Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology

Transcription

1 Hilgard's Introduction to Thirteenth Edition Rita L. Atkinson University of California, San Diego _j Richard C. Atkinson University of California, San Diego Edward E. Smith University of Michigan Daryl J. Bern Cornell University Susan Nolen-Hoeksema University of Michigan Contributing Editor: Carolyn D. Smith Harcourt College Publishers Fort Worth Philadelphia San Diego New York Austin Orlando San Antonio Toronto Montreal London Sydney Tokyo

2 Preface A Word to the Student 1 as a Scientific and Human Endeavor v xxii Biological and Developmental Processes 31 The Nature of The Scope of The Historical Origins of Nativism Versus Empiricism The Beginnings of Scientific Structuralism and Functionalism Behaviorism Gestalt Psychoanalysis Modern Developments Contemporary Psychological Perspectives The Biological Perspective The Behavioral Perspective The Cognitive Perspective The Psychoanalytic Perspective The Phenomenological Perspective Relationships Between Psychological and Biological Perspectives How Psychological Research Is Done Generating Hypotheses Experiments Correlation Observatioii Ethics of Psychological Research Major Subfields of Biological Foundations of 32 Neurons, the Building Blocks of the Nervous System 33 Action Potentials 35 Synoptic Transmission 37 Neurotransmitters 38 The Organization of the Nervous System 40 Divisions of the Nervous System 40 The Organization of the Brain 42 The Central Core 42 The Limbic System 45 The Cerebrum 47 Pictures of the Living Brain 49 Asymmetries in the Brain 51 Language and the Brain 54 The Autonomic Nervous System 55 The Endocrine System 57 Genetic Influences on Behavior 59 Chromosomes and Genes 59 Genetic Studies of Behavior 61 3 Psychological Development 69 Nature and Nurture 70 Stages of Development 72 Capacities of the Newborn 73 Vision 73 Hearing 73 Taste and Smell 74 Learning and Memory 75 xm

3 Cognitive Development in Childhood Piaget's Stage Theory A Critique of Piaget's Theory Alternatives to Piaget's Theory The Development of Moral Judgment Personality and Social Development Temperament Early Social Behavior Attachment Attachment and Later Development Gender Identity and Sex Typing Adolescent Development Consciousness and Perception 4 Sensory Processes Characteristics of Sensory Modalities ;. Sensitivity Sensory Coding * Vision Light and Vision The Visual System Seeing Light Seeing Pattern Seeing Color Audition Sound Waves The Auditory System Hearing Sound Intensity Hearing Pitch Other Senses Olfaction Gustation Pressure and Temperature Pain 5 Perception Division of Labor in the Brain The Visual Cortex, Recognition Versus Localization Systems Localization Separation of Objects Perceiving Distance Perceiving Motion Recognition Early Stages of Recognition Later Stages of Recognition Recognizing Natural Objects and Top-Down Processing Breakdown of Recognition Attention Selective Looking and Listening The Neural Basis of Attention Perceptual Constancies Lightness and Color Constancy Shape and Location Constancy Size Constancy Perceptual Development Discrimination by Infants Controlled Stimulation Consciousness Aspects of Consciousness Consciousness Preconscious Memories The Unconscious Automaticity and Dissociation Sleep and Dreams Stages of Sleep Sleep Theory Sleep Disorders Dreams Theories of Dream Sleep Meditation Hypnosis Induction of Hypnosis Hypnotic Suggestions The Hidden Observer Psychoactive Drugs Depressants Opiates Stimulants Hallucinogens Cannabis Psi Phenomena Experimental Evidence The Debate Over the Evidence Anecdotal Evidence Skepticism About Psi

