Political Violence and its Consequences for Tourism in Israel

Transcription

1 Political Violence and its Consequences for Tourism in Israel Bachelor Thesis for Obtaining the Degree Bachelor of Business Administration Tourism and Hospitality Management Submitted to Mag. Karin Glaser Nina Nawara Vienna 06 April 2011

2 Declaration of Authorship I declare that this dissertation is my own unaided work. I have not included any material or data from other authors or sources, which are not acknowledged and identified in the prescribed manner. I have read the section in the exam regulations on plagiarism and understand that such offences may lead the Examinations Board to withhold or withdraw the award of Bachelor of Business Administration. Date Signature 2

3 Abstract Within this thesis the researcher wants to find out how Israel is influenced by political violence and what kind of consequences this threat brings to the tourism industry of the state. The definition of terrorism will be clarified and additionally its different effects on tourism. Additionally to a short introduction to the history of Israel the different terror organizations that represent a threat to the state will be verified. The political issues that Israel's destination management has to deal with will be analyzed as well as the city branding of Israel. Furthermore the researcher will focus on Counter Terrorism tactics of the state's own government and correlate local tourism to individual target groups. It is of interest to the researcher which target groups are mostly deterred by terrorist attacks. 3

4 Acknowledgements I would like to show my gratitude to my supervising teacher Mag. Karin Glaser whose guidance and support from the initial to the final level enabled me to realize my ideas and concept. Also, I am grateful to all friends and family members who supported me during the development of this research paper. 4

5 Table of Contents Declaration of Authorship 2 1 Introduction 7 2 Facts about Israel Israel Demographics Tourism in Israel Market Profile and Demand 13 3 Israel Then and Now Zionism and Independence of State Conflicts & Wars The Second Intifada Conflicts after the Second Intifada 20 4 Political Violence and its Consequences Overcoming Terrorism Consequences of Terrorism for Tourism in Israel The Arab- Israeli Conflict and Tourism Changes in Demand 29 5 Destination Management and Crisis Management City Branding Freedom and Tourism 35 6 Conclusion 37 7 Bibliography 39 5

6 List of Tables and Figures Chart 1: Terrorist Attack Rate in West Bank and Gaza Strip Chart 2: Terrorist Attack Rate in West Bank and Gaza Strip Diagram 1: Israel Tourism Statistics and Estimates

7 1 Introduction The Middle East Conflict is and has been for decades the most critical war situation in the world. Two peoples are fighting for their rights, both for good reasons and their natural right of a homeland. The states surrounding Israel have fought with and for either Palestinians or Israeli. Israel as the Holy Land of the three world religions Judaism, Christianity and Islam and its geographical location inbetween Africa and Asia gives the small state big importance. Balke (2009: 134) defines the state of Israel as an immigration country with the raison d'etre of the right of every jew in the world to obtain Israeli citizenship. Looking back history proves that Israeli people have suffered from indescribable human crimes during the holocaust and the few survivors were not only homeless but stateless. Over the years the state was confronted with numerous hostilities and albeit there have been tragic conflicts between Israel and other Middle Eastern states, it is the conflict between Israeli and Palestinians that represents the most pervading enmity. Israeli and Palestinian people do not live in peace next to another but even today constantly have to fear attacks. By fact that this cultural conflict also manifests itself in terrorist attacks, it is of great interest to the researcher to give a definition of terrorism and the consequences on tourism in Israel that these acts of violence entail. Terrorism is presented as the biggest public threat in the media these times but how and why do terrorists attack? When do tourists become legitimate targets in the eyes of terrorists? As tourism is a critical source of revenue generation and in the case of Israel also strongly bonds with religion the researcher would like to find out what happens when negative conditions exist, such as political violence. How does the tenuous situation within Israel influence local tourism? For this purpose it would be effective to give a short and comprehensive overview of the political history of Israel but mainly focus on current events. Since Israel attracts religious tourists that are in search of biblical sights and furthermore those people of Jewish background who want to visit their families the probable outcome of the research will be that Jewish tourists might not be as deterred by political violence as leisure tourists. 7

8 This bachelor thesis will include secondary data which will be collected by the researcher. Journals, newspaper articles and literature will be used as a foundation for the research and with the conducted information the research questions will be answered and the hypothesis will be declared as either true or false. With the help of graphs the reduction of Israeli tourism after terror attacks will be exemplified. The first theme that will be examined is the country profile of Israel, exemplifying Israel Demographics, Market Profile and Tourism in Israel. It is of special interest what kind of tourism Israel offers and which target groups are attracted to the various choices. In the third chapter Israel Then and Now the researcher will illustrate the history of Israel, from the beginnings of the state and the formation of Zionism to the different conflicts the young state had yet to face. The researcher will place an emphasis on the consequences the Second Intifada entailed and additionally Arab terrorist movements will be explained in detail. The fourth chapter, namely Political Violence and its Consequences, will include a definition of terrorism and exemplify its effects on the economy in Israel. The question which economic industries are mostly damaged by media coverage of terrorism will be answered. Furthermore a line will be drawn from overcoming terrorism to the consequences of terrorism for tourism in Israel. Within this chapter the research question will be answered and the employed hypothesis will be tested. After the determination that terrorism certainly does have an effect on local tourism the researcher will elaborate on the intercultural challenge of Arab- Israeli tourism. The theory will emerge that even after years of conflicts between the two cultures there is a need for exchange and an interest for the respective other. To conclude this main chapter, changes in demand of Israel tourism will be explained with the help of statistics. Within Destination Management and Crisis Management, which represents the fifth chapter of this research paper, City Branding of Israel will be examined and 8

