The Basics of Syntax. Supplementary Readings. Introduction. Lexical Categories. Phrase Structure Rules. Introducing Noun Phrases. Some Further Details
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- Phillip Richard
- 7 years ago
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2 The following readings have been posted to the Moodle course site: Language Files: Chapter 5 (pp , ) Language Instinct: Chapter 4 (pp )
3 The System Thus Far The Fundamental Question: What are the rules and mental representations that underlie our ability to speak and understand a language? The Answer Thus Far: Mental Representations: A mental lexicon listing the morphemes (words and affixes) of the language. For each morpheme, a representation of the phonemes that constitute it. The : Morphology: for combining morphemes into words. Right Hand Head Rule Phonology: affecting how the word is pronounced. The Syllabification Rule The Aspiration Rule (...and a whole bunch more...)
4 And Now...! In This Unit: We will explore a third major category of rules and representations, those that concern sentences. Vocabulary: = the (study of the) rules of sentence formation 1. The rules that state how words can be combined into sentences. The dog chased the cat. * Dog the cat chased the. 2. The rules that state how different combinations give different meanings. The dog chased the cat. The cat chased the dog.
5 And Now...! In This Unit: We will explore a third major category of rules and representations, those that concern sentences. Vocabulary: = the (study of the) rules of sentence formation 1. The rules that state how words can be combined into sentences. The dog chased the cat. * Dog the cat chased the. 2. The rules that state how different combinations give different meanings. The dog chased the cat. The cat chased the dog. Note: Sometimes the rules in (2) are called semantics In this class, we won t be covering (2), just the rules in (1).
6 and Categories of Words Crucial Fact: The rules for making sentences don t refer to specific words (e.g. dog, run ) Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. noun, verb )
7 and Categories of Words Crucial Fact: The rules for making sentences don t refer to specific words (e.g. dog, run ) Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. noun, verb ) Illustration: Dave danced 1. The rule that forms this sentence isn t: A sentence can be formed from Dave and danced 2. Rather, the rule is more like: A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb
8 and Categories of Words Crucial Fact: The rules for making sentences don t refer to specific words (e.g. dog, run ) Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. noun, verb ) Illustration: Dave danced 1. The rule that forms this sentence isn t: A sentence can be formed from Dave and danced 2. Rather, the rule is more like: A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb Evidence: If all we had were rules like (1), we d need a ridiculous number of them (separate rules for cat, dog, duck, desk?!)
9 and Categories of Words Crucial Fact: The rules for making sentences don t refer to specific words (e.g. dog, run ) Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. noun, verb ) Illustration: Dave danced 1. The rule that forms this sentence isn t: A sentence can be formed from Dave and danced 2. Rather, the rule is more like: A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb Evidence: If all we had were rules like (1), we d need a ridiculous number of them (separate rules for cat, dog, duck, desk?!) When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it.
10 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it.
11 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it. Imagine snerd = game that can be won in under 10 hours
12 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it. Imagine snerd = game that can be won in under 10 hours Knowing only this, you immediately know that these are all good-sounding sentences: This game is a real snerd. Don t buy that snerd. Snerds really annoy me.
13 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it. Imagine snerd = game that can be won in under 10 hours Knowing only this, you immediately know that these are all good-sounding sentences: This game is a real snerd. Don t buy that snerd. Snerds really annoy me. You also know that these are not good-sounding sentences: * I snerd every weekend. * I play very snerd.
14 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it. Conclusion: Even though you hadn t heard snerd in a sentence, you knew right away how to use it in sentences.
15 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it. Conclusion: Even though you hadn t heard snerd in a sentence, you knew right away how to use it in sentences. So, knowing how to use snerd couldn t be based in rules specific to snerd (cause you weren t shown any).
16 The Generality of Syntactic Fact: When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how to form sentences with it. Conclusion: Even though you hadn t heard snerd in a sentence, you knew right away how to use it in sentences. So, knowing how to use snerd couldn t be based in rules specific to snerd (cause you weren t shown any). So, the rules for forming sentences don t refer to specific words (e.g. snerd ), but to categories of words (e.g. noun ) When you learned snerd, you could tell it was a noun. Knowing this, the rules for nouns in English told you how to form sentences with it.
