Advanced Database Management Systems

Transcription

1 Advanced Database Management Systems Distributed DBMS:Introduction and Architectures Alvaro A A Fernandes School of Computer Science, University of Manchester AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Outline Introduction to Distributed DBMSs Distributed DBMS Architectures AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

2 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs Distributed Computing Definition A number of distinct processing elements possibly administratively autonomous possibly heterogeneous interconnected by a computer network cooperating in the performance of assigned tasks. Several aspects of DBMS can be distributed, e.g.: Control (e.g., over updates, allocation of resources, etc.) Processing logic (e.g., algebraic operators, data movements, etc.) Services (e.g., optimization, access control, etc.) Data (e.g., tuples, columns, relations, etc.) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs What is a Distributed Database Management System? Definition A distributed database (DDB) is a collection of multiple, distinct, but logically interrelated databases, placed in different physical locations and linked by a computer network. A distributed database management system (DDBMS) is the software that manages the DDB and provides mechanisms that make this distribution transparent to applications and end users. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

3 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (1) Note that a (centralized) DBMS may be networked without being a DDBMS. This happens when there is no logical view over the data and resources that could be accessed and shared over a network. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (2) When there is a logical view over data and resources, they can then be accessed and shared over a network and co-operation takes place. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

4 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (3) Implicit Assumptions Data may be stored at a number of sites. Each site logically has a distinct (assumed single) processor. Processors at different sites are interconnected by a computer network, therefore no multiprocessors, no specialist interconnect, no specialist parallel hardware. The DDB is a DB, not a collection of data files, therefore the data is logically related (e.g., as manifested in the access patterns that are characteristic of the relational data model). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (4) Applications/Promises Any organization which has a decentralized structure is a good a priori candidate for using DDBMSs. A DDBMS promises: Transparent management of distributed, fragmented, and replicated data Improved reliability/availability through distributed processes Improved performance by exploiting locality and parallelism Easier and more economical system expansion through scale out (i.e., more of the same boxes ) rather than scale up (i.e., ever bigger, more expensive boxes ). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

5 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (5) Transparency Transparency stems from abstraction, i.e., the separation of the higher-level semantics of a system from the lower-level implementation concerns. In a DDBMS environment, a fundamental issue is to provide data independence through several kinds of transparency: Network (or distribution) transparency Replication transparency Fragmentation transparency horizontal, through selection vertical, through projection hybrid, combining both AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (6) Example Relations Example EMP = ENO ENAME TITLE PROJ = E1 J. Doe Elect. Eng. E2 M. Smith Syst. Anal. E3 A. Lee Mech. Eng. E4 J. Miller Programmer E5 B. Casey Syst. Anal. E6 L. Chu Elect. Eng.. E7 R. Davis Mech. Eng. E8 J. Jones Syst. Anal PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P1 Instrumentation Tokyo P2 Database Develop Oslo P3 CAD/CAM Oslo P4 Maintenance Paris P5 CAD/CAM Paris ASG = ENO PNO RESP DUR E1 P1 Manager 12 E2 P1 Analyst 24 E2 P2 Analyst 6 E3 P3 Consultant 10 E3 P4 Engineer 48 E4 P2 Programmer 18 E5 P2 Manager 24 E6 P4 Manager 48 E7 P3 Engineer 36 E7 P5 Engineer 23 E8 P3 Manager 40 PAY = TITLE SAL Elect. Eng Syst. Anal Mech. Eng Programmer AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

6 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (7) Transparent Access Example Find the name and salary of employees on assignments not lasting 12 months. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (8) Potentially Improved Performance Locality : Data can be kept close to its points of use by means of data distribution strategies whilst still benefitting all by means of data integration strategies. Parallelism : Distribution allows for both inter-query (i.e., when whole query evaluation plans (QEPs) run in distinct sites) and intra-query parallelism (i.e., when QEP fragments of the same query run in distinct sites). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

7 Introduction to Distributed DBMSs DDBMS Environment (9) Scale-Out System Expansion Scaling-out (i.e., deriving a positive response in performance to more of the same processing elements) is generally considered to be easier than scaling-up (i.e., deriving a positive response in performance by the same number of larger processing elements). With the widespread availability of high-performance commodity hardware, scale-out is all the more appealing now than in the past. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures DBMS Abstraction Through Schema Levels The ANSI/SPARC Architecture A DBMS supports abstractions by means of schemas that define different views at different levels. A DDBMS must provide transparency without breaking, and indeed supporting, such expectations. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

