MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature. Implementation of Extensive Reading in Elementary School

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1 MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature Implementation of Extensive Reading in Elementary School Diploma Thesis Brno 2014 Supervisor: Mgr. Pavla Buchtová Author: Bc. David Ďulík

2 Bibliographical Description ĎULÍK, David. Implementation of Extensive Reading in Elementary School: diploma thesis. Brno: Masaryk University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language and Literature, p. Supervisor Mgr. Pavla Buchtová Anotace Tato magisterská práce hledá možnosti vytvoření a následného začlenění čtenářského programu do výuky anglického jazyka na 2. Základní škole v Jirkově. Čtyři kapitoly práce mohou být obsahově rozděleny do dvou hlavních částí. První z nich obsahuje popis situace ve zmiňované základní škole a nastiňuje důvod rozhodnutí k uskutečnění čtenářského programu. Další z kapitol se zaměřuje nejprve na teoretické poznání přínosnosti čtení, dále pak na popis toho, jak dochází k osvojování čtenářských dovedností. Navazuje představení důležitých aspektů čtení, jimiž jsou např. motivace nebo čtenářská úroveň. Tato část se zabývá i záležitostmi týkající se způsobu a forem hodnocení žáků účastnících se čtenářského programu, téměř v závěru pak i charakteristikou věkové skupiny, pro kterou je program cílen. Druhá, praktická část práce, se soustřeďuje nejprve na plánování projektu, který má za cíl být pilotním projektem samotného čtenářského programu, později pak ve své poslední kapitole tato část práce představuje klíčová místa z realizace pilotního projektu. Nejprve je chronologicky popsán jeho průběh, následně jsou analyzovány nejzásadnější poznatky získané uskutečněním projektu, které se staly cenným podkladem pro program samotný. Abstract This master thesis seeks opportunities to create and subsequently include extensive reading into English curriculum of Základní škola Studentská in Jirkov. Four chapters may be divided in two main parts. The first one describes a situation in the school and outlines the reason for the decision to run the extensive reading programme in this school. Second chapter first focuses on benefits of reading, then on the acquisition of reading skills. The chapter follows with introducing important aspects of reading, namely motivation or determining a reading level of a child. This part also deals with issues relating to forms of evaluation of pupils participating in the reading programme. The chapter closes with a characterization of the age group for which is the programme targeted. Third chapter forms a practical part and focuses first on planning the project, which aims to serve as a pilot version of the subsequent reading programme. Fourth and the last chapter presents retrospectively key points of the pilot project. First, the project is chronologically described, then the most fundamental findings are analysed. These findings have become a valuable basis for the following extensive reading programme.

3 Klíčová slova Čtenářský projekt, Čtení, Pravidla čtenářského programu, Hodnocení čtenářského programu, Určení úrovně čtenáře, Implementace čtenářského programu, Zjednodušená četba, Motivace, Hodnocení, Získávání jazykových dovedností, Věkové kategorie čtenáře, 1. stupeň základní školy, ŠVP, Vydavatelé zjednodušené četby, Čtvrtý ročník Key words Extensive Reading, Sustained Silent Reading, Reading Speed, Graded Reading, Sight Vocabulary, Level of a Reader, Motivation, Rules of Extensive Reading Programme, Evaluation, Acquisition of Language Skills, Categories of Readers, Primary School, Curriculum, Publishing Houses of Extensive Reading, Fourth Grade

4 Prohlášení: Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracoval samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy university a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů. Declaration: I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the sources listed in the bibliography. I agree with storing this work in the library of the Faculty of Education at Masaryk University, and making it accessible for study purposes.. Chomutov David Ďulík

5 Acknowledgements First, I would like to express gratitude to my supervisor Mgr. Pavla Buchtová for her guidance and support during the process of writing. I am grateful for her helpful suggestions and valuable comments. I would also like to extend my thanks to family, colleagues, and friends. It is due to their continuous great encouragement that I have been able to complete this work and finish my studies.

6 Table of Contents Table of Contents... 6 Introduction A situation in Základní škola Jirkov, Studentská Learners Struggle with Reading English in Studentská School The Need for a Change Theoretical Background Why Reading is Important Types of Reading Acquisition of Reading Skills Level of a Reader Motivation Evaluation Types of Readers Implementation into Curriculum Extensive Reading Project Planning Profile of a Reader Publishing Houses of Extensive Reading Before the Talk with Administrators Assessing a Student s Level Extensive Reading Project Rules and Evaluation... 46

7 3.6 Expectations and Identifying Goals Extensive Reading Project Key Points Overview A Description of Findings and Measures for a Subsequent Programme Conclusion Works cited... 62

