of group interaction by storing the agenda, all the inputs, votes and so on (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). The information-processing dimension has been defined as the capability to gather, share, aggregate, structure, or evaluate information. Therefore, this dimension included elements of gather, share, aggregate, evaluate, and structure information. These elements enable the use of specialized templates, such as stakeholder analysis. These templates that structure the problem may shape the solutions. This happens as people may view possible solutions in terms of how they structure or view the problem (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). The term of fit had been widely used in prior studies. Drazin and Van de Ven (1985) had defined fit three perspectives, there are, fit as congruence, interaction, and internal consistency. Later, Venkatraman (1989) extended the fit definition to six perspectives, and there are, fit as matching, co-variation, gestalts, moderation, mediation, and lastly, fit as profile deviation. Fit as matching, co-variation, and gestalts is defined as conceptualization of fit that without reference to a criterion variable, which defined that they have universal applicability and are not bond to any particular dependent variable, such as effectiveness (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Therefore, these conceptualizations are unsuitable for this paper, which applies the TTF to effective performance and based on the feasibility report. Fit as moderation and mediation conceptualizations are limited in the number of variables considered (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). These conceptualizations just utilize an association between a single predictor variable, moderating or intervening variable, and dependent variable. The idea of fit as profile deviation is the most promising perspective for TTF in project management context. This conceptualization allows a holistic approach to examining the complexity inherent in organizations. As in project management environment, ideal profiles defined as composed of a set of PCMP's activities that dependents on SNM s features to affect group performance. These profiles even can be viable alignments toward task and technology. A test of TTF suggested by prior study required three steps. These steps are: i) identifying distinct task environments, ii) specifying ideal technological support for each task environment, and iii) testing the performance effects of task and technology alignments (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). 3. Methodology and Research Design The categorization from PCMP s activities into the respective task types is based on the matching of definition of PCMP s activities against definition of the task types. Table 6 has shown the PCMP activities that are classified into the task environments. Table 7 has shown the classification of SNM s essential features. The range of rating is measured based on the coverage of these features against each element in the technology dimension. If less than half elements is supported by the feature, the rating is low in the dimension. If more than half and not all elements are supported by the feature, the rating is defined as medium in the dimension. Lastly, if all elements supported by the feature, the rating is defined as high in the particular dimension.

8 This paper has defined fit as ideal profile, and support that an appropriate TTF should result in higher group performance (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Therefore, in this case group performance is the dependent variable. Group performance is defined as a multifaceted construct that includes the concepts of efficiency, outcome quality, process quality, satisfaction, and consensus (Hollingshead, A. B. and J. E. McGrath, 1995; Fjerrnestad, J. and S. R. Hiltz, 1997). Figure 1 is the general model of TTF that will be used in this paper. Table 8 has shown the prescription of fit profiles for task categories and technology dimensions, which are also expected to enhance group performance. The levels of support in this table utilize the rate of low, medium and high. This paper referred proposition for each task by Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie (1998) and modified for this study purpose. Simple task is defined as a single desired outcome and solution scheme, and no conflicting interdependence or solution scheme/outcome uncertainty. This task utilized SNM features that fall in communication support dimension. As a result, project members can communicate their ideas about the solution with one another (Ilze, Z., K. B. Bonnie, et al., 1999). Problem task has defined task that focus mainly on finding the best solution scheme out of all possible schemes (Campbell, D. J., 1988). The information-processing feature is primary support for these tasks. This feature is to help project's members to deal with the increased information load (Ilze, Z and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Decision task is defined as the tasks that focus on creating a solution that best satisfies multiple outcomes (Campbell, D. J., 1988). This task requires information-processing feature for supporting information evaluation. The process structuring feature has the same importance level, in order to ensure that the groups carry out all the steps of criteria identification and evaluation all possible alternatives (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Judgment task is defined as tasks that emphasize on resolving conflict and uncertainty of information that occurred with the task. For judgment task information-processing and communication support have the important level (Campbell, D. J., 1988). Fuzzy task is defined as tasks that need little focus, and the task doer expends most on understanding and structuring the problem. This task is filled with information load and diversity, conflict and uncertainty (Campbell, D. J., 1988). The informationprocessing feature is highly needed as this task has high complexity among all others. The communication support feature is important to communicate among project members, gather information regarding the problem, and using process structuring templates to understand the problems. However, the process structuring feature should be used only when the group needs strictly enforced agenda could lead to bias for the particular problem rather than discover the real problem definition (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998).

9 Table 6: Categorization of PCMP s Activities. Complexity Sources Solution-scheme Outcome Conflicting multiplicity multiplicity interdependence Solution-scheme outcome uncertainty Task Type/Activities Simple tasks Identifying the stakeholders No No No N/A Determining the power of each stakeholders No No No N/A Determining what information stakeholder expects No No No N/A Distributing the information No No No N/A Retrieve project reports No No No N/A Retrieve project records No No No N/A Collect lesson learned No No No N/A Address stakeholder issues No No No N/A Gather the information No No No N/A Distribute the information No No No N/A Problem tasks Determining contributions required from each Yes No Yes Low stakeholders Determining when information will be provided Yes No Yes Low Determining how information will be delivered Yes No Yes Low Compile the information Yes No Yes Low Decision tasks Determining who receives what information No Yes Yes Low Fuzzy tasks Determining expectations and benefits desired by each stakeholder Yes Yes Yes High Decision about which strategy to use to influence Yes Yes Yes High each stakeholder Uncover stakeholder issues Yes Yes Yes High Resolve stakeholder issues Yes Yes Yes High