8 Distributed DBMS Architectures DBMS Implementation Alternatives (1) The DBMS implementation dimensions that matter the most in DDBMSs are: distribution : of various kinds (e.g., processing, data) heterogeneity : of various kinds (e.g., syntactic, semantic) autonomy : of various kinds (e.g., at instance level, at schema level) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures DBMS Implementation Alternatives (2) Dimensions of the Problem Distribution refers to whether the data and processing components of the system are located on the same machine or not. There many sources of heterogeneity, e.g., infrastructural (e.g., different hardware, communications, OSs, etc.) syntactic (e.g., different data model, database languages, etc.) semantic (e.g., different names for the same concepts, different concepts with the same name) Autonomy is the least understood, the most troublesome to contend with, and takes various forms: Design autonomy, i.e., the degree to which the design of a component DBMS can change without explicit co-ordination and control Communication autonomy, i.e., the degree to which a component DBMS can decide whether and how to communicate with others. Execution autonomy, i.e., the degree to which a component DBMS can decide whether and how to execute operations locally AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

9 Distributed DBMS Architectures DBMS Implementation Alternatives (3) There are some interesting triples in the space defined by the implementation dimensions in the figure: centralized DBMSs : (D=none, H=none, A=none) client-server DBMSs : (D=some, H=some, A=none) federated DBMSs : (D=any, H=some, A=some) multi-dbmss : (D=any, H=any, A=any) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (1) Federated DBMS from Component Schemas In the figure, federated is being used to connote the notion that the component DBMSs co-operate by neither exercising high degrees of autonomy nor inflicting high levels of heterogeneity on others. In this case, a global conceptual schema (GCS) arises from local conceptual schemas (LCS) and local internal schemas (LIS) by a negotiation process (or by imposition from the centre, if within organization boundaries). The external schemas (ES) can be more easily derived from the GCS. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

10 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (2) Multi-DBMS from Component Schemas In the figure, multi- is being used to connote the notion that the component DBMSs have no coercion on their autonomy nor on how heterogeneous they make themselves. In this case, a GCS does not normally arise by negotiation (e.g., there may be more than one GCS if the component DBMSs have public interfaces). The component DBMSs may still have local external schemas (LES) imposed upon them. The GCS too can have global external schemas (GES) imposed upon it. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (3) Multi-DBMS without a Global Schema The absence of a global schema means that only partial views arise, i.e., there is no attempt at a unified description of all the component DBMSs. This is more likely in the case of ad-hoc, single-use scenarios, where there is no motivation to invest on creating a global view over the resources. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

11 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (4) Multi-DBMS Execution Model In a multi-dbms there is a need to map a global request into local sub-requests and local sub-results into a global result. The component DBMSs still cater for local requests with local results. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (5) Time-Shared Access to a Centralized Database In mere time-sharing of a centralized DBMS, all data and all applications run remotely from the point of access. Requests are for batch tasks, a response (and not necessarily results) is sent back. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

12 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (6) Multiple Clients/Single Server In client-server approaches, clients are applications that interface through client-side services and communications with a server. The server runs server-side services in response to client requests. Because of the client-side services that support the application, high-level, fine-grained, interactive requests can be sent that cause results (i.e., filtered answers only) to flow back. In general, the client-side services offer query language interfaces (perhaps language-embedded, or form-based, or both). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (7) Pros/Cons of Client-Server Architectures Pros More efficient division of labor Client-side scale-up and scale-out Better price/performance on client machines Ability to use familiar tools on client machines Client access to remote data Full DBMS functionality provided to many Overall better system price/performance Cons (vis-à-vis other distribution strategies) Possible bottleneck and single point of failure in the server Server-side scale-up and scale-out less easy AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

13 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (8) Multiple Clients/Multiple Servers Distributing server-side load is possible. Mechanisms become more complex at the lower levels. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures Distributed DBMS Architectures (9) Co-Operating Servers Once servers start co-operating, one is coming close to a truly distributed DDBMS. The newest classes of DDBMSs have arisen in the last five year as a result of pressure to maintain extremely large repositories of either structured or unstructured data supporting workloads consisting of either relatively few computationally intensive analyses or an extremely large amount of relatively simple retrieval or update requests. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

14 Distributed DBMS Architectures Summary Distributed DBMS Architectures DDBMSs have risen in importance due to structural changes in the computing landscape that saw the networking of high-quality PCs become the norm. Even so, they still retain their original role of emulating the operational decentralization of organizations. DDBMS architectures capitalize on localization and parallelization to offer a potential for performance gains. Nonetheless, autonomy and heterogeneity levels can create significant hurdles for full distribution. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMS Architectures Advanced Database Management Systems Data Distribution Strategies Alvaro A A Fernandes School of Computer Science, University of Manchester AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