8 Introduction This thesis Implementation of Extensive Reading in Elementary School focuses on a method of teaching foreign language, through large amounts of reading. Extensive reading (ER) has been practised by teachers since the 19 th century. In the recent years researchers dealing with English as a foreign language has intensively studied this approach to language learning, with results suggesting ER as a highly effective strategy to build linguistic competence. Its success might be also explained by the fact that ER is both beneficial and entertaining. This approach has been earning popularity in English teaching in countries around the world as constantly more English teachers have tried to practise ER programmes with findings that it is increasingly important part of English language education, with conclusion that ER should be an indispensable part of reading instruction in the ESL classroom. The main aim of this thesis is to describe implementation of ER programme in Základní Škola Studentská in Jirkov. This school is among many others, which in recent years report that reading abilities of their children have been consistently falling. Children do not read, which cause them many troubles in other subjects, therefore the school find it very useful to incorporate reading programmes in Czech lessons, and English as well. This thesis aims to be rather practical, its main attempt is to learn practical aspects accompanying running the project, with a special effort to describe all the steps taken. ER experience, in general, is a promise of encouraging, challenging, and thought-provoking work for children, motivational methods to bring children back to reading should be searched and found, but teachers usually fight with a lack of time, an idea of running ER seems unfeasible for them, as curriculum requirements are typically difficult to meet. Another typical obstacle that might arise in the mind of teachers is a fear of the high cost for establishing a class library. I hope that my work 9

9 shows that there are ways to incorporate ER into English curriculum while reaching its requirements and that it is possible to start with a very low budget. This thesis is divided into four chapters providing theoretical information and insight into its application during an extensive reading project held in Základní škola Studentská, Jirkov. First chapter describes situation in the school and outlines the reasons for the decision to run the extensive reading project. Second chapter first focuses on benefits of reading, then on the acquisition of reading skills. The chapter follows with introducing important aspects of reading, namely motivation or determining a reading level of a child. This part also deals with issues relating to forms of evaluation of pupils participating in the reading programme. The chapter closes with a characterization of the age group for which is the programme targeted. Third chapter forms a practical part and focuses first on planning the project, which aims to serve as a pilot version of the subsequent reading programme. Fourth chapter presents retrospectively key points of the pilot project. First, the project is chronologically described, then the most fundamental findings are analysed. These findings have become a valuable basis for the following extensive reading programme. 10

10 1 A situation in Základní škola Jirkov, Studentská 1427 This first chapter is concerned with a description of the situation in Základní škola Jirkov, Studentská 1427, the school where I teach. First, reading complications of learners are introduced, marked as a main learning problem in the school, followed by the demonstration of examples. Next, reading remedies are discussed, then situation in English classes is described, uncovering that reading in English has not been taught in any planned or methodological way. Finally, the situation is evaluated and the idea of introducing Reading Project is presented. 1.1 Learners Struggle with Reading Approximately eight years ago, SCIO tests started to report similar findings across the grades of primary students. Children could not solve many banal tasks, as they could not read them adequately. Teachers knew that students would easily be able to solve the tasks if they read them to students. In math lessons, teachers noticed that children struggle with solving word problems. Students could not calculate them, as they simply could not read verbal formulations of word problems. Similar complications occurred in lessons of Czech language where pupils had poor results in reading comprehension activities. In lessons of Science and Geography in primary classes, students were not able to work with texts in study books and worksheets. Children had troubles to distinguish between essential and marginal information; therefore, they were not able to deliver excerpts. Teachers also recognized that weaker reading skills slowed vocabulary development, and that struggles with spelling appeared increasingly. They came with an explanation that use of many spelling rules is acquired by reading experience rather than by learning rules by heart and then practicing. They believe that reading experience enables subconsciously recall correct spelling. 11

11 Naturally, the school was interested to find causes of above described issues. Thus, pupils were asked what book they got for Christmas. In some classes, no students found a book under their Christmas tree; in other classes, maximum of three pupils reported receiving a book. It was also found that parents did not read to their children. According to what students told, books were exchanged for electronic gadgets. With a little exaggeration, it could be said that digital revolution, which has been significantly transforming our society, arrived to homes of the students. In brief, homes were invaded by computers and PlayStations; this was the conclusion of teachers in the school. In general, the cause of the current situation can be much simpler, poor reading can be attributed to the fact that students learning to read a second language do not read and they do not like reading (Day and Bamford 4). Besides, the purpose of this thesis is to seek remedies of dismal situation in reading, rather than assessing its causes. To be able to find an adequate remedy, teachers were willing to change their methods and attitudes. It was concluded that they should broaden their theoretical knowledge dealing with the issue, and therefore they decided to take a helpful course. At the same time, Alena Jiráčková, who is Deputy Director of the school, had been attending a seminar to learn how to create School Education Programme. The seminar was lead through RWCT method; the abbreviation states for Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking. A basic principle of the seminar was the fact that participants had to work in various ways with a particular text. They were asked to examine and reflect the text, share their ideas relating to what they had just read. During the seminar, various methods of RWCT were introduced. Alena Jiráčková soon realized that RWCT might have been a suitable instrument for what was needed at Základní škola Studentská Jirkov. Thus, she found that the method is widely practiced at the elementary school FZŠ prof. Otokara Chlupa in Prague. As at that time the school ran a course of RWCT for teachers, Deputy Manager decided to enrol on. After completing, she demonstrated the method to other teachers at school. Four of them decided to take the same course. Since then they have been working with pupils to remedy their reading deficiencies. 12