9 thereby marketing strategies to work against terrorism associations will be exemplified. Before coming to a conclusion the subchapter of Freedom and Tourism will contain a philosophical approach to tourism. The researcher will focus on the definition of travelling in times of globalization and the need for an intercultural communication. Concluding this research paper the main themes will be revised, the research question answered and the hypothesis declared as either true or false. The conclusion will additionally contain subjective thoughts of the researcher and the need for an acceptance between cultures will be explicated. 9

10 2 Facts about Israel The state of Israel, located in between Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Egypt and the Gaza Strip, is a country that entangles traditions, history and political conflicts all at once. It is known for not only beautiful landscapes and interesting biblical artefacts but unfortunately also for decades of intercultural conflicts. Only the American state of Washington and the Russian Moscow have more accredited journalists on- site than Israel (Balke 2009). The precarious political situation is the reason why Israel constantly finds itself in the eyes of the media but in this respect it is oftentimes also to the country s mischief. Nevertheless, the state is a melting pot for different cultures and has much to offer for its visitors. 2.1 Israel Demographics According to the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics (2011) the state population consisting of approximately inhabitants is subdivided into 75,4% of Jewish decent and 20,4% of Arab decent. The remaining 4,3% are represented by so- called Others who are either not registered Jews, non- Arab Christian, non- Arab Muslims or inhabitants that are not religiously classified. As stated on the website of the Jewish Federation of the North Shore, Israel is the largest immigrant- absorbing nation in the world whereby immigrants come in search of democracy, religious freedom and economic opportunity (JFNS 2011). The official Israel Tourism Website (2005) states that Jewish residents are divided into religious and secular inhabitants whereas the Arab community consists of Moslems, Christians and Druze. The website furthermore describes Israel as a rapidly growing state, especially due to a high immigration rate of Jews from all over the world. The median age is 28,3 years, which means that Israeli population is very young, but the life expectancy with 78,7 years is doubtlessly quite high. Additionally it is indicated that the majority of Israeli population are native- born Israelis with a percentage of 65% (Israel Tourism Website 2005). Only few live in one of the four major cities Jersualem, Tel Aviv, Haifa and Rishon le- Tsiyon but 91% of all inhabitants reside in urban settlements as has been noted in the official Israel Tourism Website (2005). 10

11 2.2 Tourism in Israel Tourism is a profitable industry for the economy of Israel and serves as an important income generator. In 2010 alone an estimated 3.45 million tourists visited the small state which is 26% higher than the arrival numbers in 2009 (Herald Sun 2010). Within the newspaper article it is also stated that those sites of religious importance were the ones most appealing to visitors. In the year of 2010, 77% of all guests visited the Western Wall which is located in the Old City of Jerusalem (Herald Sun 2010). Vibrant and modern cities like Tel Aviv or ancient places with biblical history like Nazareth attract many tourists each year. Health tourism booms especially in regions like the Dead Sea region which is a globally known therapeutic resort (Israel Tourism Website 2005). Visitors coming to Israel can discover archeological artefacts, national parks and can choose from a broad variety of museums, as Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world (JFNS 2011). By example of these various tourist attractions it is of no surprise that people from all cultural backgrounds want to explore Israel and spend their pastime in this prosperous country. However, it is a specific kind of tourism that draws most people to Israel, namely the religious one. Religious tourism or Pilgrimage exists in all the main religions in the world, be it Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism or Christianity. It is defined as A journey resulting form religious causes, externally to a holy site, and internally for spiritual purposes and internal understanding (Barber, 1993:1 cited Collins- Kreiner et al. 2006). But a pilgrim is much more than just a religious traveler as a traveler of such a purpose usually is more open to encounter strangers, experience and hear new things and especially question his or her own views. Pilgrims go to foreign destinations not only to be close to a site of a miraculous religious event but they intend to fulfill a commandment of the religion (Collins- Kreiner et al. 2006). According to Smith (1989 cited Collins- Kreiner et al. 2006) tourism is based on the three main elements: discretionary income, leisure time and social sanctions permissive of travel. By reason that Pilgrimage requires these basics too, Turner and Turner suggest that a tourist is half a pilgrim if a pilgrim is half a tourist (1978 cited Collins- Kreiner et al. 2006). 11