4 Learning, Remembering, and Thinking Learning and Conditioning 234 Perspectives on Learning 235 Classical Conditioning 236 Pavlov's Experiments 236 Phenomena and Applications 238 Predictability and Cognitive Factors 240 Biological Constraints 242 f Operant Conditioning 243 The Law of Effect 244 Skinner's Experiments 244 Phenomena and Applications 246 Aversive Conditioning 250 Control and Cognitive Factors 251 Biological Co7istraints 253 Complex Learning 253 Cognitive Maps and Abstract Concepts 254 Insight Learning 255 Prior Beliefs 257 The Neural Basis of Learning 259 Structural Changes 259 Cellular Changes in Simple Learning Memory 266 Three Important Distinctions 267 Three Stages of Memory 267 Working Memory Versus Long- Term Memory 268 Different Memories for Different Kinds of Information 270 Working Memory 270 Encoding 270 Storage 272 Retrieval 273 Workiiig Memory and Thought 274 Transfer From Working Memory to Long-Term Memory 275 Long-Term Memory 276 Encoding 277 Retrieval 278 Storage 281 Interactions Between Encoding and Retrieval 282 Emotional Factors in Forgetting 283 Implicit Memory 286 Memory in Amnesia 286 A Variety of Memory Stores 289 Implicit Memory in Normal Individuals 290 Improving Memory 291 Chunking and Memory Span 291 Imagery and Encoding 292 Elaboration and Encoding 294 Context and Retrieval 294 Organization 294 Practicing Retrieval 295 The PQRST Method 296 Constructive Memory 297 Simple Inferences 297 Stereotypes 298 Schemas 299 Language and Thought 305 Language and Communication 306 Levels of Language 306 Language Units and Processes 306 Effects of Context on Comprehension and Production 311 The Development of Language 312 What Is Acquired? 312 Learning Processes 314 Innate Factors 316 Concepts and Categorization: The Building Blocks of Thought 319 Functions of Concepts 320 Prototypes 320 Hierarchies of Concepts 323 Different Categorization Processes 324 Acquiring Concepts 324 Neural Bases of Concepts and Categorization 326 Reasoning 328 Deductive Reasoning 328 Inductive Reasoning 330 Imaginal Thought 332 The Neural Basis of Imagery 333 Imaginal Operations 334 Visual Creativity 335 Thought in Action: Problem Solving 336

5 xvi Contents Problem-Solving Strategies Representing the Problem Experts Versus Novices Computer Simulation t:i' / Motivation and Emotion Basic Motives 348 Reward and Incentive Motivation 350 Drug Addiction and Reward 352 Homeostasis and Drives 353 Temperature and Homeostasis 353 Thirst as a Homeostatic Process 354 Hunger Interactions Between Homeostasis and Incentives 356 Physiological Hunger Cues 357 Integration of Hunger Signals 358 Obesity 360 Anorexia and Bulimia 365 Gender and Sexuality 367 Early Sexual Development 368 Hormones Versus Environment 369 Adult Sexuality 370 Sexual Orientation Emotion 388 Components of Emotion 389 Arousal and Emotion 390 Intensity of Emotions 391 Differentiation of Emotions 394 Cognition and Emotion 396 Intensity and Differentiation of Emotions 396 Dimensions of Appraisal 398 Some Clinical Implications 399 Emotion Without Cognition 400 Expression and Emotion 400 Communication of Emotion Through Facial Expressions 400 Localization in the Brain 402 Intensity and Differentiation of Emotions 403 General Reactions to Being in an Emotional State 404 Attention and Learning: Mood Congruence Evaluation and Estimation: Mood Effects Aggression as an Emotional Reaction Aggression as a Drive Aggression as a Learned Response Aggressive Expression and Catharsis Personality and Individuality Individual Differences 420 Sources of Individual Differences 421 Heritability 423 Interactions Between Personality and Environment 424 Assessment of Individual Differences 428 Characteristics of a Good Test 428 Assessment of Intellectual Abilities 430 Assessment of Personality 435 Recent Theories of Intelligence 441 Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences 441 Anderson's Theory of Intelligence and Cognitive Development 442 Sternberg's Triarchic Theory 444 Ceci's Bioecological Theory 445 Theories of Intelligence: A Summary Personality 453 The Psychoanalytic Approach 454 Personality Structure 455 Personality Dynamics 456 Personality Development 456 Modifications of Freud's Theories 457 Projective Tests 459 A Psychoanalytic Portrait of Human Nature 462