15 Outline Distributed DBMSs: The Design Problem Data Distribution Strategies Fragmentation and Allocation Fragmentation, in More Detail AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMSs: The Design Problem Distribution Strategies (1) The Design Problem In the general setting, we need to decide: the placement of data and programs across the sites of a computer network as well as possibly designing the network itself In DDBMS, the placement of applications entails: placement of the distributed DBMS software placement of the applications that run on the database AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

16 Distributed DBMSs: The Design Problem Distribution Strategies (2) Dimensions of the Problem Whether only data is partitioned across sites (and programs are replicated everywhere) or whether programs are partitioned too Whether the access patterns are stable or not Whether knowledge of such access patterns is complete or not AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Distributed DBMSs: The Design Problem Distribution Strategies (3) Design Approaches Top-Down : only possible, in practice, when the system is being designed from scratch, and only lasts if heterogeneity and autonomy are tightly controlled Bottom-Up : only practical solution when the component databases already exist at a number of sites, and more likely to last when heterogeneity and autonomy cannot be controlled AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

17 Data Distribution Strategies Data Distribution Strategies (4) Some Design Issues Why fragment at all? How to fragment? How much to fragment? How to ensure correctness of fragmentation? How to allocate fragments? What information is required? AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Data Distribution Strategies Data Distribution Strategies (5) Fragmentation (1) Why can t we just distribute relations? Because most relations are designed to be suitable for a great many applications, and different applications may be subject to different locality aspects and offer different parallelization opportunities. What is a reasonable unit of distribution? Roughly, that view on a relation that is needed by one or more applications in one place AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

18 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (6) Fragmentation (2) Consider the case of entire relations as the unit of distribution: Most relations have subsets whose semantics characterize special affinity (e.g., of location, of timing, etc.). For example, in a relation Employees, the attribute Department may characterize location affinity if different departments occupy different locations. If so, then unnecessary communication may be incurred if we distribute entire relations. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (7) Fragmentation (3) Consider the case of sub-relations as the unit of distribution: A sub-relation, referred to as a fragment in the DDBMS context, is what is specified by a view (typically by selection or projection or both). Fragmentation can be derived in knowledge of applications and their affinities and allows parallel/distributed execution. For example, if Employee is horizontally fragmented by the attribute Department, and different fragments are held where the corresponding department is located, computing the average salary in each department can be done in parallel. If, after fragmentation, a particular query/view cannot be defined over a single fragment, then extra processing will be needed. Also, semantic checks may be more difficult (e.g., enforcing referential integrity). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

19 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (8) Fragmentation Alternatives: Horizontal (1) Broadly speaking, defined by a selection. Reconstruction is by union. Example PROJ1 σ budget< (PROJ) PROJ2 σ budget (PROJ) PROJ PROJ1 PROJ2 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (9) Fragmentation Alternatives: Horizontal (2) Example PROJ1 = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P1 Instrumentation Tokyo P2 Database Develop Oslo PROJ2 = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P3 CAD/CAM Oslo P4 Maintenance Paris P5 CAD/CAM Paris PROJ = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P1 Instrumentation Tokyo P2 Database Develop Oslo P3 CAD/CAM Oslo P4 Maintenance Paris P5 CAD/CAM Paris AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

20 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (10) Fragmentation Alternatives: Vertical (1) Broadly speaking, defined by a projection. Reconstruction is by a natural join on the replicated key. Example PROJ1 π PNO,BUDGET (PROJ) PROJ2 π PNO,PNAME,LOC (PROJ) PROJ PROJ1 PNO PROJ2 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (11) Fragmentation Alternatives: Vertical (2) Example PROJ1 = PNO BUDGET P P P P P PROJ2 = PNO PNAME LOC P1 Instrumentation Tokyo P2 Database Develop. Oslo P3 CAD/CAM Oslo P4 Maintenance Paris P5 CAD/CAM Paris PROJ = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P1 Instrumentation Tokyo P2 Database Develop Oslo P3 CAD/CAM Oslo P4 Maintenance Paris P5 CAD/CAM Paris AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

21 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (12) Correctness of Fragmentation Completeness The decomposition of a relation R into fragments R 1, R 2,..., R n is complete if and only if each data item in R can also be found in some R i. Reconstructibility If a relation R is decomposed into fragments R 1, R 2,..., R n, then there should exist some relational operator such that R = n i=1 R i. Disjointness If a relation R is decomposed into fragments R 1, R 2,..., R n, and data item d i is in R j, then d i should not be in any other fragment R k (k j). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (13) Allocation Alternatives Non-replicated : the fragments form a proper partition, and each fragment resides at only one site. Replicated : the fragments overlap, either fully (i.e., each fragment exists at every site) or partially (i.e., each fragment exists at some sites only). An often used rule-of thumb is that if the number of proper (i.e., read-only) queries is larger than the number of updating queries, then replication tends to be advantageous in proportion, otherwise the opposite is the case. Especially in the client/server case, caching is also part of the design considerations. Web giants (e.g., Facebook, Amazon) use replication extensively. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