12 The term pilgrimage implies a religious journey and its Latin origin allows broader interpretations including foreigner, wanderer, exile and traveler. A pilgrimage is therefore a physical journey combined with a spiritual search. Collins- Kreiner et al. (2006) define three types of pilgrims namely the Existential Pilgrims (Orthodox Catholics) who will experience the pilgrimage only once and their visits will rarely include recreational activities, the Experiential Existential Pilgrims (Religious Protestants) who long for authentic experiences and are more keen to experience the unknown, and the Tourist Pilgrims who are interested in getting to know the Holy Land but still want to participate in secular tourism activities. The sites of a pilgrimage are tied to Jesus life cycle and each station is not only a place of theoretical information for pilgrims but also includes praying and meditating. Usually the group is led by a spiritual leader who is responsible for prayers and religious rituals and a tour leader who is the authority when it comes to logistics and welfare of each group member. Israel offers many sites sacred to the three monotheistic religions, however there is a fairly large amount of holy sites situated on a relatively small area of land. From there were annually around 2 million tourists coming to Israel (Israel, Ministry of Tourism, 2001) and estimated 25 percent of these tourists were Christian pilgrims. (Fleischer 2000, cited Collins- Kreiner et al.). According to Collins- Kreiner et al. (2006) another 40 percent were Christians with other motivations who still paid visits to the Christian holy sites. As the Holy Land is a rather small area it imposes problems for pilgrims and pilgrimage organizers have to face logistical issues. Leading a group of pilgrims through different zones of possible danger but ensuring their safety while visiting sacred sites certainly involves menaces. For many pilgrims the trip is a once in a lifetime experience because they have saved money years beforehand. If they are not able to visit all promised sites the pilgrimage will leave them disappointed. Yet there is an advantage to make a pilgrimage during insecure times since most sites are not visited by too many people and as Gertel ( cited Collins- Kreiner et al.) reports, many pilgrims interviewed liked the fact that they had a whole site for themselves when traveling during uncertain times. 12

13 Addionally numerous pilgrims stated that they were curious about safety regulations and even tragic occurrences, such as bombings. They wanted to tell these stories of dramatic reality to their friends and family back at home to be viewed as heroes themselves. But not only the unstable political situation is a threat for pilgrims, their own expectations are sources of distortion. Many pilgrims might see the Holy Land as a sacred terrain that bears images of desire and utopian nostalgia. Israel and Palestine are countries torn by war and dissension and are therefore also oversaturated with secular tourism and commercial entertainment. Religious tourism will always represent a significant part of Israel s tourism industry even if its cities become more and more modern. Israel is already a highly developed state and the birthplace to many innovators. But in the same regard Israeli people preserve and cherish their rich history, retaining ancient sites and monuments of biblical significance. 2.3 Market Profile and Demand The domestic market accounts for a big part of Israeli tourism because many incoming guests are visiting friends and family. Pilgrimage related tourism represented 7% of international visitors in 2002 but increased by 100% in 2004 because the safety within the country improved (Travel and Tourism Forecast 2005). The Travel and Tourism Forecast (2005) explains that the Israel airline industry is dominated by national carrier El Al, which was privatized in 2003 and is also controlled by Arkia Holdings, which owns a controlling stake of 40%. This flagship carrier has its headquarters at Ben Gurion International Airport, which is the most important airport in the country. By fact that Israel attracts various tourist groups and offers a wide range of not only important historical and religious sights but also vibrant metropolises, it is of interest to the researcher which target groups the state of Israel intends to attract. If one visits the official Israel Tourism Website ( the potential tourist is asked to choose between one of the three main interest divisions, being Christian interest, Jewish interest and General interest. Based on this decision the website then shows specific attractions that the visitor might be curious about. Naturally tourists that incline 13

14 to focus on the religious aspects of Israel, be it Jewish or Christian, are presented with pictures of important religious sites, whereas tourists that visit the state for recreational reasons will see impressions of historical sites or wellness facilities. The latter are also targeted to experience Health Tourism in Israel by reason that many therapeutic resorts are located close to the Dead Sea, which is famous for health treatments. The Israel Tourism Website furthermore describes the state as one where visitors can experience four bio- geographical zones, namely Mediterranean, Steppe, Desert and African. It additionally gives an alphabetical overview of sites that are attractive to Jewish and Christian travellers. But this Middle Eastern state does not only entice foreigners to come and experience the land, it also represents an important destination for relatives of local inhabitants. Many of the Israeli visitors are merely intending to meet their families and in fact stay at their relatives homes. The cities Jerusalem, Tel Aviv and Eilat are the destinations of biggest interest to tourists and as the Travel and Tourism Forecast additionally notes, it is the Dead Sea that attracts most health tourists. As already stated, the Israel Hotel Association had to decrease prices and of the 15 million bed nights ascertained in 2003, 78% were domestic tourists. The largest travel agency in Israel is ISSTA which contains 48 branches and there are 730 travel agencies in total operating in Israel. 3 Israel Then and Now 3.1 Zionism and Independence of State The man who brought Zionism into being and formed the first thoughts of an independent jewish state was Theodor Herzl, a Viennese journalist and writer. Herzl was the one who wanted jews to debate over a collective political future and therefore invited many aqquaintances to join him in the 1897 congress in the swiss Basel. He and his combatants founded the Jewish National Fund ( Keren Kajemet LeIsrael ) and the Palestine Land Development Company whose function was and as of today still is the collection of money for the acquisition of land (Balke 2009). In the years before the Alijah, the first big wave of immigration, there were only around to orthodox jews living in Palestine. 14

15 In the year of 1917 the Foreign Secretary of England, Lord Arthur James Balfour, declared his courtesy towards the foundation of an independent jewish state to Lord Lionel Walter Rothschild who was a leading proponent of the Zionist movement (Steininger 2009). This formal statement, namely the Balfour Declaration, revealed: "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non- Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country" (Steininger, 2009: 73). This declaration represents a milestone in the history of the zionistic movement and the jewish independent statehood. According to Steininger (2009) Great Britain and France agreed that they would seperate their different interests in the Middle East after the First World War. In the year of 1922 Transjordan was seperated from Palestine by the British government. At the same time they demanded the establishment of a so- called Jewish Agency that served as the pre- state Jewish authority and was supposed to co- operate with the British administration. Balke (2009) notes that Palestine became more and more attractive for Jewish people as immigrated during the third Alijah between the years of 1919 and Furthermore the British mandate administration invested large amounts of money into the infrastructure of Palestine and as a result of the national socialist movements in Europe there were even more immigrants coming to the Arab state beginning with the year of Balke (2009) specifies that a separation of Palestine was planned by the British government that ensured land for Jewish immigrants but many Palestinians revolted against the British army and defended their own land. Balke (2009) also states that as a consequence of the Arab uprisings the British Colonial Secretary Malcom MacDonald published white papers in the year of 1939 that implied a newly interpreted Balfour Declaration and terminated the construction of a national Jewish homeland. The two Zionist leaders David Ben Gurion, who became the first Prime Minister of Israel in 1948, and Chaim Weizmann, who was elected the first President of the State of Israel in the same year, decided 15

16 to invoke their Jewish followers to ignore the white papers and act as if they already were a state in Palestine until they actually were a state in Israel (Steininger, 2009:25). After years of illegal immigration and unauthorized constructions of housing settlements there came a big turning point for the Jewish settlers when Great Britain declared their retraction and ended their mandate adminstration. As a result the United Nations summoned a UN General Assembly whereby all member states were invited to vote for a possible separation of Palestine and the formation of Israel (Steininger 2009). Steininger (2009) furthermore asserts that on May 14, 1948, David Ben Gurion announced independence and as the speaker of the Jewish Agency named the state Israel. 3.2 Conflicts & Wars One day after the declaration of Independence of Israel the first Arab- Israeli war had begun and the states Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Jordan and Iraq sent out army troups to attack the newly born state. The armed forces of Israel were quantitatively far beyond those of their enemies but since the Arab leaders distrusted their alleged confederates and were not able to coordinate strategic approaches, Israel won its war of independence (Balke 2009). There were multiple wars and conflicts between the state of Israel and its Arab neighbour states such as the Suez Crisis in 1948, the Six- Day War in 1967 or the Yom Kippur War in 1973, whereby the coalition of Egypt and Syria surprised Israel with a joint attack on the holiest day in Judaism, the Yom Kippur (Flug and Schäuble 2009). Balke (2009) states that despite the fact that the Yom Kippur War was a military defeat for Egypt it represented a political victory because the Israeli secret service had not been able to foresee the attacks and therefore their bereavements were immense. However, Egypt and Syria were not able to suppress Israel from their 1967 conquered territories. Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty after thirteen days of negotiations at Camp David witnessed by the former US President Jimmy Carter in the year of Trying to overcome all the conflicts with their neighbour states Israel still had to face Palestinian uprisings and saw itself confronted with a Palestinian National Movement that stood opposite to Zionism (Steininger 2009). 16

17 According to Balke (2009) the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) with its leader Yassir Arafat was recognized as the administrative authority by the Palestinian people in Israel got involved with Lebanon in the year of 1984 with the objective of suppressing the PLO and the creation of Israel- friendly government. Balke (2009) also mentions that Yassir Arafat finally agreed to evacuate his army forces to Tunis after Beirut was constantly under attack for two months. The lebanese militant group Hezbollah then committed deadly massacres in the Palestinian refugee camps of Sabra and Shatila whereby over 3000 people got killed. The Palestine Liberation Organisation office at the UNO in Washington was closed and confronted with all of this despair, the Palestinian people started to revolt (Steininger 2009). In 1987 Palestinians initiated what came to be known as the First Intifada, an uprising against the Israeli enmeshment. Their actions consisted of violent acts, nonviolent civil disobedience and resistance movements. The Intifada became the biggest political challenge Israel had yet to face. Steininger (2009) describes that during this revolt the radical Islamic Resistance Movement Hamas was founded to release Palestine from Israeli involvement and build an Islamic state. Balke (2009) indicates that an agreement between the Israel government and the Palestinian Liberation Organization came to be in the year of 1994 with the so- called Oslo Accords. Yasser Arafat then officially recognized Israel as its own state and in return the Prime Minister of Israel Yitzhak Rabin recognized the PLO. After mutual recognition both Arafat and Rabin were invited to Washington for a celebratory ceremony of the Oslo Accords and at the ceremony both shook hands which at that point seemed to symbolize the end of the Israeli- Palestinian conflict. 3.3 The Second Intifada In the summer of 2000 Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat were cordially invited to Camp David by US President Bill Clinton to finalize the Middle East peace treaties (Flug and Schäuble 2009). However, both authorities did not come to a mutual consent as the Israeli still thought they could bargain for territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip even though Palestinians were of the opinion that the recognition of the state Israel and its 17

18 borders in 1967 had already been their final compromise. Flug and Schäuble (2009) furthermore report that while both countries could not come to an agreement it was the visit of Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon at the Temple Mount in the same year that activated the Second Intifada, also known as the Al- Aqsa Intifada. The mosque Al- Aqsa at the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem represents a holy site in both Judaism and Islam, therefore Israeli authorities as well as Palestinian ones claim sovereignty over this spiritual monument. This visit had the aim of demonstrating Israeli control over the Temple Mount but was perceived as deliberate provocation to the Palestinian opponent and its leader Yasser Arafat (Balke 2009). As a consequence violent street battles broke loose and moreover numerous suicide attacks were commited. Armed Israeli forces were attacked by Palestinians and vice versa, the Palestinian media invoked people to fight a so- called Holy War and people of both religious backgrounds were killed, Flug and Schäuble (2009) note. Other Arab countries like Egypt, Syria and Jordan called for Israel to be convicted in an UN War Crimes Tribunal and supported the Palestinians. The Second Intifada consisted not only of violent revolts but also of mass protests and general strikes likewise to the First Intifada. Since Israeli and Palestinian people blame each other for the failure of the Oslo Accords neither one wants to retreat in the conflict. Flug and Schäuble (2009) observe that there is no official ending to the Second Intifada but with the death of PLO leader Yasser Arafat in 2004 and internal conflicts between the two Palestinian fractions Hamas and Fatah, the ending of the armed conflict was near. Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas and Israeli President Ariel Sharon declared the ending of violence in the Sharm El- Sheikh Summit in the year of The brutal conflict of the Second Intifada claimed the lives of 1000 Israeli and 3300 Palestinians (Jaeger and Paserman, 2006). Even though political leaders oftentimes come to a mutual agreement of terminating violence, the hatred between those two cultures cannot be ended with a written statement of a political spokesperson. Palestinians and Israeli fight for their right of homeland and do so by attacking and dislodging the opponent. By reason that they do not share the same religion, many terrorist groups want to fight a Holy War. They view deadly attacks as righteous acts for what they 18

19 believe in. Suicide bombers do not see their deaths as suicides but rather as a sacrifice for God and as Balke (2009) observes, human bombs are not a punishment for political or social injustice but rather an effect of mostly Islamic imprinting and its wrongful illustration of the afterlife. The Palestinian Islamist political party Hamas was initiated during the First Intifada and according to Balke (2009) soon became considerably more dangerous than the PLO as they openly stated the extermination of Israel as their main goal. Their guidelines additionally invoke followers to murder Jewish people as every Jew represents a settler that has to be eliminated. Furthermore the Hamas pamphlet implies that Jews had been the initiators of both World Wars and their aspirations to acquire world supremacy have to be detained (Baumgarten 2006). The organization of Hamas contains three subgroups, namely the social, the political and the military wing. In the year of 2006 Hamas won elections in the Palestinian autonomy areas but the coalition government system that was then formed with PLO chairman and Fatah president Mahmoud Abbas, did not last long. Members of Fatah were hunted and executed and to this end Hamas and Fatah terminated their coalition in The Fatah represents the largest fraction of the Palestine Liberation Organization and even though terrorist groups have also claimed to be members of Fatah in the past, this political party is not considered to be a terrorist movement anymore in contrary to Hamas (Flug and Schäuble 2009). Another radical Islamist party is represented by the Hezbollah which was founded by Iranian revolutionary guards after Israeli troups were invading Lebanon in Flug and Schäuble (2009) note that this organization gained momentum when they sent out suicide bombers to kill American, French and Israeli army forces during the civil war in Lebanon. Hezbollah became a political party in 1985 and similar to the Hamas it is their target to exterminate the state of Israel and free Jerusalem. They own seats in the Lebanese government and train their own military forces. Both Hezbollah and Hamas have been at war with Israel and the actual victims of these conflicts have always been civilians. The fundamentalist organizations do not take the security of their members or the security of civilians into consideration during violent 19