17 Syntactic Categories Crucial Fact: The rules for making sentences don t refer to specific words (e.g. dog, run ) Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. noun, verb ) Vocabulary: Syntactic category ( lexical category, part of speech ) = the word categories that the rules of syntax make reference to Many of these will be familiar to you from language classes...
18 Syntactic Categories Noun: (N) Examples: dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd Main Characteristic: Nouns can have the appear directly before them: (the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd)
19 Syntactic Categories Noun: (N) Examples: dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd Main Characteristic: Nouns can have the appear directly before them: (the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd) Verb: (V) Examples: jump, laugh, run, carry, hit, love, snow, ponder, pwn Main Characteristic: Verbs can have will appear directly before them (will jump, will run, will love, will ponder, will pwn)
20 Syntactic Categories Noun: (N) Examples: dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd Main Characteristic: Nouns can have the appear directly before them: (the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd) Verb: (V) Examples: jump, laugh, run, carry, hit, love, snow, ponder, pwn Main Characteristic: Verbs can have will appear directly before them (will jump, will run, will love, will ponder, will pwn) Adjective: (A) Examples: happy, tall, little, wonderful, former, ugly, doable Main Characteristic: Adjective can come between the and a N (the happy dog, the former mayor, the doable idea)
21 Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Question: But wait, didn t we learn back in grade school that: Noun = a person, place or thing? Verb = an action? Adjective = a quality?
22 Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Question: But wait, didn t we learn back in grade school that: Noun = a person, place or thing? Verb = an action? Adjective = a quality? Answer: Those definitions aren t totally correct: Not all verbs describe actions ( love, know ) Not all adjectives describe qualities ( former ) Saying nouns describe things is empty: (anything can be a thing, including actions)
23 Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Question: But wait, didn t we learn back in grade school that: Noun = a person, place or thing? Verb = an action? Adjective = a quality? Answer: The correct definitions are in terms of where in a sentence they can go: A noun can (e.g.) come right after the A verb can (e.g.) come right after will An adjective can (e.g.) come between the and a noun.
24 Some More Syntactic Categories Here are some more syntactic categories, which may be new to you... Determiner: (D) Examples: the, a, some, every, no, most Main Characteristic: (don t worry about this for now) Preposition: (P) Examples: to, for, of, in, with, over, under, without, inside Main Characteristic: (don t worry about this for now)
25 Towards What We Know So Far: Languages have rules for forming sentences. The rules don t refer to specific words, but to word categories. The word categories (for now) are: N, V, A, D, P Now, let s start figuring out the actual rules!
26 Towards What We Know So Far: Languages have rules for forming sentences. The rules don t refer to specific words, but to word categories. The word categories (for now) are: N, V, A, D, P Now, let s start figuring out the actual rules! Opening Observation: You can form a sentence of English by combining a N and a V. Dogs run. Boys dance. Girls laugh. A Formal Notation: S N V A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb
27 A Formal Notation: S N V A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb in this notation are phrase structure rules. They look like our earlier morphology rules... Except there is no + after the arrow. Because these rules make phrases, not words
28 A Formal Notation: S N V A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb in this notation are phrase structure rules. They look like our earlier morphology rules... Except there is no + after the arrow. Because these rules make phrases, not words As in our morphology unit, we can use tree structures to illustrate the way these rules make larger structures: S S S N V N V N V Dogs run Boys dance Girls laugh The noun dogs combines with the verb run to make a sentence
29 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Rule Needed
30 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Rule Needed S N V N
31 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Some dogs chased the cats Rule Needed S N V N
32 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Some dogs chased the cats Rule Needed S N V N S D N V D N
33 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Some dogs chased the cats Old dogs chased young cats Rule Needed S N V N S D N V D N
34 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Some dogs chased the cats Old dogs chased young cats Rule Needed S N V N S D N V D N S A N V A N
35 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Some dogs chased the cats Old dogs chased young cats Some old dogs chased the young cats Rule Needed S N V N S D N V D N S A N V A N
36 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Dogs chase cats Some dogs chased the cats Old dogs chased young cats Some old dogs chased the young cats Rule Needed S N V N S D N V D N S A N V A N S D A N V D A N
37 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Rule Needed Dogs chase cats S N V N Some dogs chased the cats S D N V D N Old dogs chased young cats S A N V A N Some old dogs chased the young cats S D A N V D A N Observation 2: All these rules above are getting tedious... They are also missing an obvious pattern:
38 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Rule Needed Dogs chase cats S N V N Some dogs chased the cats S D N V D N Old dogs chased young cats S A N V A N Some old dogs chased the young cats S D A N V D A N Observation 2: All these rules above are getting tedious... They are also missing an obvious pattern: The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N.