12 1.2 English in Studentská School However, reading has been discussed at the school only with regard to students native language. The reason why English teachers did not contribute to any discussion was probably the fact that none of them is qualified, and has minimal experience with teaching of reading, whether practical or theoretical. In English lessons, I noticed that students suffered with similar problems in reading as in lessons where they used only native language. Moreover, I knew that children did not like reading; they usually tried to avoid most of readings. The achievement tests only confirmed my assumption because the students had poor results in reading comprehension. English teachers observed students doing their achievement tests. When students got to reading parts, many of them did not even bother to read the texts, they rather skipped them and mindlessly guessed answers. Types of reading tasks were multiple choice, true or false, match a heading with its paragraph. The test results and attitude of students might correspond with methods used for reading in the school. On one hand, pupils in Studentská School meet with English already in their first year of school. The first year they have one lesson a week, the second year two lessons a week, and since their third grade, English is taught in three lessons per week. On the other hand, reading in English is not taught in any targeted and purposeful way. Through discussion with other English teachers at school and by observing their lessons, it can be concluded that teaching English is performed mainly by following guidelines of their Teacher s book, which is usually available to accompany a set of Student s book and Workbook. In this particular case, it is the set of Way to Win and Start with Click books. The poor results of students in reading in English, and their attitude, the lack of any concept or vision for acquiring better reading skills, the fact that reading program in Czech language has already started, these all named facts challenge to come with a change. 13

13 1.3 The Need for a Change I decided to try a change. I think my students should get a chance to discover what it is to be an English reader and what pleasurable benefits it brings. I am a good example myself as during my studies I could experience how long hours of reading improved my English. I fell in love with reading. I would like to share my passion with my students, help them to find the power of reading. If such a thing happens to my students, I believe they will harvest their experience many times throughout their lives. Moreover, reading in English will help them become learners that are more independent. I consider this ability especially important for people in Jirkov as it is a place where students can rarely meet with English speaking people, therefore the most appropriate input they can get, is through reading. Before any remedy starts, any program will be designed, it is necessary to map a theoretical background. 14

14 2 Theoretical Background This chapter deals with several themes that are all connected to provide a theoretical background to the extensive reading project described in the next chapter. This project is aimed to serve as a pilot and a basis for a subsequent extensive reading programme. First, in this chapter, benefits of reading are explained providing detailed insight into various areas that positively affect readers, then several approaches for teaching reading are introduced. Second, acquisition of reading skills is discussed in order to explore concepts resulting from it: fluency and reading speed. Third, the focus is on a reader, therefore, the last sections analyse motivational factors or system of evaluation. Finally, the targeted age group of the extensive reading project is studied in general, and forms of possible implementation of the extensive reading project into English lessons are presented. 2.1 Why Reading is Important Reading brings countless benefits. However, for the purpose of the thesis, only several main of them will be introduced here. First, reading helps acquire language skills. It improves reading comprehension, writing, vocabulary, spelling, and grammar. Readings can also be great springboards for other activities that integrate speaking and listening. In one of his conclusions, Krashen mentions a significant advantage of acquiring language skills through reading when he states that when children read for pleasure, when they get hooked on books, they acquire, involuntarily and without conscious effort, nearly all of the so-called language skills (The Power of Reading 149). Therefore, reading is highly beneficial especially to second language learners as it can help them comfortably climb to proficiency level, which is usually measured in terms of all four skills. Krashen points out the fact that reading is the way to achieve advanced 15