20 attacks. By reason that members of these radical unions oftentimes hide in public places and institutions the military forces also attack civilian venues like schools. Israeli civilians had to suffer not only during the Second Intifada but also afterwards, being confronted with numerous terror attacks and violent turmoils. 3.4 Conflicts after the Second Intifada To protect Israeli civilians from ongoing terror attacks and with the aim of physically separating Palestinian territory from Israeli territory, the Israeli government started to build a long barrier in the year of 2002 (Balke 2009). While some parts of the Israeli West Bank Barrier consist of solid concrete walls, most of it consists of a barbed wired fence of 670 kilometres length along the West Bank area (BBC 2005). According to Balke (2009) another separation of Israel and Palestinian areas was initiated in the summer of 2005 as Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Scharon instructed the demolition of all Israeli housing settlements within the Gaza Strip. Furthermore the author notes that despite this concession of Israeli government many missiles were fired from the Gaza Strip to close- to- border Israeli towns. As mentioned in the previous chapter the organization of Hamas won elections in the year of 2006 against PLO fraction Fatah consequently caused violent riots between the two opponents in the area of the Gaza Strip. After radical Palestinians attacked a military sentinel on Israeli territory, Israel got involved in the Gaza Strip turmoils and tried to disempower terroristic infrastructure (Balke 2009). According to the BBC database (2007) in that same year Lebanese Hezbollah caused an assault whereby Israeli soldiers were kidnapped and killed. The situation escalated after Israel tried to cut traffic routes in Lebanon to prevent Hezbollah from further abduction of the soldiers to either Syria or Iran. This incident deployed what came to be known as the Lebanon War, which lasted for 34 days and claimed many victims on both sides (BBC 2007). The military conflict between Lebanon and Israel then ended but the conflict between Hamas and Israel did not entirely dissolve during that time. Interruptions only transpired because of strategic tactics and the Hamas did not stop to fire missiles. Israel responded with military operations and because members of the Hamas intended to hide at public places like schools and universities, parts of the infrastructure in the Gaza Strip were damaged during this collision (Balke 2009). 20

21 Up until today the situation remains unresolved and in March 2011 ceasefires once more broke out whereby Israeli and Palestinian civilians got wounded and killed (APA 2011). In conclusion the sad truth is that because of decades of intercultural conflicts, Israel will always be confronted with terror to some extent and within the next chapters the researcher will focus on the consequences of political violence within the country. 4 Political Violence and its Consequences Terrorism is not a phenomenon of modern times by fact that there have been uprisings against political governments since ancient times. Enders & Sandler (2002, p cited Arendell & Paraskevas 2007) describe terrorism as a premiditated use or threat of use of extranormal violence or brutality by subnationals groups to obtain a political, religious or ideological objective through intimidation of a huge audience, usually not directly involved with the policy making that terrorists seek to influence. Terrorism remains a threat to many countries and people all over the world might find themselves targets as terror attacks are mostly of a random kind. There are lots of different reasons why terrorists want to attack, it might not be deep religious, ethnic and ideological conflicts but they might want to agitate against political or economic systems (Capper 2010). With regard to Israel it can be said that terrorist organizations that attack the country definitely base their hatred on ideological conflicts, as for instance the organization of Hamas has never recognized the right of Israel to be its own state. With their terroristic acts they want to disturb the functioning political and economic situation in Israel and send out alarming messages. Terrorist attacks are forms of outcries against social or political circumstances and they work as a communication channel. A terrorist wants to send a message to an audience and in these times the media plays an important role in delivering this message. The 21

22 audience is people who watch the daily news on television, listen to the radio or use the internet for information purposes. Consequently the feedback of the recipient is the final step in this communication process (Karbour 1971 cited Capper 2010). Therefore the media is responsible of delivering information but at the same time creates a picture of a certain event in the recipient s mind. The media is able to exaggerate terrorist attacks and according to Pizam (2000 cited Capper 2010, p.16) also exaggerate the actual possibilities of travellers being targeted by terrorist attacks. Hence, many destinations that have been places affected by terrorist attacks now complain about exorbitant and exaggerated media coverage. They are stigmatized with a particular picture of possible threat that has a negative effect on the country s image. The media sends out a distorted picture of a country s political situation and this bias can cause economical harm. An industry that can especially suffer from untruthful or exaggerated media coverage is the tourism industry. In some cases these extensive reports of relatively minor incidents can have a considerable impact on the whole tourism and hospitality industry of a destination. According to Buckley and Klemm (1993 cited Capper 2010) the problem with civil unrest is that frightening images are carried across the world and even if an area does not pose imminent threat people will be less encouraged to visit the affected place. Tourism is affected by terrorism not only by the creation of an image of lack of safety but also by actual damage of tourist facilities. Terrorists can choose places that have a lot of visitors and a high visibility to the international media because that gives them the chance to publicise their message globally (Seekings 1993 cited Capper 2010). Richter (1983 cited Capper 2010) points out that tourism stands for Western culture, be it political culture or ideological values, as tourists oftentimes are from wealthier countries of Western Europe or North America. For this reason tourism represents the capitalistic way of life and a tourist is the personification of a capitalist. Terror organizations that are against the Western lifestyle and its puppets seek to harm tourists of this heritage and see attacks against them as valid. Tourism is a shifting demand and depends on not only the picture a tourism destination creates for itself but also on factors that cannot be controlled. Crises and changes in culture, economy, politics or nature have an essential influence on potential tourists. Travelers might not want to visit certain countries due to their 22