10 Personal profiles Table 7: Classification of SNM s Essential Features SNM Essential Features Establishing Participating Communication Sharing online in online with online UCCs connections groups connections Expressing opinions Finding information Dimension Communication Support Low Low High High Medium High Low Low simultaneous input X X X anonymous input X X X X input feedback X X X X group display X X X X X X X X Process Structuring High High High Medium Medium Low Medium Low agenda setting X X X X X X agenda enforce X X X X X X complete record X X X X Holding the users Information-processing High High High High High High Medium Medium gather information X X X X X X X share information X X X X X X X aggregate information X X X X X X X X evaluate information X X X X X X X X structure information X X X X X X X X

11 Table 8: Fit profiles of task categories and technology dimensions (Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie, 1998). Communication Support Dimension Process Structuring Dimension Informationprocessing Dimension Simple Tasks High Low Low Problem Tasks Low Low High Decision Tasks Low High High Judgment Tasks High Low High Fuzzy Tasks High Medium High 4. Discussion of Findings Table 9 has shown the prescription fit profiles of PCMP activities and SNM essential features. The H alphabets represent the high range; The M alphabets represent the medium range; The L alphabets represent the low range. These fit profiles are referred Table 8. Number 1 to 6 represents the SNM's essential features in Table 3. These features are selected based on Table 7 of which only those features that are rated high support in the technology dimensions. Based on literature review, prescription fit profile of PCMP s activities and SNM s essential features have been identified and shown in Table 9. In order to verify the prescription fit profile, proposition for each task type has also been identified and listed below. P1: Simple tasks should result in the best group performance (as defined for the specific task) when utilizing SNM s features that fall in communication support dimension. P2: Problem tasks should result in the best group performance (as defined for the specific task) when utilizing SNM s features that fall in information-processing dimension. P3: Decision tasks should result in the best group performance (as defined for the specific task) when utilizing SNM s features that fall in information-processing and process structuring dimension. P4: Judgment tasks should result in the best group performance (as defined for the specific task) when utilizing SNM s features that fall in communication support and information-processing dimension. P5: Fuzzy tasks should result in the best group performance (as defined for the specific task) when utilizing SNM s features that fall in communication support and information-processing dimension, and include some process structuring.

12 Table 9: Prescription fit profiles of PCMP s activities and SNM s essential features. Task Technology Communication Support Process Structuring Informationprocessing Task Type PCMP Activities Simple tasks Identifying the stakeholders H H H L L L L L L L L L Determining the power of each stakeholder H H H L L L L L L L L L Determining what information stakeholder expects H H H L L L L L L L L L Distributing the information H H H L L L L L L L L L Retrieve project reports H H H L L L L L L L L L Retrieve project records H H H L L L L L L L L L Collect lesson learned H H H L L L L L L L L L Address stakeholder issues H H H L L L L L L L L L Gather the information H H H L L L L L L L L L Distribute the information H H H L L L L L L L L L Problem tasks Determining contributions required from each stakeholder L L L L L L H H H H H H Determining when information will be provided L L L L L L H H H H H H Determining how information will be delivered L L L L L L H H H H H H Compile the information L L L L L L H H H H H H Decision tasks Determining who receives what information L L L H H H H H H H H H Judgment tasks - H H H L L L H H H H H H Fuzzy tasks Determining expectations and benefits desired by each stakeholder H H H M M M H H H H H H Decision about which strategy to use to influence each stakeholder H H H M M M H H H H H H Uncover stakeholder issues H H H M M M H H H H H H Resolve stakeholder issues H H H M M M H H H H H H

13 5. Conclusion Project Management Institution (PMI) has been providing PMBOK as guides and standards for project management and PCM for communication in project, and there are mediums supporting PCMP, yet the failure rate in a project remains high. Communication is the main factor that brings direct impact to this failure. In this paper, list of PCMP's activities and SNM's essential features have been categorized into task categories and technology dimensions. Prescription fit profiles for both task and technology have been identified. As the result, this study will continue to design an instrument for feasibility testing on the identified propositions. For further validation, the feasibility report will be tested with respondents. Finally, the report will act as a guideline for project managers to choose the right SNM for project communications. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thanks Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Ministry of Higher Education for FRGS Vot No that has supported this research. References Alex Sherrer J. 2009, Project Management Road Trip for the Project Management Professional: Your Key to PMP Certification and Understanding the PMBOK Fourth Edition, pp Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. 2007, Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, vol. 13, no. 1, article 11. Campbell, D. J. 1988, "Task Complexity: A Review and Analysis, The Academy of Management Review, vol. 13, no. 1, pp DeSanctis, G. and R. B. Gallupe 1987, "A Foundation for the Study of Group Decision Support Systems, Management Science, vol. 33, no. 5, pp Fjerrnestad, J. and S. R. Hiltz 1997, Experimental studies of group decision support systems: an assessment of variables studied and methodology, System Sciences, 1997, Proceedings of the Thirtieth Hawaii International Conference on. Hollingshead, A. B. and J. E. McGrath 1995, Computer-Assisted Groups: A Critical Review of the Empirical Research. Team Effectiveness and Decision Making in Organizations, Jossey-Bass C1 - San Francisco. Ilze, Z. and K. B. Bonnie 1998, "A theory of task/technology fit and group support systems effectiveness, MIS Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 3, pp Ilze, Z., K. B. Bonnie, et al. 1999, "A test of task-technology fit theory for group support systems, SIGMIS Database, vol. 30, no. 3-4, pp

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