22 Fragmentation and Allocation Data Distribution Strategies (14) Replication v. Caching: Some Contrasts Replication Caching target server client or middle-tier granularity coarse fine storage device typically disk typically main memory impact on catalog yes no update protocol propagation invalidation remove copy explicit implicit mechanism separate fetch fault in and keep copy after use AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Data Distribution Strategies (15) Information Requirements The are four kinds of information required: about the database about the applications (i.e., the queries, by and large) about the communication network about the computer system AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

23 Fragmentation, in More Detail Fragmentation Kinds Horizontal Fragmentation (HF) Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (PHF) Derived Horizontal Fragmentation (DHF) Vertical Fragmentation (VF) Hybrid Fragmentation (HF) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (1) Information Requirements: Database We draw a link from a relation R to a relation S if we there is an equijoin on the key of R and the corresponding foreign key in S. We call R the owner, and S the member. We need the cardinalities of relations and the (average) length of their tuples. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

24 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (2) Information Requirements: Application (1) Given R with schema [A 1,..., A n ], a simple predicate p j has the form A i θc where θ {=,, <, >,, }, c Domain(A i ). For a relation R, we define Pr = {p 1,..., p m }. Given R and Pr, we define the set of minterm predicates M = {m 1,..., m r } as M = { m k m k = p j Pr p j }, 1 j m, 1 k r, where p j = p j or else p j = p j. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (3) Information Requirements: Application (2) Example Some (but not all) simple predicates on PROJ are: p 1 : LOC = Tokyo p 2 : LOC = Oslo p 3 : LOC = Paris p 4 : BUDGET Some (but not all) minterm predicates on PROJ are: m 1 : LOC = Tokyo BUDGET m 2 : (LOC = Tokyo ) BUDGET m 3 : LOC = Tokyo (BUDGET ) m 4 : (LOC = Tokyo ) (BUDGET ) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

25 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (4) Information Requirements: Application (3) We also need quantitative information about the application: The selectivity of a minterm mi, denoted by sel(m i ) is the number of tuples in the corresponding relation R that would be produced by σ mi (R). The access frequency of an application q i, denoted by acc(q i ) is the number of times in which q i accesses data in a given period. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (5) Definition A (primary) horizontal fragment R j of a relation R is defined as R j σ mi (R) where m i is a minterm predicate on R. Given a set of minterm predicates M = {m 1,..., m r } over R, one can define r horizontal fragments in R. [Öszu and Valduriez, 1999] give an algorithm that, given a relation R and a set of simple predicates on R, produces a correct set of fragments from R. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

26 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (6) Example (1) Example (Information Required) Let the relations PAY and PROJ be candidates for PHF. Let the following be the applications involved: A1: Find the name and budget of projects given their project number. A2: Find projects according to their budget. Let A1 be issued at three sites. Let one site access A2 for budgets below , and the other two access A2 for those above. Let the following be the simple predicates: p 1 : LOC = Tokyo p 2 : LOC = Oslo p 3 : LOC = Paris p 4 : BUDGET p 5 : BUDGET > AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (7) Example (2) Example (Output) Applying the algorithm alluded to, the following minterm predicates result: m 1 : LOC = Tokyo BUDGET m 2 : LOC = Tokyo BUDGET > m 3 : LOC = Oslo BUDGET m 4 : LOC = Oslo BUDGET > m 5 : LOC = Paris BUDGET m 6 : LOC = Paris BUDGET > AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

27 Fragmentation, in More Detail Primary Horizontal Fragmentation (8) Example (3) Example (Fragments Obtained) PROJ1 = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P1 Instrumentation Tokyo PROJ3 = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P2 Database Develop Oslo PROJ4 = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P3 CAD/CAM Oslo PROJ6 = PNO PNAME BUDGET LOC P4 Maintenance Paris P5 CAD/CAM Paris AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Derived Horizontal Fragmentation (1) Definition A derived horizontal fragment is defined on a member relation according to a selection operation on its owner. Recall that a link from owner to member is defined in terms of an equijoin. A semijoin between R and S is defined as follows: R S π A (R S), where A is the list of attributes in the schema of R. Given a link L, where owner(l) = S and member(l) = R, the derived horizontal fragments of R are defined as R i = R S i, 1 i w, where w is the maximum number of fragments to be generated and S i = σ mi (S) is the primary horizontal fragment defined by the minterm predicate m i. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