15 second language proficiency. It is one of the best things a second language acquirer can do to bridge the gap from the beginning level to truly advanced levels of second language proficiency (The Power of Reading X) Second, reading shapes personality. It improves vision, and has enormous effect on one s attitudes, opinions, and language learning. It is remarkable that the ability to engage in fluent reading and to read both for important information and for pleasure is perhaps the most valuable benefit students will gain from language study (Day and Bamford xi). Many readers claim that when they read a book, they feel relaxed. Therefore, it is understandable that people usually like to read in bed before sleeping. This might support strong evidence of the calming power that builds and improves concentration in a child with ADHD. Dosani describes that such a child may still not be able to sit quietly reading for hours on end but you will find your child becoming gradually less disruptive and impulsive (231). Finally, reading is a way to become wiser. In other words, many researchers agree that reading develops better thinkers, or more precisely, it improves concentration, focus, and memory. Especially short-term memory is stimulated significantly. Krashen highlights those benefits by his statement reading makes you smarter (The Power of Reading 36). According to the author, reading also results in superior general knowledge (The Power of Reading 3). Krashen s views correspond with a broader and more general Simonton s view. He concludes that omnivorous reading in childhood and adolescence correlates positively with ultimate adult success (111). These benefits should be taken in consideration when teachers design their yearlong plan. It is undoubtedly a difficult task to include a reading project in the plan and then run it when a teacher has no previous experience of this kind. In the thesis the main emphasis is focused on uncovering of problems I encountered when I attempted to set up my reading project. I believe that sharing my experience might help to other teachers who are convinced of benefits of reading, and to teachers who find themselves in a situation of deciding to design their first reading project. 16

16 2.2 Types of Reading There are several types of reading which may occur in English classroom. The main and broader ones are intensive reading and extensive reading. Concerning intensive reading, it is considered to be usually the only approach teachers use to teach reading. This approach involves the teacher walking students through a reading passage. The passage is usually short and the instruction is focused on carefully checking comprehension, studying the grammar and/or vocabulary, or developing a reading skill (Waring). Scrivener describes intensive reading similarly as an activity which involves reading texts closely and carefully with the intention of gaining understanding of as much detail as possible (188). The teacher usually chooses the types of texts (notes, extracts from study book, websites or magazines), and the whole class usually reads the same extract at the same time. In praxis, most of the time is often devoted to textbooks in order to meet the curriculum successfully. The textbooks used in the classes are mainly designed for intensive reading courses. According to Waring, intensive reading is useful when teaching students new language (Waring). However, there are obvious limits of intensive reading. The main restraint is that the reading is enjoyable only for some students. Other disadvantages appear because the reading is difficult; so learners have few chances to build reading speed and fluency (Waring). As it was mentioned, intensive reading is short but difficult, students read at a slower pace, and they cannot meet a lot of a new language. Moreover, students read the same material, and apparently, some of them are finished earlier, although they have to do tasks together. Extensive reading is another model for teaching reading. There are other forms or varieties of extensive reading, such as Sustained Silent Reading (SSR), Uninterrupted Silent Reading (USSR), Drop Everything and Read (DEAR), Free Uninterrupted Reading (FUR), Free Voluntary Reading (FVR), or even High Intensity Practice (HIP). These variations do not differ fundamentally, for example, USSR is usually considered as an initial reading strategy to prepare students for more extensive program. 17

17 Extensive reading has several basic features. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics states that extensive reading (henceforth ER) means reading in quantity and in order to gain a general understanding of what is read. It is intended to develop good reading habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a liking for reading ( Extensive Reading ). As this definition implies, ER means large amounts of reading in the first place. Day and Bamford introduce ten characteristics of successful extensive reading program. Similarly, their first characteristic of ER states, students read as much as possible (7). Another feature, which all authors dealing with ER agree on, is the need of enjoyment. As it was stated above in definition of ER from the dictionary, ER should encourage a liking for reading. Scrivener notes that ER means reading for pleasure, entertainment, and general understanding, but without such careful attention to the details (188). In one of Day s and Bamford s core definitions of ER, the authors claim, purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information, and general understanding (8). Krashen supports the idea of necessity of pleasure while reading. Introducing one of his many researches, he claims that the research shows a strong evidence that free reading is extremely pleasant and results in superior general knowledge (3). The third aspect concerns fluency and reading speed. Krashen defines ER as fluent, faster reading, often of longer texts (188). As Day and Bamford point out reading speed is usually faster rather than slower as students read books and other material they find easily understandable (8). There are several other typical characteristics of ER. For the purpose of this thesis, it is sufficient to mention them only briefly. For example, materials should offer variety of different topics to encourage reading. It is important that students can select themselves what they want to read. They also have the freedom to stop reading the title they do not like. Reading should not be rewarded in any form, as it is its own reward. If possible, there are no post reading tests, reports, or exercises. Students use their dictionaries in exceptional case because the constant stopping makes reading slower, and it brings rather frustrating 18