6 Psychoanalytic Approach The Behaviorist Approach Social Learning and Conditioning A Behaviorist Portrait of Human Nature Behaviorist Approach The Humanistic Approach A Humanistic Portrait of Human Nature Humanistic Approach The Cognitive Approach Kelly's Personal Construct Theory. Self-Schemas Bern's Gender Schema Theory Cognitive Approach (PMT 1 Stress, Psychopathology, and Therapy Stress, Health, and Coping Characteristics of Stressful Events Traumatic Events Controllability Predictability Challenging Our Limits Internal Conflicts Psychological Reactions to Stress Anxiety Anger and Aggression Apathy and Depression Cognitive Impairment Physiological Reactions to Stress The Fight-or-^Flight Response Stress and Toughness How Stress Affects Health Mediators of Stress Responses Psychoanalytic Theory Behavioral Theory Cognitive Theory The Type A Pattern Coping Skills 508 Problem-Focused Coping 508 Emotion-Focused Coping 508 Defense Mechanisms and Coping 512 Managing Stress 515 Behavioral Techniques 516 Cognitive Techniques 518 Modifying Type A Behavior Abnormal 524 Abnormal Behavior 525 Defining Abnormality 525 Wliat Is Normality? 526 Classifying Abnormal Behaviors 527 Perspectives on Mental Disorders 530 Anxiety Disorders 531 Panic Disorders 532 Understanding Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia 533 Phobias 535 Understanding Phobias 536 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 537 Understanding Obsessive- Compulsive Disorder 538 Mood Disorders 539 Depression 540 Bipolar Disorder 541 Understanding Mood Disorders 543 Dissociative Identity Disorder 546 Schizophrenia 548 Characteristics of Schizophrenia 549 Unders tanding Schizophrenia 552 Personality Disorders 554 Antisocial Personality 554 Understanding Antisocial Personalities 556 Borderline Personality Disorder 557 Understanding Borderline Personalities 558 Biological-Psychological Interactions and Mental Disorders 559 Insanity as a Legal Defense 559

7 xvm Contents 16 Methods of Therapy Historical Background Early Asylums Modern Treatment Facilities Professionals Who Provide Psychotherapy Techniques of Psychotherapy Psychodynamic Therapies Behavior Therapies Cognitive-Behavior Therapies Humanistic Therapies An Eclectic Approach Group and Family Therapy Special Issues in Treating Children The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy Evaluating Psychotherapy Comparing Psychotherapies Common Factors in Psychotherapies Biological Therapies Psychotherapeutic Drugs Electroconvulsive Therapy Combining Biological and Psychological Therapies Effects of Culture and Gender on Therapy Enhancing Mental Health Community Resources and Paraprofessionals Promoting Your Own Emotional Well-Being Cross-Cultural Differences in Attribution Processes 619 Attitudes 620 Consistency of Attitudes 620 Functions of Attitudes 622 Attitudes and Behavior 625 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 626 Interpersonal Attraction 627 Liking 627 Romantic/Sexual Attraction and Love 631 Pair Bonding and Mating Strategies Social Interaction and Influence 640 The Presence of Others 641 Social Facilitation 641 Deindividuation 643 Bystander Intervention 645 Compliance and Resistance 650 Conformity to a Majority 650 Minority Influence 652 Obedience to Authority 652 The Power of Situations 659 Rebellion 660 Internalization 662 Persuasive Communication 662 Reference Groups and Identification 665 Collective Decision Making 667 Group Polarization 667 Groupthink 669 Social Behavior Social Cognition and Affect 606 Intuitive Theories of Social Behavior 607 Schemas 607 Stereotypes 612 Attributions 615 Appendix Statistical Methods and Measurement 677 Glossary 690 References 715 Copyrights, Acknowledgments, and Illustration Credits 747 Name Index 751 Subject Index 761