23 political instability or prospective threats. But how do tourists react to potential terrorist threats and what kind of target group is least deterred by these risks? Do leisure tourists that plan to spend their vacation in Israel consider their own safety when booking the trip? Would travelers who intend to visit their family in Israel cancel their plans because of political instability in the country? Before answering these research questions it is of interest to the researcher how nations cope with terrorism. 4.1 Overcoming Terrorism Pedahzur et al. (2005) claim that policy makers of democratic states nowadays understand that when dealing with terrorism it is of utter importance to set a high value on performing defensive measures rather than focusing only on offensive measures. Furthermore they investigate that offensive methods against terrorism are mostly employed by national authorities whereas defensive methods are practiced by regional or district authorities. Offensive measures against terror imply direct impairment of terrorist organizations, defensive measures on the other hand incorporate the alliviation of secondary consequences of terrorism such as social, psychological or political effects (Pedahzur et al. 2005). According to Pedahzur et al. (2005) there are three stages of coping with a terror attack, namely the Prevention and Deterrence, the Event Management and the Rehabilitation. The first stage of prevention of course contains minimizing the probability that an actual terror attack occurs, but if so limiting the consequences. The management of the actual occurrence of such an event represents the second stage of the model and its aim is to provide fast and efficient help for the victims. Within this stage it is crucial to analyze the scene and prevent further attacks. Pedahzur et al. (2005) describe the rehabilitation stage as the last one whereby treatment is offered to the victims and their families, be it medical, psychological, functional or economic. In this part of the model local welfare agencies play a significant role as well as National Insurance by reason that they are able to support victims financially. 23

24 Even though this model offers practical strategies to cope with terrorism and terror attacks it is the actual event that has its very own consequences on each responsible helper in need. The structure and clearly defined responsibility of each rescue service defines the outcome of a terror attack. If delayed or no communication between the rescue forces takes place, the effects of a violent terrorism act will increase (Perry 2003 cited Pedahzur et al. 2005). 4.2 Consequences of Terrorism for Tourism in Israel Israel has had to deal with terrorism since the formation of the state and as its government must not only try to ensure the safety of the state s own inhabitants, it also has to focus on counterterrorism tactics and the safety of foreigners in Israel. As listed before the state tries to fight terrorism and terror attacks with certain strategies and emergency policies but how is the danger of terrorism presented in the context of tourism? The official Israel Tourism Website (2005) states that Israel is an extremely safe country to visit and to tour. In 2008, three million tourists came to Israel, an all- time record, and all three million went back home safe and sound. We would not encourage tourists to come if we felt they would be in the slightest danger. It can be concluded that the omnipresent threat of terrorism in Israel is not represented as a highly dangerous one and the government encourages tourists to come to the country. According to Tucker (2009) General Meir Dagan, head of the Bureau for Counterterrorism in the Israeli Ministry, believes that fighting terrorism is like boxing, you usually win by points, meaning that fighting terrorism can only be done when new counterterrorism strategies are developed after every attack according to the changing terrorism tactics. Tucker (2009) additionally describes the Israeli domestic and foreign intelligence as well- structured and connected whereby the Israeli Security Agency ( Shin Bet ) is under the authority of the Israeli Prime Minister and responsible for the prevention of terror attacks. The Shin Bet has its own Arab Affairs Division which executes the surveillance of potential terrorists. This security agency works together with the foreign intelligence agency ( Mossad ) and the military intelligence service ( Aman ). Collectively they prepare an annual 24