18 experience. The teacher is a model of a reader for students. S/he must be seen reading, s/he is an active member of the reading community. A teacher must be an advocate who promotes attitudes and a promoter who finds time often to encourage literacy and celebrate the accomplishments of their students (Cramer and Castle 207). According to Day and Bamford, teachers take a new role; instead of fountains of knowledge, trainers, or evaluators, teachers must consider themselves more in being guides, advocates, and resource persons (166). However, according to Palmer, the question is not whether to choose intensive or extensive approach for teaching reading. In his nine principles of language study, Palmer sees importance in both types of reading. He even named one of his principles multiple line of approach (111). The author of this thesis will focus on extensive reading as he already commonly practices intensive reading in his classes. The focus will be targeted to extensive reading mainly due to its promises. They show convincing results of a remarkable increase in reading and other skills. They also reflect a change leading to positive attitudes of students towards reading and learning as well. Many of the results of various researches are discussed in the book The Power of Reading: Insights from the Research 2 nd edition by Stephen Krashen. Two main types of teaching reading approaches were introduced. Intensive reading was described as studying a text under the guidance of the teacher. The teacher chooses the text in order to teach students a particular grammar, vocabulary, or for an analysis of expressions. All students read the same text. This type of reading is widely used by teachers. In contrast, the approach of extensive reading was defined as fast and enjoyable reading of large amount of books. Students are the ones who choose themselves what they want to read. The focus is on meaning, not grammar or a language analysis. The question of focusing on extensive reading in this thesis in connection with results of research was clarified. 19

19 2.3 Acquisition of Reading Skills This section introduces how people acquire skill at comprehending what they read. Main models of reading acquisitions are introduced. There is no doubt that English teachers should understand how reading in second language leads to acquisition of reading skills. Teachers should know how to integrate this knowledge in their teaching of reading. There are two paradigmatic models of language reading acquisition: a bottom-up approach and top-down approach. Scrivener describes A bottom-up approach as happening when readers built up their understanding of a text by working out what each individual sound was, then adding these up into a word, understanding the word, checking the meaning of that word with the words around them, etc. (178). In contrast, top-down approach is seen happening when we read a new text. According to Scrivener we start making use of what we already know to help us predict the structure and content of the text, and getting a general overall impression of the message (178). An interactive approach does not value the preceding theories. Hudson asserts, It is not possible to say that reading proceeds in only one direction, it has to be considered as bidirectional, involving the background knowledge as well as the features of the text itself. He states, The reader simultaneously uses all levels of processing (39). He believes that in most situations, they inseparably occur together to ensure the accurate and rapid procession of information (33). Recent researches confirm such assumption that both processes (bottomup processing and top-down processing) play important parts in reading. A similar point of view is shared by Day and Bamford, suggesting to rather leaving preceding onedirectional concepts behind as they unhelpfully polarize a description of how mental processes interact with text features in fluent reading comprehension (12). Understanding the interactive process and looking at reading from its perspective helps to follow better what is meant by automatic word recognition. The Literacy Information 20

20 and Communication System (LINCS), an initiative of the U.S. Department of Education, refers that automatic word recognition is the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly without the benefit of surrounding words for contextual help (Assessment strategies ). A similarly complex picture emerges from point of view of Bamford and Day. It is important to emphasize that they see automatic word recognition as the basis of fluent reading. Automatic word recognition, in the words of the authors, is what allows skilled readers to read with apparent ease and lack of effort, rapidly breezing through material (12). Moreover, as it was mentioned (chapter 2 section 2), fluent reading is one of the main aspects and necessities of ER. How the ability can be trained and improved is discussed later in this thesis. Words automatically recognizable by readers are referred as sight vocabulary. This type of instant word recognition is in contrast with a strategy named phonemic decoding. The latter strategy is based on slow, letter by letter, or syllable by syllable sounding out of words (Day and Bamford 13). It is important to emphasize that fluent readers only use phonemic decoding when they detect a word, which is not part of their sight vocabulary. Day and Bamford point out that the mind has only a certain amount of processing capacity available at one time (15). For readers it is for these reasons difficult to recognize unknown words, considering they do not even belong to their own background knowledge and among their sight vocabulary. At such moment, there is a slowdown due to a need of phonemic decoding. Isabel Beck explains that if attention is more than occasionally focused on getting through the words during reading, too much processing capacity will be taken up with decoding, and that will interfere with the higher level components of the reading process (75). The success of extensive reading depends on developing a large sight vocabulary. As reported by recent researches, the easiest way to accomplish this is to read a great amount of different types of texts. Day and Bamford note that as an individual word is met and understood again and again in various contexts, all the sources of information about the word are consolidated into a single, highly cohesive representation (16). The authors also remind, as a result of multiple encounters, the word enters the reader s sight vocabulary. Familiarity breeds automaticity (16). 21