39 Towards Noun Observation 1: There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V There are many sentences that can t be formed from this rule. Sentence Rule Needed Dogs chase cats S N V N Some dogs chased the cats S D N V D N Old dogs chased young cats S A N V A N Some old dogs chased the young cats S D A N V D A N Observation 2: All these rules above are getting tedious... They are also missing an obvious pattern: The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N.
40 The Noun Phrase The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N.
41 The Noun Phrase The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N. Capturing the Pattern: English treats all these as the same kind of thing : N D N A N D A N
42 The Noun Phrase The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N. Capturing the Pattern: English treats all these as the same kind of thing : N D N A N D A N Let s call this kind of thing a Noun Phrase (NP)
43 The Noun Phrase The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N. Capturing the Pattern: English treats all these as the same kind of thing : N D N A N D A N Let s call this kind of thing a Noun Phrase (NP) The following rules now capture The Pattern NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N
44 The Noun Phrase The Pattern: Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, (iii) D A N. Capturing the Pattern: English treats all these as the same kind of thing : N D N A N D A N Let s call this kind of thing a Noun Phrase (NP) The following rules now capture The Pattern NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N We can now also simplify our rules for sentences to just these: S NP V S NP V NP
45 Noun in Tree Structures Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP
46 Noun in Tree Structures Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make sentences: S NP V D N run some dogs Some dogs run
47 Noun in Tree Structures Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make sentences: S NP V NP D A N chase A N the young cats old dogs The young cats chase old dogs
48 Noun in Tree Structures Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make sentences: S NP V NP N chase D N Dogs most cats Dogs chase most cats
49 Condensing our for NPs Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP Now let s try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
50 Condensing our for NPs Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP Now let s try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. What These Say: An NP has to have a N in it. An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
51 Condensing our for NPs Our PS for NPs NP N NP D N NP A N NP D A N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP Now let s try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. What These Say: An NP has to have a N in it. An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon We ll now learn a new notation, which lets us say all this in just one rule.
52 The Parentheses Notation Parentheses in PS : If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the thing is optional. Illustration: NP (D) (A) N NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
53 The Parentheses Notation Parentheses in PS : If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the thing is optional. Illustration: NP (D) (A) N NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N What This Rule Says: An NP has to have a N in it. An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
54 The Parentheses Notation Parentheses in PS : If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the thing is optional. Illustration: NP (D) (A) N NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N What This Rule Says: An NP has to have a N in it. An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D. Conclusion: This one rule (with parentheses) can replace our four earlier rules for NPs. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
55 The Parentheses Notation Parentheses in PS : If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the thing is optional. Illustration: NP (D) (A) N NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N Our New : PS for NPs NP (D) (A) N PS for Sentences S NP V S NP V NP Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
56 PS and Words A Technical Problem for our PS : Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from smaller phrases / lexical categories: S NP V S NP V NP NP (D) (A) N Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
57 PS and Words A Technical Problem for our PS : Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from smaller phrases / lexical categories: S NP V S NP V NP NP (D) (A) N But, they don t link lexical categories to specific words Nothing in these rules says dog is N, or chase is V. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
58 PS and Words A Technical Problem for our PS : Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from smaller phrases / lexical categories: S NP V S NP V NP NP (D) (A) N But, they don t link lexical categories to specific words Nothing in these rules says dog is N, or chase is V. So, these rules alone don t make full English sentences. (Only the skeleton of a sentence.) Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
59 PS and the Mental Lexicon Question: What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
60 PS and the Mental Lexicon Question: What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Answer: The Mental Lexicon! Our mental lexicon (dictionary) lists for every word: How the word is pronounced (it s phonemic representation) What the word means The word s syntactic category (whether it s a N, V, A, etc.) Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
61 PS and the Mental Lexicon Question: What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Answer: The Mental Lexicon! Our mental lexicon (dictionary) lists for every word: How the word is pronounced (it s phonemic representation) What the word means The word s syntactic category (whether it s a N, V, A, etc.) A Picture of The Mental Lexicon: Dog Sound: /dag/ Part of Speech: Noun (N) Meaning: canis familiaris Jump Sound: /Ã2mp/ Part of Speech: Verb (V) Meaning: to leap Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