25 terrorism threat assessment that serves the Prime Minister to evaluate and judge current strategies. Fact is, Israel spends a vast amount of money on counter terrorism measures and the first stage of the stage model of Pedahzur et al. (2005), namely Prevention and Deterrence is applied with strict measures. According to Tucker (2009) the Israeli National Airlines El Al have an estimated security budget of $80million, which also covers every airline carrier and the Ben Gurion International Airport. Furthermore it is indicated that passengers have to go through strict security systems when arriving at Ben Gurion International Airport and armed guards scan the crowds both inside and outside the airport. Tucker (2009) also states that whereas the security system of the United States airports focuses mainly on screening peoples baggage, the safety guard of Ben Gurion airport concentrates on observing the travelers and doing so with psychological profiling techniques. Before passengers enter the baggage screening they are divided into groups of different heritages, be it Jewish Israeli, Arab Israeli, Palestinian or other foreigners. According to these measures the travelers are examined and assessed and law- enforcement databases are used to identify travelers with criminal records (Tucker 2009). It therefore can be concluded that Israel places a high emphasis on security controls. Israeli government additionally attempts to overcome the psychological impacts of terrorism by vitalizing civilians coping skills as they send out terrorism experts to schools and other educational institutions to offer support and information about terrorism. Boaz Ganor, the General Director of the International Policy Institute for Counter- Terrorism in Israel explains that Education directed towards familiarity with the phenomenon of terrorism, in all its aspects, will lower the level of anxiety and foil one of the terrorists principal aims: to instill fear and undermine the personal security of civilians (1998). Counterterrorism forces have not always been as effective as they are today and Israeli authorities had to learn from past failures in order to improve their approaches. As Pedahzur et al. (2005) report during the first suicide attacks there were no ways of determining that an attack was actually over and most of the times medical care intervened before the scene was secured. They take a terror attack from the winter of 2001 as an example whereby two suicide bombers committed 25

26 attacks in a shopping mall in Jerusalem and thirty minutes after the medical care teams arrived, another bomb exploded only fifty meters from the original place of violence. Israel had to improve its second stage of coping with terrorism, the Event Management had to be revised and only after this crucial event it was decided that merely a minimum amount of emergency helpers should enter the scene of a terror attack. Israel intends to overcome terrorism and its violent consequences by separating the Palestinian areas from Israel and does so, as mentioned in a previous chapter, by constructing the West Bank Barrier. But did the erection of this fence actually improve the safety of Israel people? With the help of the following generated graphs (Global Terrorism Database 2010) the researcher wants to illustrate that the West Bank Barrier did actually influence the security situation. Chart 1: Terrorist Attack Rate in West Bank & Gaza Strip

27 Chart 2: Terrorist Attack Rate in West Bank & Gaza Strip Chart 1 and Chart 2 show the amount of terrorism incidents that took place in the region of West Bank and Gaza before the construction of the West Bank Barrier and afterwards. Comparing the charts it can be concluded that shortly before the erection of the border in 2002 the rate of terrorist attacks was on its peak and only lately there has been an increase again. In the years after the construction the rate dropped significantly and only rose again after the Palestinian conflicts between Hamas and Fatah occurred in It can be concluded that the construction of the fence served its purpose and turns out to be an effective method to minimize terrorism incidents. It can be concluded that terrorism does have a big impact on Israel since local government authorities constantly try to maximize security provisions. Evidently it is not only tourists that come to Israel who suffer from a potential threat of terrorism but also Israel s own inhabitants. Even though the official Israel Tourism Website assures tourists of their definite safety in the country, it can never be guaranteed that violent riots will not occur. In the beginning of this research paper the proposed hypothesis was stated and implied that tourists of Jewish heritage who were visiting their families in Israel would be less deterred by terrorist attacks than leisure tourists that come to Israel for their pastime. 27

28 Fielding and Shortland (2008) also deploy the hypothesis that Jewish tourists might be less deterred by violent terrorist attacks because of their family bonds or their religious dedication. Countries with a high Jewish population therefore might display no crucial decline in tourism to Israel. They moreover assume that inhabitants of countries with a high violent crime rate will not be discouraged by potential terror threats as they are used to living with those risks. Thus it can be expected that decrease in tourism also result from the economical and social traits of a tourist s country of origin. Travelers from countries with a low economical development will not be as affected by potential terrorism threats as travelers from economically rich countries. To test these hypotheses Fielding and Shortland (2008) created an equation and concluded that travelers that come from countries with high average incomes and low violence rates can be connected with a larger decrease in tourist arrivals when violence occurs. Therefore tourists of less developed countries are not as sensitive to terrorist attacks as tourists of countries with a highly developed economy. They found out that the rate of regression in tourism over a period of time is approximately 40% lower if the quota of Jewish in a population is one percentage point higher. Thus it is possible that Jewish tourists are less sensitive to contingent violence than merely leisure tourists that have no family ties in Israel The Arab- Israeli Conflict and Tourism Fact is, terrorism and intercultural conflicts do influence tourism. But even in between two conflicting cultures there is a need of exchanging values and experiencing the opposite. There has always been Jewish tourism in Palestine and vice versa. Before the First Intifada broke loose many Jewish travellers were visiting Palestinian territories to enjoy their pastime and visit historical sites. How has the intercultural conflict then influenced the intercultural tourism between Arabs and Israeli? As Stein (2008: 11) illustrates, Jews flocked to East Jerusalem s Old City for its culinary offerings, to the Sinai coast for natural beauty and Bedouin culture, and to markets and restaurants of Bethlehem and Ramallah for inexpensive shopping on Friday afternoons. These travels came to an abrupt ending with the beginning of the first Palestinian uprising. 28