21 It was emphasized in previous chapter that fluency and reading speed form one of the core aspects of ER therefore it is relevant to avoid situations when a reader struggle with the text due to an undesirable amount of unknown words. The acceptable and exact number of unknown words per page will be presented and explained further (chapter 4, section 2). The amount of unknown words forms a key factor in determining an appropriate level of a reader. 2.4 Level of a Reader There are different views on determining which level is appropriate for automaticity training. Krashen s input hypothesis claims that we acquire by understanding language that contains structure a bit beyond our current level of competence (i+1). This is done with the help of context or extra-linguistic information (Krashen, 1982, p.21). The symbol i represents current competence, i+1 represents next level. His view contrasts sharply with reflections of Day and Bamford, as they believe that materials for automaticity training must be at i minus 1. The authors justify that the reason for appropriateness of lower level for extended reading is that the goal of the automaticity training is developing a large sight vocabulary rather than the learning of new linguistic elements (16). They are convinced that i+1 level would rather distract readers, stating that as long as the bulk of the vocabulary and grammar is well within the reader s competence i minus 1 without too many i+1 distractions, the development of a sight vocabulary is possible (17). It was stated, that the best materials for automaticity training are the ones of i minus 1 when i represents current competence. It is important to explain what is meant by current competence and how it is determined. Experience teachers might intuitively recognize the right level of readers for their students. Another, at least an approximate guideline may be labelling of publishers. They sometimes divide graded readers into main broad categories beginner or intermediate for example. Some of the publishers introduce the graded reader 22

22 levels together with a chart of CEFR levels. This useful guide can be found in additional materials of publishing houses. This view is consistent with the three core aspects of ER mentioned earlier; the aspects are fast and fluent reading, reading in large amounts, and enjoyment. Frequent stopping due to the need of phonemic decoding is not desirable. Reading in i+1 would not be fluent and fast, it would take much longer time and struggle to read in large amounts, and enjoyment from reading would be present probably much less. A primary goal, acquiring as much of sight vocabulary as possible, would be probably fulfilled with adverse difficulties. 2.5 Motivation Teachers know that motivation plays in their teaching an important role. However, the question of how motivation works in ER is of utmost importance. It is easy to confuse attitude ad motivation. Attitude can be described as someone s opinions or feelings about something, especially as shown by their behaviour ( attitude ). Icek Ajzen perceives the concept more bipolarly, stating that attitude is a disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object, person, institution, or event (3). The good fact is that poor attitudes can be changed. Michael McKenna depicts four sources of student attitude toward second language reading. These four sources are first language reading attitudes; previous experiences with learning to read other second languages; attitudes toward the second language, culture, and people; and the second language classroom environment. Some of those sources can have a significant impact on students attitude to reading. Such example might be student s previous experience with learning to read other second languages. Day and Bamford state, In majority of classrooms, students consider second language reading difficult (25). It might be because reading is taught using only intensive reading approach. However, there is an important fact 23

23 concerning the first two sources of student attitude: first language reading attitudes and previous experiences with learning to read other second languages cannot be influenced by ER programme, as they are a matter of student s past. Second language classroom environment can significantly build experiences and establish positive attitudes. Students read materials in their language level and linguistic ability, they choose their speed of reading, and they choose what to read. Students independence and ability to control their own learning help them succeed in their learning of second language, therefore ER has the most potential to become a powerful tool for building positive attitudes toward second language reading. Numerous models have been developed to describe motivation. A number of studies have found that motivation is a consistently strong predictor of successful language learning (Motivation Predicts Success). The work of Gardner and Lambert formed the framework for understanding a concept of motivation. Gardner and Lambert recognize two types: instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. Instrumental motivation underlines the goal to gain something, such as getting a salary bonus or getting into college, (Motivation predicts success). Learners with instrumental motivation want to learn second language because of a reward. Integrative motivation refers to a wish, by a learner, to integrate into, become an accepted member of, the community whose language that person is learning ( Integrative motivation ). Learners with integrative motivation want to learn the language because they want to get to know the people who speak that language. They are also interested in the culture associated with that language. Integratively motivated learners may have significant others such as a boyfriend or girlfriend (Motivation predicts success.) There are many situations described when students were motivated to learn language because they wanted to understand a language of their favourite singer or band. Researchers agree on the fact that integratively motivated students acquire the language better as their motivation is stronger. The theoretical background concerning both concepts of motivation helps teachers understand their students better. Motivation cannot be directly observed, it must be inferred 24

24 from behaviour and actions. Andrew Weiler analyses his observations and comes with completely different element in motivation, more beneficial for planning ER programme. He explains that it is often forgotten that the learner needs to be engaged. He introduces an example of people who play video games, noting that it is typically impossible to stop them from playing. Weiler explains, It is challenging them at the level they are at, making it possible for them to move forward all the time ( Staying motivated ). Another his example deals with situation when kids learn to ride a bike. Weiler reminds, Kids will keep at it till they have mastered it. They will get hurt, fall over but no matter, they persist. No one has to drag them to do it. No one has to motivate them. The end result beckoning, together with a growing sense of mastery, provides them with all the motivation they need (Staying motivated ). The author concludes that for becoming a better learner, students should practice activities where they can get involved, engaged, motivated, and be having fun ( Staying motivated ). Paying more attention to students feelings will increase their motivation. ER is precisely the type of activity. Rules of ER programme offer an excellent chance to students to stay motivated. Again, it is the simplicity of ER rules: students choose what to read, they can return the book whenever they wish and choose another, and their reading is not evaluated. Such conditions, especially the fact that students are free to read any material, make it possible for students to follow their interests and get really involved and motivated. Kreft and Viebrock confirm that there is evidence that if reading motivation and reading for pleasure are supported, interest in reading in a foreign language can be created, which may in turn have a positive impact on other influential factors in reading and related skills (Kreft, Viebrock). Students skills are even significantly improved. Day and Bamford explain that low-level reading abilities would normally lower expectations of success, and thus lower the motivation to read. This does not happen in an extensive reading approach (29). The authors explain that the readers read at levels appropriate to their reading ability. They do not experience the frustration of having to read material beyond their reading capabilities. As there is a wide variety of materials that range from easy to difficult, students are able to select material they can read with ease (29). Authors findings remind importance of determining an 25

25 appropriate reading level of a learner. More precisely, the authors rather suggest that it is possible for students to choose freely themselves the difficulty of materials they want to read. Day and Bamford come with hypothesis explaining remarkable impact on attitude and motivation: Students initial successful experiences in extensive reading result in the discovery that they can read in the second language and that it is rewarding and pleasurable. This stimulates the development of positive attitudes toward reading in the second language and the growth of motivation to read in the second language. These positive experiences then feed back into subsequent extensive reading experiences and assignments, resulting in greater gains in reading ability and positive attitudes, and increases in motivation and enjoyment. (30) In conclusion, students find reading in the second language to be stressful and difficult, mainly due to their previous experience with reading. English teacher can influence such attitudes by setting up classroom environment, which means bringing safety and autonomy in students decisions through their experience of ER programme. Learners choose themselves want they want to read and which level. They are free to stop reading a title they do not like and exchange for another one they prefer. It is important, that treading is rewarding and pleasurable. If pleasure from reading is supported, then reading motivation increases. Consequently, attitudes are positively stimulated, which may result in acquirement of various fundamental language skills. Teachers should be constantly aware of the fact that students need to be engaged, involved and be having fun. Students feelings play very important role in ER programme. 26

26 2.6 Evaluation There is an agreement that students should not be evaluated from ER. The purpose of their reading is for excitement itself, therefore evaluating their work might be counterproductive. Reading involves learning many skills, which can be tested through various types of tests and activities. Before teachers decide to do that, they should ask themselves what and why they want to test. ER is amusement, in the first place, the potential evaluation causes competition, and distraction from ER aims. Day and Bamford emphasize the fact that goal of ER programme is enjoyment, they explain enjoyment of reading as the insights derived from information contained in the reading, the entertainment value of reading itself, or the thoughts provoked by the reading material (140). The rules of ER programme serve as a basis for teachers to establish non-competitive environment. The authors also highlight the fact that comprehension exercises, vocabulary tests and other post-reading activities confuses or distracts from these purposes. Further, if students feel that they are required to remember things or that they will be tested, such expectations can even undermine the process of fluent reading itself (140). Having no post-reading activities included in ER programme seems as a perfect condition. However, an ideal situation is something different from reality. Teachers find themselves in situations when there are reasons for considering postreading activities. These include the need to monitor and evaluate students reading. Teachers may have to determine if the reading was actually done (Day and Bamford ). The authors point out that there is nothing that say that requirements cannot be set, records kept, or grades given as in other forms of instruction (86). When teachers decide to evaluate reader performance, it is essential for the teacher to reflect for a moment on which aspects he or she is evaluating (Bowie 23). The author further explains that reading as a macroskill involves many different 27

27 microskills (or subskills) at various different moments, and it is important to select those which are most relevant the type of reading in hand (23). Teacher s monitoring can become less and less frequent during the year when the class makes progress in extensive reading, students are familiar with the reading strategies, and they keep reading. Two major skills can be tested and evaluated: skimming and scanning reading. Jane Bowie explain that skimming reading means the ability to read a text fairly rapidly in order to grasp a general overview of type of text, aim of text, main events, the order in which they occur, time frames, characters and relationships, character and/or author points of view, etc. (24). This type of reading requires understanding of the whole text. There are strategies how to learn to read key parts of the text to become more experienced with skimming reading. On the other hand, scanning reading means reading a text fairly rapidly in order to extract information specific to an aim or task (numbers, names, information specific only to a certain character and so on) while disregarding all other information deemed irrelevant to the task in hand (Bowie 24). This type of reading rather requires an ability of selection the right part of the text than its global understanding. There are completely different views on a form of evaluating students in ER programme. Day and Bamford present one of them, explaining that well-chosen activities can turn the individual solitary act of reading into a community event (141). According to them, special concern should be devoted to activities suitable for mutual support among students. It is highlighted that reading usually evoke a response in the reader, follow-up activities that tap into the learners personal responses to the material are the most natural (141). The authors believe that best follow-up gives students a chance to express their opinions, their feelings, and what the reading meant to them (141). A pragmatic approach to solving the need of evaluation is in terms of reading targets. Students are evaluated for number of pages or books they read or for a number of turned in reports. It is necessary to be aware of the fact that students read in different speed, therefore assigning the same number of books to all students is not a reasonable option. The amount of materials to be read for evaluation should be assigned individually and reasonably according 28

28 to students abilities. As Bondy states, readers of lower ability tend to see reading in terms of schoolwork (35-36). It is important to be aware of such approach; evaluation should rather provide a challenge and motivation for students. Evaluation serves as an important proof that ER programme is really taking place in English lessons. Administrators need to know that when teachers are reading to students, and when teachers are relaxing with a good book during sustained silent reading sessions, teachers are doing their job (Krashen 151). To sum up, an ideal ER programme is without any evaluation or grades. On the other hand, teachers need to monitor whether readings were done, and they need to fulfil requirements of grading policy of their school. It is important to be aware of potential pitfalls; evaluation of extensive reading is a broad concept, as reading itself is a macroskill consisting of various microskills. This requires carefully select and decide in advance which specific skill is going to be tested. Two major skills, that can be tested, are skimming and scanning reading. The most natural approach for evaluation is based on getting different forms of responses from readers as ER offers chances to share feelings and opinions, which helps to form reading community in the class. Students can also be given grades according to amount of assigned materials they read. It is crucial for teachers to motivate students with their evaluation and grading system of ER programme. 2.7 Types of Readers The term reader may be characterized in various ways. Simply put, a reader is a person that reads. From the psychological point of view, it is an individual, who perceives a printed text, understands and psychologically consumes it, and has an interest relationship to it (Vášová 32, my translation). In order to understand readers, it is important to know the way readers are formed, and what their developmental stages are. Moreover, it is desirable for teachers to know psychology of readers so they can better understand and motivate them. 29

29 Finally, teachers need to acquire specific methodology resulting from a pedagogy of readers. As shown, requirements for teachers in this field are demanding, however, their achieving leads to a possibility of influencing attitudes and motivations of readers. This is exactly a core capability teachers need to be able to apply in an ER programme. Childhood is a sensitive period of life when opinions, relationships, and attitudes are formed. These elements form the child s personality and a basis of a future adult. Such period of life is a perfect opportunity to establish a relationship to books and reading. Knowing theoretical background is essential, as education of young readers needs to be handled very carefully. If we want to influence adult readers, if we want to teach them how to use various sources of information, we have to start already with young readers or teenage readers (Vášová 118). Categories of readers are distinguished according to various aspects. For the purpose of this work, only an age based differentiation of readers will be mentioned. The psychological development of a person is formed from individual and continual developmental stages. Every stage has different specifics, demands and needs to be considered by a teacher. Their knowledge and understanding makes ER programme run more smoothly and much easier. American Academy of Pediatrics recognizes the following stages: prenatal, baby (0-12 months), toddler (1 3 years), preschool (3-5 years), grade schooler (5 12 years), teen (12 18 years), and young adult (18 21 years) ("Ages & Stages"). This thesis is going to deal only with the stage Grade Schooler as I plan to start ER programme with the class of fourth graders. As already mentioned on this page, if we want to influence adult readers, we have to start already with young readers. Therefore, I suppose the saying the sooner, the better is true in this case. My fourth graders are in their fourth year of English. In their first and second year they had only one lesson a week, since their third grade number of lessons increased to three lessons per week. In the third grade, I did some storytelling with them, and I believe that it can serve as a good ground to their first ER programme experience. 30