62 PS and the Mental Lexicon Question: What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Answer: The Mental Lexicon! Our mental lexicon (dictionary) lists for every word: How the word is pronounced (it s phonemic representation) What the word means The word s syntactic category (whether it s a N, V, A, etc.) Key Idea: Our mental lexicon can tell us which words can go where in a sentence skeleton. So, the full procedure for making a sentence consults the mental lexicon. Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
63 The Procedure for Making Sentences Step One: Use the phrase structure rules to make a syntactic tree structure. S NP V NP A N S Parenthesis Notation NP V Accessing the Mental Lexicon A N
64 The Procedure for Making Sentences NP S V A N Step Two: Go to the mental lexicon; look for words that match the lexical categories in the tree. Dog Sound: /dag/ Part of Speech: Noun (N) Meaning: canis familiaris Old Sound: /owld/ Part of Speech: Adjective (A) Meaning: Advanced in age Jump Sound: /Ã2mp/ Part of Speech: Verb (V) Meaning: to leap Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
65 The Procedure for Making Sentences Step Three: Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the lexical category labels in the tree NP S V A N jump old dogs Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
66 The Procedure for Making Sentences Step Three: Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the lexical category labels in the tree NP S V A N jump old dogs The Main Point of This: Our PS rules alone do not make full sentences of English. Our system makes sentences in three steps: Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
67 The Procedure for Making Sentences Step Three: Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the lexical category labels in the tree NP S V A N jump old dogs The Main Point of This: Our PS rules alone do not make full sentences of English. Our system makes sentences in three steps: The PS rules make syntactic tree (sentence skeleton) The system looks in the lexicon for words matching the categories in the tree The system inserts the words into the tree, under the right category labels Parenthesis Notation Accessing the Mental Lexicon
68 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English:
69 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down
70 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P
71 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill
72 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP
73 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP The dog chased the cat down
74 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P
75 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P The dog chased the cat down the hill
76 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP
77 Towards Verb We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: S NP V S NP V NP These two rules don t cover all sentences of English: Sentence Rule Needed The dog ran down S NP V P The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Problem: Again, all these different rules are getting tedious. Again, these separate rules are missing an obvious pattern...
78 Towards Verb Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Rule Needed S NP V S NP V P S NP V P NP S NP V NP S NP V NP P S NP V NP P NP The Pattern: All the following combine with NP to make a sentence: V V P V P NP V NP V NP P V NP P NP
79 Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Rule Needed S NP V S NP V P S NP V P NP S NP V NP S NP V NP P S NP V NP P NP Capturing the Pattern: English treats all these as the same type of thing : V V P V P NP V NP V NP P V NP P NP
80 Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Capturing the Pattern: Let s call this kind of a thing a Verb Phrase (VP) (cause there s always a V in it). V V P V P NP Rule Needed S NP V S NP V P S NP V P NP S NP V NP S NP V NP P S NP V NP P NP V NP V NP P V NP P NP
81 Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Rule Needed S NP V S NP V P S NP V P NP S NP V NP S NP V NP P S NP V NP P NP Capturing the Pattern: We can now use PS rules to state that these are all VPs: V V P V P NP V NP V NP P V NP P NP
82 Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Rule Needed S NP V S NP V P S NP V P NP S NP V NP S NP V NP P S NP V NP P NP Capturing the Pattern: We can now use PS rules to state that these are all VPs: VP V VP V P VP V P NP VP V NP VP V NP P VP V NP P NP
83 Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Rule Needed S NP V S NP V P S NP V P NP S NP V NP S NP V NP P S NP V NP P NP Capturing the Pattern: Finally, we can reduce our PS rules for sentences to just one: VP V VP V P VP V P NP VP V NP VP V NP P VP V NP P NP
84 Sentence The dog ran The dog ran down The dog ran down the hill The dog chased the cat The dog chased the cat down The dog chased the cat down the hill Rule Needed S NP VP S NP VP S NP VP S NP VP S NP VP S NP VP Capturing the Pattern: Finally, we can reduce our PS rules for sentences to just one: VP V VP V P VP V P NP VP V NP VP V NP P VP V NP P NP S NP VP
85 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V VP V P VP V P NP VP V NP VP V NP P VP V NP P NP
86 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V VP V P VP V P NP VP V NP VP V NP P VP V NP P NP Observations: Together, these rules for VP say the following: A VP has to have a V in it. A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it A VP can (but need not) have a P in it If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P
87 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V VP V P VP V P NP VP V NP VP V NP P VP V NP P NP Observations: Together, these rules for VP say the following: A VP has to have a V in it. A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it A VP can (but need not) have a P in it If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P Using parentheses, we can say all this in one rule: VP V (NP) (P) (NP)
88 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Observations: Together, these rules for VP say the following: A VP has to have a V in it. A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it A VP can (but need not) have a P in it If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P Using parentheses, we can say all this in one rule: VP V (NP) (P) (NP)
89 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to create rather complex sentences of English.