28 Fragmentation, in More Detail Derived Horizontal Fragmentation (2) Example (1) Example (Information Required, Fragments Defined) Let there be a link L 1 with owner(l 1 ) = PAY and member(l 1 ) = EMP. Let PAY 1 σ SAL (PAY ) and PAY 2 σ SAL>30000 (PAY ). Then two DHFs are defined: EMP1 EMP PAY 1 EMP2 EMP PAY 2 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Derived Horizontal Fragmentation (3) Example (2) Example (Fragments Obtained) EMP1 = ENO ENAME TITLE E3 A. Lee Mech. Eng. E4 J. Miller Programmer E7 R. Davis Mech. Eng. EMP2 = ENO ENAME TITLE E1 J. Doe Elect. Eng. E2 M. Smith Syst. Anal. E5 B. Casey Syst. Anal. E6 L. Chu Elect. Eng.. E8 J. Jones Syst. Anal AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

29 Fragmentation, in More Detail Vertical Fragmentation (1) Vertical fragmentation has also been studied in the centralized context since it is important for: normalization of designs physical clustering In terms of physical clustering, there is excitement in the DBMS industry (at the time of writing) about an extreme form of vertical partitioning in which single columns are stored separately. Certain access patterns are made easier by this and compression levels an order of magnitude larger can be obtained, which is important when dealing with the massive volumes of data that are typical of analytics workloads. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Vertical Fragmentation (2) Vertical fragmentation is more difficult than horizontal fragmentation, because more alternatives exist. Heuristic approaches that can be used are: grouping : one adds attributes to fragments one by one. splitting : one breaks down a relation into fragments based on access patterns. See [Öszu and Valduriez, 1999] for an example (or else recall, from your earlier database studies the theory of normal forms and how it is justifiably disobeyed). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

30 Summary Data Distribution Strategies Fragmentation, in More Detail Fragmentation, allocation, replication and caching are all mechanisms that DDBMSs make use of to respond to the affinity of locality that data exhibits, particularly in decentralized organizations. The design decisions required are well-studied and well-founded solutions are available but require a great deal of information. The benefits can be significant particularly for response time because of the greater degree of natural parallelism that becomes possible. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Fragmentation, in More Detail Advanced Database Management Systems Distributed Query Processing Alvaro A A Fernandes School of Computer Science, University of Manchester AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

31 Outline The Distributed Query Processing Problem Two-Phase Distributed Query Optimization Localization and Reduction Cost-Related Issues Join Ordering in DQP AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (1) What is the Problem? (1) Assume the fragments EMP i and ASG j to be stored in the sites shown in the figure. Assume the double-shafted arrows to denote the transfer of data between sites. Strategy 1 can be said to aim to do processing locally in order to reduce the amount of data that needs to be shipped to the result site, i.e., Site 5. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

32 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (2) What is the Problem? (2) Strategy 2 can be said to aim to ship all the data to, and do all the processing at, the site where results need to be delivered AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (3) Cost of Alternatives (1) Example (Assumptions) t a (tuple access cost) = 1 unit t t (tuple transfer cost) = 10 units ASG = 100, length(asg) = 10, EMP = 80, length(emp) = 5 ASG 1 = σ ENO E3 (ASG) = 50 EMP 1 = σ ENO E3 (EMP) = 40 V (ASG, RESP) = 5 length(eno) = 2 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

33 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (4) Cost of Alternatives (2) Example (Consequences) size(asg) = = 1, 000, size(emp) = 80 5 = 400 ASG 2 = ASG ASG 1 = = 50 size(asg 1 ) = size(asg 2 ) = ASG 1 10 = = 500 EMP 2 = EMP EMP 1 = = 40 size(emp 1 ) = size(emp 2 ) = EMP 1 5 = 40 5 = 200 ASG 1 = ASG 2 = σ RESP= manager (ASG 1) = ASG = ASG 1 + ASG 2 = = 20 ASG i V (ASG,RESP) = 50 5 = 10 length(emp i ENO ASG i ) = length(emp) + length(asg) length(eno) = = 13 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (5) Cost of Alternatives (3) Example (Comparison (1)) Action Cost Formula Cost produce ASG i = 2 ASG i t a = transfer ASG i to sites 3, 4 = 2 size(asg i ) t t = ,000 produce EMP i = 2 EMP i ASG i t a = transfer EMP i to site 5 = 2 size(emp i ENO ASG i ) t t = , Total Cost of Strategy 1 5,500 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

34 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (6) Cost of Alternatives (4) Example (Comparison (2)) transfer EMP to site 5 transfer ASG to site 5 produce ASG join EMP and ASG Action Cost Formula Cost = size(emp) t t = ,000 = size(asg) t t = ,000 = ASG t a = = EMP ASG t a = ,600 Total Cost of Strategy 2 15,700 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (7) Query Optimization Objectives Minimize a cost function such as total time or response time. All components may have different weights in different distributed environments. One could have different goals, e.g., maximize throughput. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

35 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (8) Where Can Decisions Be Made? Centralized Distributed Hybrid A single site determines the schedule. This is simpler, but requires knowledge about the entire distributed database. There is co-operation among sites to determine the schedule. This only requires sharing local information, but co-operation has a cost. One site determines the global schedule. Each site optimizes the local subqueries. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 The Distributed Query Processing Problem Distributed Query Processing (9) Issues Regarding the Network Wide-Area Network (WAN) WANs have comparatively low bandwidth, low speed and high protocol overhead As a result, communication cost will dominate, to the extent that it may be possible to ignore all other costs. Thus, the global schedule will aim to minimize communication cost. Local schedules are decided according to centralized query optimization decisions. Local-Area Network (LAN) Communication cost is not as dominant as in WANs. Thus, all components in the total cost function must be considered. Broadcasting is an option. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

36 Two-Phase Distributed Query Optimization Distributed Query Optimization (1) Two-Phase Approach One way to implement distributed query optimization as a continuum with the centralized case is to structure the decision-making stages in such a way that the optimizer breaks the overall task into two phases. In the first phase, a single-node QEP is produced (that would run if the DBMS were not a distributed DBMS); in the second phase, this single-node QEP is transformed into a multi-node one. The second phase partitions a QEP into fragments linked by exchange operators, then schedules each fragment to execute in different component nodes. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (2) Localizing a Global Query Given an algebraic query on global relations: determine which are distributed; for those, determine which fragments are involved; replace references to global relations with the reconstruction expression (which is referred to as a localization program). The leaves of distributed relations are replaced by its localization program over its fragments. The result is sometimes referred to as a generic query and is likely to benefit from optimization by reduction. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

37 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (3) Some Examples (1) Assume EMP is horizontally fragmented into EMP 1, EMP 2 and EMP 3 as follows: 1. EMP 1 σ ENO E3 (EMP) 2. EMP 2 σ E3 <ENO E6 (EMP) 3. EMP 3 σ ENO> E6 (EMP) Assume ASG is horizontally fragmented into ASG 1 and ASG 2 as follows: 1. ASG 1 σ ENO E3 (ASG) 2. ASG 2 σ ENO> E3 (ASG) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (4) Some Examples (2) Assume the following query: SELECT E.ENAME FROM EMP E WHERE E.ENO = E5 The figure shows the corresponding generic query with the leaf replaced by its localization program. Then, the figure shows the query after optimization by reduction, in this case because it follows from the predicates that defined the fragments that only EMP 2 can contribute to the specified results. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

38 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (5) Some Examples (3) Assume the following query: SELECT E.ENAME FROM EMP E, ASG A WHERE E.ENO = A.ENO The figure shows the corresponding generic query with the leaf replaced by its localization program. We next show the query after reduction. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (6) Some Examples (4) The figure shows the reduced join query. Note that the optimizer has used the commutativity between join and union to push the joins upstream and reduce the amount of work. This also helps in scheduling the joins to execute in parallel. Note, finally, that the optimizer has made use of the fact that EMP 3 and ASG 1 do not share tuples (because their predicates lead to a contradiction, and hence would return an empty set) and eliminated the need to join them. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

39 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (7) Some Examples (5) Assume EMP is vertically fragmented into EMP 1 and EMP 2 as follows: 1. EMP 1 π ENO,ENAME (EMP) 2. EMP 2 π ENO,TITLE (EMP) Assume the following query: SELECT E.ENAME FROM EMP E The figure shows the corresponding generic query with the leaf replaced by its localization program. Then, the figure shows the query after optimization by reduction, in this case because it follows from the projection lists that defined the fragments that only EMP 1 can contribute to the specified results. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (8) A Detailed Example Derivation (1) Assume PROJ is horizontally fragmented into PROJ 1, PROJ 2 and PROJ 3 as follows: 1. PROJ 1 σ LOC= Tokyo (PROJ) 2. PROJ 2 σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ) 3. PROJ 3 σ LOC= Paris (PROJ) Assume the following query: SELECT AVG(P.BUDGET) FROM PROJ P WHERE P.LOC = OSLO AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

40 Localization and Reduction Distributed Query Optimization (9) A Detailed Example Derivation (2) (translate) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ)) (localize) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ 1 (PROJ 2 PROJ 3 ))) (expand) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (σ LOC= Oslo (σ LOC= Tokyo (PROJ) (σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ) σ LOC= Paris (PROJ)))) (combine) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (σ LOC= Oslo LOC= Tokyo (PROJ) (σ LOC= Oslo LOC= Oslo (PROJ) (σ LOC= Oslo LOC= Paris (PROJ)))) (simplify) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (σ (PROJ) (σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ) (σ (PROJ)))) (simplify) γ AVG(BUDGET ) ( (σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ) )) (simplify) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (σ LOC= Oslo (PROJ)) (simplify) γ AVG(BUDGET ) (PROJ 2 ) This derivation shows that the query can be executed only over the Oslo horizontal fragment PROJ 2 and wherever it is stored. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Cost-Related Issues Distributed Query Optimization (10) Scheduling Query Fragments Given a fragment query, find the best global schedule by minimizing a cost function. Join processing in centralized DBMSs tends to prefer linear (e.g., left-deep) trees because the size of the search space is reduced by the linearity constraint). However, in distributed DBMSs, join processing over bushy trees reveals opportunities for parallelism. Other decisions include: Which relation to ship where? Whether to ship the whole or to ship as needed? Whether to use semijoins? (Semijoins save on communication at the expense of more local processing.) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

41 Cost-Related Issues Distributed Query Optimization (11) Cost Functions Total Time (also referred to as Total Cost): The overall strategy in this case is to Reduce the cost (i.e., time) in each component individually Do as little of each cost component as possible This optimizes the utilization of the resources and tends to increases system throughput. Response Time The overall strategy in this case is to do as many things as possible in parallel. However, this may increase the total time because of overall increased activity. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Cost-Related Issues Distributed Query Optimization (12) Total Cost The total cost is the summation of all cost factors: 1. Total cost = CPU cost + I/O cost + communication cost 2. CPU cost = unit instruction cost no.of instructions 3. I/O cost = unit disk I/O cost no. of disk I/Os 4. communication cost = (unit message initiation cost no. of messages)+ (unit transmission cost no. of bytes) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

42 Cost-Related Issues Distributed Query Optimization (13) Response Time The response time is the elapsed time between the initiation and the completion of a query. Processing and communication costs that are incurred in sequence in a component count at most once. If several sequential tasks are executed in parallel, the cost that is counted is the maximum cost of all those tasks. 1. Response time = CPU time + I/O time + communication time 2. CPU time = unit instruction time no. of sequential instructions 3. I/O time = unit I/O time no. of sequential I/Os 4. communication time = (unit message initiation time no. of sequential messages) + (unit transmission time no. of sequential bytes AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Cost-Related Issues Distributed Query Optimization (14) Some Cost Factors wide-area networks Message initiation and transmission costs are relatively high. Local processing cost is comparatively low (fast mainframes or minicomputers) Ratio of communication to I/O costs is high (2-digits to 1-digit?). local-area networks Communication and local processing costs are comparable. Ratio of communication to I/O costs is not high (close to 1:1?). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

43 Cost-Related Issues Distributed Query Optimization (15) Example: Total Cost v. Response Time Assume that: only the communication cost is considered one message conveys one unit of work (e.g., a tuple) Let UM denote the unit message initialization time and UT the unit transmission time. Let T send (r, s, t) denote the time to send r from s to t. Total time = (n + m)um + (np + mq)ut Response time = max{t send (n, 1, 3), T send (m, 2, 3)} T send (n, 1, 3) = num + nput T send (m, 2, 3) = mum + mqut If n = 900, m = 1, 000, p = 90, and q = 100, then Total time = 1, 900UM + 181, 000UT Response time = 1, 000UM + 100, 000UT AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Join Ordering in DQP Distributed Query Optimization (16) Join Ordering in Fragment Queries Given an n-ary relation R with attributes A 1,..., A n, let R denote the cardinality of R, and let length(a i ) denote the (possibly average) length in bytes of a value from the domain of A i, in which case the (possibly average) length of a tuple in R is length(r) = n i=1 length(a i). Let size(r) = R length(r). Given two relations R and S that are not co-located, we ship R to the site of S if size(r) size(s) and we ship S to the site of R if size(s) < size(r). For many relations, there may be too many alternatives. Also, computing the cost of all alternatives and selecting the best one depends on computing the size of intermediate relations, which is difficult. In practice, heuristics are needed. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

44 Join Ordering in DQP Distributed Query Optimization (17) Join Ordering: An Example (1) Consider the 2-way join PROJ PNO (ASG ENO EMP) The join graph shows the sites where each relation is, and there is an edge between two relations if an equijoin on the edge label is required. The many different execution alternatives are shown next, with a double-shafted arrow denoting the shipment of the relation in the left to the site in the right, and sign denoting that the left-hand side expression is evaluated at the site in the right-hand side. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Join Ordering in DQP Distributed Query Optimization (18) Join Ordering: An Example (2) EMP EMP EMP EMP EMP ASG EMP EMP EMP EMP ASG ASG ASG ASG ASG PROJ PROJ PROJ PROJ PROJ EMP PROJ PROJ (ASG EMP)@ 2 AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

45 Join Ordering in DQP Distributed Query Optimization (19) Join Ordering: An Example (3) 1. An alternative to enumerating all possibilities is to use the heuristic of considering only the sizes of the operands and assuming that the cardinality of the join is the product of the input cardinalities. 2. In this case, relations are ordered by increasing sizes and the order of execution is given by this ordering and the join. 3. For example, the order (EMP, ASG, PROJ) could use Strategy 1, and the order (PROJ, ASG, EMP) could use Strategy 4. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Join Ordering in DQP Distributed Query Optimization (20) Approaches Based on Semijoins (1) Consider the join of two relations R[A] (located at site 1) and S[A] (located at site 2). One could evaluate R A S. Alternatively,one could evaluate one of the equivalent semijoins: R A S (R A S) A S R A (S A R) (R A S) A (S A R) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

46 Join Ordering in DQP Distributed Query Optimization (21) Approaches Based on Semijoins (2) 1. Using a join: 1.1 R R A S@ 2 2. Using a semijoin: 2.1 S π A (S) 2.2 S R R A R R A 2 Semijoin is better if size(π A (S)) + size(r A S)) < size(r) AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Summary Distributed Query Processing Join Ordering in DQP There is an evolutionary continuum from centralized to distributed query optimization. Localization and reduction are the main techniques by which a heuristically-efficient distributed QEP can be arrived at. In wide-area distributed query processing (DQP), communication costs tend to dominate, although in local-area networks this is not the case. The join ordering problem remains, here too, an important one. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

47 Join Ordering in DQP Advanced Database Management Systems Data Integration Strategies Alvaro A A Fernandes School of Computer Science, University of Manchester AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Outline Data Integration: Problem Definition Process Alternatives View-Based Data Integration Schema Matching, Mapping and Integration Dataspaces AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

48 Data Integration: Problem Definition Data Integration (1) Problem Definition Data(base) integration is the process as a result of which a set of component DBMSs are conceptually integrated to form a multi-dbms, i.e., a DDBMS that offers a single, logically coherent schema to users and applications. Equivalently, given existing databases with their Local Conceptual Schemas (LCSs), data integration is the process by which they are integrated into a Global Conceptual Schema (GCS). A GCS is also called a mediated schema, or, more simply, a global schema. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Data Integration: Problem Definition Data Integration (2) Some Assumptions, Some Issues In general, the problem only arises if the component DBMSs already exist, so data integration is typically a bottom-up process. In some respects, it can be conceived of as the reverse of the data distribution (i.e., fragmentation and allocation) problem. One of the most important concerns in data integration is the level of heterogeneity of the component DBMSs. This, in turn, is strongly linked to the degree of autonomy that each component DBMSs enjoys and exercises. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

49 Data Integration (3) Some Alternatives Process Alternatives Physical Integration : in this case, the source databases are integrated and the outcome is materialized. It is the more common practice in data warehousing. Logical Integration in this case, the global schema that emerges from integrating the sources remains virtual. It is the more common practice when the component DBMSs enjoy autonomy (e.g., in scientific contexts, where different research groups maintain different data resources but still allow them to be part of a multi-dbms of interest to them and to others). AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Data Integration (4) A Bottom-Up Process Process Alternatives The most widely-used approach involves: translation Each LCS abstracts over a data source. A translator maps across to and from concepts in the LCS and concepts in an intermediate schema (IS). integration The ISs are cast in an interlingua, a canonical formalism in which the LCSs of the participating sources can be cast. The integrator uses the ISs to project out the GCS to users and applications. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121

50 Data Integration (5) Process Alternatives Dealing with Autonomy and Heterogeneity In contexts where heterogeneity is the norm (e.g., when the multi-dbms is formed from public resources) the translators are often referred to as wrappers and the integrator is referred to as the mediator. Wrappers can reconcile different kinds of heterogeneity, e.g.: infrastructural including those stemming from the system software or network level syntactic including those relating to data model and query languages (e.g., generating a relational view of a spreadsheet) semantic which are the hardest to capture and maintain in sync AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121 Data Integration (6) Schemas as Views View-Based Data Integration There are two major possibilities to relate a GCS and its LCSs by means of views: Global-As-View (GAV) : in this case, the LCSs are the extents over which one writes a set of views that, together, comprise the GCS against which global queries are formulated. Local-As-View (LAV) : in this case, the GCS is assumed to exist and each LCS is treated as if it were a view over this postulated GCS. We will focus on GAV, and a simple example of how it works is coming soon. AAAF (School of CS, Manchester) Advanced DBMSs / 121