90 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to create rather complex sentences of English. S NP VP N V P Dave fell down Dave fell down.
91 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to create rather complex sentences of English. S NP VP A N V NP Ugly cats like D N Ugly cats like this food. this food
92 Simplifying the VP Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to create rather complex sentences of English. NP S VP D A N V NP P NP the old man put A N into D A N broken cups a wooden box The old man put broken cups into a wooden box.
93 Towards Fun Fact: Prepositions can also appear inside NPs! The boy in the yard jumped. The dog outside the fence barked. The dog outside barked.
94 Towards Fun Fact: Prepositions can also appear inside NPs! The boy in the yard jumped. The dog outside the fence barked. The dog outside barked. Neded Change to PS : NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP)
95 Towards Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP)
96 Towards Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
97 Towards Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Illustration: The dog outside barked The dog outside the fence barked. The dog climbed down The dog climbed down the tree.
98 Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Capturing the Pattern: English treats P and P NP as the same type of thing.
99 Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Capturing the Pattern: Let s call this type of thing a Propositional Phrase (PP) (since there s always a P in it).
100 Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Capturing the Pattern: These rules let us say PP is either P or P followed by NP: PP P PP P NP
101 Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Capturing the Pattern: Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: PP P PP P NP
102 Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Capturing the Pattern: Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: PP P (NP) (a PP must have P, and can optionally have NP after P)
103 Our : For NPs For Ss For VPs NP (D) (A) N (PP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (PP) For PPs PP P (NP) Apparent Pattern: Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Capturing the Pattern: Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: PP P (NP) (a PP must have P, and can optionally have NP after P)
104 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP)
105 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP) These 4 rules can create very complex sentences of English. S NP VP D N PP V NP PP the boys P NP kicked D N P NP in D N the ball down D N this class the hall
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108 Sentences are not just strings of words. They have a complex internal structure: Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs. NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs PPs are made out of Ps and NPs
109 Sentences are not just strings of words. They have a complex internal structure: Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs. NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs PPs are made out of Ps and NPs We can express these groupings with (PS) : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP)
110 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP)
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112 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP) Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS rules and our mental lexicon : Step One: NP Use PS rules to make a tree structure. S VP A N V PP P NP D N
113 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP) Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS rules and our mental lexicon : Step Two: Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree. S NP VP A N V PP P NP D N
114 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP) Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS rules and our mental lexicon : Step Two: Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree. A = angry N = bees V = sting P = on D = the N = face
115 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP) Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS rules and our mental lexicon : Step Three: Insert those words into the tree structure, under the appropriate category labels. A = angry N = bees V = sting P = on D = the N = face
116 Our Four : S NP VP NP (D) (A) N (PP) VP V (NP) (PP) PP P (NP) Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS rules and our mental lexicon : Step Three: NP S VP A N V PP Angry bees sting P NP on D N the face
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About Collins series has been designed to be easy to use, whether by learners studying at home on their own or in a classroom with a teacher: Instructions are easy to follow Exercises are carefully arranged
PHRASAL VERBS INTRODUCTION. The Òsmall wordsó in phrasal verbs are important, because they completely change the meaning.
PHRASAL VERBS INTRODUCTION Phrasal verbs have two parts: a verb (e.g.: put, take, get, give, go, etc) and one or sometimes two "small words" (e.g.: on, up, out, in, etc) which go with the verb. Compare: