Grammatical Features as Semantic Barriers in the Translation of UN Documents: A Study of Some Selected Texts

Transcription

1 Grammatical Features as Semantic Barriers in the Translation of UN Documents: A Study of Some Selected Texts An MA Thesis Submitted to the Department of English, Faculty of Arts Cairo University 2012 By Samah Hassan Abo-Serie Hussein Under the Supervision of Prof. Muhammad Yehia Dr. Khaled Mahmoud Tawfik

2 Table of Content Acknowledgements...ІІ Abstract...ІІІ List of Figures and Tables...V List of Abbreviations...VІ Introduction...1 Chapter 1 Theoretical Framework and Preliminaries...6 Chapter 2 Model Adopted...50 Chapter 3 Analysis of the Selected SC Resolutions...91 Conclusion Appendices Bibliography I

3 Acknowledgements I am deeply grateful to everyone who has helped me with this thesis as well as to all who provided inspiration, support and encouragement along the way. My deepest thanks go to Professor Muhammad Yehia for his helpful advice, matchless availability and kindness throughout the study. I am really fortunate and extremely privileged to be one of your students. Your help and support are truly appreciated. This study would not have the shape it has without your guidance. My gratitude is also sent to Dr. Khaled Tawfik for his encouragement, support, motivation and sincere advice. Thank you, Dr. Khaled, for your careful proofreading of every single word in this thesis. You never got bored of my questions and always encouraged my intellectual curiosity allowing me to take a great part of your precious time. I would also like to thank my wonderful dear mother, to whom I dedicate this thesis. Thank you mum for everything you did, everything you are doing and everything you will do. Life is worthless without you. No words can express my sincere gratitude to my husband, Mr. Yasser Ali, who never hesitated to back and encourage me whenever I felt down. I am lucky to be your wife. You have contributed a lot to the completion of this thesis. Thank you, Yasser. I am also grateful to my beloved children (Menna and Omar), my brother and my sister for being a source of support, joy and motivation. Thank you all. Many thanks also go to my colleagues and friends especially Mahmoud Hamid El-Sherif, Dr. Safa Saleh and Salma Magdy. I feel grateful to you for providing me with the material needed. Above all, thanks to Allah, from whom all blessings flow. Thank you Allah for giving me amazing people and amazing opportunities to learn and work. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to all knowledge-lovers and I hope it will be a source of contribution and inspiration for the coming studies. II

4 Abstract In this thesis, the researcher examines some selected SC resolutions to prove how the use of some grammatical features may cause semantic problems which may block or at least disturb communication between the TT and the TR. One of the main aims of the present study is to find the most proper technique for translating the UN documents in general and the SC resolutions in particular: is literal translation always correct to be adopted by international translators? And what about word-for-word technique? The study tries to find answers to these two core questions. Chapter one of the study starts with shedding light on the relation between grammar and semantics on the one hand and linguistics and translation studies on the other. Then, its focus shifts to examine the most crucial concepts which help analyze and understand the selected resolutions like the concepts of equivalence, loss and compensation and the unit of translation. In addition, the old debate between literal and free translation is also discussed. As for the second part of chapter one, finding the genre of the SC resolution is the target. The study compares the general and the linguistic features of political, legal and SC texts to find out the main characteristics of the SC resolutions. Part of Obama's speech at Cairo University, part of the UN Charter and one of the SC resolutions are chosen for the purpose of analysis. In chapter two, Roger Bell's model of Systemic Functional Grammar is introduced. Practical examples are provided side by side to theoretical explanation. The model helps the translator analyze the resolutions at a micro-linguistic as well as a macro-linguistic level trying to solve translation problems using a comparative as well as a functional approach. III

5 An attempt to conduct a thorough analysis of two prominent SC resolutions is provided in chapter three making use of the ideas provided in chapter one and the model presented in chapter two: resolution 1441 (2002) which deals with the situation in Iraq is the first resolution whereas resolution 1779 (2007) which deals with the Darfur problem is the second. A conclusion that summarizes the main findings of the study follows chapter three. IV

6 List of Figures: Figure 1 The Features of Political/Legal/UN Texts...24 Figure 2 TRANSITIVITY System: Process and Roles Figure 3 MOOD System...65 Figure 4 MODALITY and MODULATION...66 Figure 5 COHESION System...76 List of Tables: Table 1 Table 2 A Comparison between Political/Legal/UN Genre...46 Grammatical Systems, Their Meanings and Functions...53 V

7 List of Abbreviations: Symbol EU SFG SC SL ST TL TR TT UT UN Meaning European Union Systemic Functional Grammar Security Council Source Language Source Text Target Language Target Reader Target Text Unit of Translation United Nations VI

8 Introduction This thesis attempts an analysis of some selected SC resolutions examining some grammatical features or relations that result in creating semantic barriers that may block the channel of communication between the target text (TT) and the target reader (TR). It is known that translation is an activity which enables us to exchange ideas and thoughts. A good translation is the one which carries these thoughts and such ideas from the SL to the TL accurately, informatively and communicatively. If this translation is concerned with international issues, the need for exchanging ideas and thoughts will be greater. In other words, if the drafters/the translators fail to convey their messages properly, the results will be disastrous. A second aim of the study is to clarify why the translation may sound clumsy and incohesive which affects the process of communication. Explaining the role of the translator and the problems that face him/her in relation to the previous points is the third aim of this thesis. S/he has to study the purpose of the text well because translators are privileged readers of the SL text. Unlike ordinary ST or TT reader, the translator reads in order to produce, decodes in order to re-encode (Hatim and Mason, Discourse and the Translator 224). This means that the translated text should reflect the translator's deep reading of the ST. A translator is a mediator between the ST and TT and also a communicator between the two texts so s/he has to communicate only sincere and truly relevant information to the readers. As a communicator, a translator should also seek to maintain coherence by striking the appropriate balance between what is effective (i.e. will achieve the communicating goal) and what is efficient (i.e. will prove least taxing on user's resources) (Hatim and Mason, the Translator 12). Finally, the study also tries to answer the following questions: which technique is more appropriate; the literal or the free one? and what is the result of adopting word-forword technique? 1

9 The importance of the present study lies in the fact that very few studies have dealt with the UN documents in general and the SC resolutions in particular from a linguistic point of view; despite the long history of translation and multilingual practice at the UN, very little has been studied and written as to the nature and difficulties of translating documents at the UN (Cao and Zhao 39). The study tries to focus on some of the problems and challenges that face the UN translators in general and the SC resolutions in particular. S/he has to translate a tremendous number of documents that covers various topics in a limited time. Above all, accuracy is a priority in translating UN documents in general and SC resolutions in particular due to the grave consequences that may be triggered by any mistranslation/interpretation of the ST or the TT. In addition, the language of the ST may be problematic in itself. Al-Didawy pinpoints that New York Times names the English used in the UN the English of the United Nation due to the poor English language used (306). Thus, translating SC resolutions, which is the focus of the study, is a real tedious task. Examining what genre the SC resolution is through a comparison between political, legal and SC discourse gives the study more importance. The aim of this comparison is find out to which genre the SC resolutions belong: do they represent the political or legal genre? Or do they represent a genre of their own? Finding answers to these questions is a prerequisite for the analysis of the selected resolutions. Rendering SC from the ST to the TT may be a real problem to many international translators if s/he is faced by inaccurate or false grammatical relations in the ST or if the translator renders such grammatical features in a way the conveys inaccurate meanings. The result may be disastrous as the analysis of the SC resolution 1441 (2002) shows: this resolution was a strong pretext for invading the Iraqi territories. 2

10 One of the factors affecting the grammatical relations and features in the SC resolutions is their format: each resolution is one-sentence long and the incohesiveness of the SC resolutions is one of the problems that may result in this format. SC drafters depend on visual cohesion, i.e. cohesion that relies on the format and the layout of the resolution. Other problems which increase the burden on the SC translators are related to some controversial concepts like the concepts of equivalence and Unit of Translation. If the whole resolution is one-sentence long, which unit of translation should the translator deal with throughout the process of translation; the word, the sentence or the text? Which type and degree of translation equivalence do the SC resolutions reveal? And is there a complete equivalence? The study tries to answer the previous questions. The idea of literal vs. free translation is a core point related to the study, an important point which is also highly related to the concepts of equivalence and Unit of Translation : should the translator follow the same word order of the ST claiming that the format of the SC resolutions impose this technique on him/her? Or should s/he neglect the format and focus on the content and the message to be more communicative? These are more challenges that face the international translator. In addition to the previously-mentioned problems, politics plays a recognizable role and increase the problems that face the translator. The effect of politics on ST and TT language is undeniable as they manipulate translation, the translator's choices, and the linguistic features making some languages like English more dominant. As the study reveals in chapter one, SC translation is politicized - a feature which SC translation shares with legal as well as political discourse. 3

11 To give a full analysis of the selected SC resolutions, the study adopts a comparative approach as well as a functional one. Concerning the comparative approach, this study adopts a comparative approach to the English texts, which represents the source language (SL), and Arabic which represents the target language (TL). It examines these problems at a micro-contrastive analysis (at the level of words and sentences) as well as macro-contrastive analysis (at the level of the text). As for the functional approach, the study adopts Roger Bell's model of Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), following Halliday's footsteps. According to the model, there are three grammatical systems which work at the level of clauses and clause complexes (sentences); these systems are the TRANSITIVITY system, the MOOD system and the THEME system. Three kinds of meanings are realized respectively through the three types of grammatical systems, i.e. the cognitive meaning (also named propositional/literal/denotative/experiential meaning), the interactional meaning (also named speech functional meaning) and the discoursal/textual meaning. These three systems are manipulated for analyzing the chosen SC resolutions at a macro-linguistic level Problems related to TRANSITIVITY, MOOD and THEME systems are explained in chapters two and three. The separation between the constituents of the clauses, misplacing or misusing some constituents in the ST and the overuse of some constituents are some of the problems related to TRANSITIVITY. As for MOOD, the most prominent problems are the ambiguous use of some modal verbs especially shall and the use of the passive form. Since all SC resolutions have the same thematic structures, problems related to the THEME system focus on the consequences of this format like the problem of difficult readability of the resolutions. 4

12 As for the analysis at the macro-linguistic level, the seven standards of textuality are the general umbrella under which the features of the text are pinpointed. The cohesion and the coherence systems/standards are the most important. As the systems of the model work in a state of harmony and integration, the coherence system manipulates selections from the TRANSITIVITY system whereas cohesion manipulates selections and choices from the MOOD system. At the same time, these two systems are harmonized with the other systems of textuality, i.e. intentionality, acceptability, informativity, relevance (situationality) and intertextuality. The present study falls into three chapters. Setting the general framework is the aim of chapter one: it pinpoints the core concepts and notions related to the study like the controversial concept of equivalence, loss and compensation and literal vs. free translation. This chapter is divided into two main parts: the first part outlines the relation between grammar and semantics, on the one hand, and the relation between linguistics and translation studies on the other hand. In the second part of chapter one, the study handles the general and the linguistic features of the SC resolutions in an attempt to examine the genre the SC resolutions represent, i.e. the political genre, the legal genre, both genres or a hybrid one. As for chapter two, it represents the model of the study trying to analyze some selected SC resolutions in the light of Roger Bell's model. Chapter three represents an attempt to conduct a practical thorough analysis of two basic SC resolutions. The first is resolution 1441(2002) which the USA considers one of the pretexts for invading Iraq. The second is resolution 1779 (2007) which deals with the Darfur problem, one of the most frequent issues tackled in the SC resolutions and one of the greatest subjects of concern in the Middle East and the world. 5

13 Introduction: Chapter 1- Theoritical Framework and Preliminaries Translation theorists, almost without exception, have made little systematic use of the techniques and insights of contemporary linguistics and the linguists, for their part, have been at best neutral and at worst actually hostile to the notion of a theory to translation. (Roger Bell xv) 1 Since theory is important as a framework for the practical part of the study, this chapter aims to set the general framework, and the important concepts and notions related to the study like the controversial concept of equivalence. Although the main concern of the study is the practical part, shedding light on the theoretical aspect is a must as it guides the analysis of the study. This chapter is divided into two main parts: the first part outlines the relationship between grammar and semantics, on the one hand, and the relationship between linguistics and translation studies on the other. As for the second part, it handles both the general features of the UN documents and the features of the Security Council (SC) resolutions in particular as well as their linguistic features in an attempt to examine the genre the SC resolutions, i.e. the political genre, the legal genre, both genres or a hybrid one. 1.1 Grammar and Semantics: Grammar and semantics are often thought of as separate levels of linguistics. Nevertheless, it is clear that grammatical categories often have meaning and that the sentence is essentially a grammatical unit (F.R. Palmer 18). Palmer's words clarify the strong relationship between grammar and semantics. Both of them are closely related and affect each other to a great extent. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning in language (David Crystal 410). As for grammar, Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad regard it as the mechanism according to which language works when it is used to communicate with other people (3). This emphasizes how essential grammar is 6

14 for people to communicate. However, there are some rules which regulate this communication. These rules are essential as they determine which units, like words and phrases, combine together. R.M.W. Dixon (5) states that words and grammar are the components of language. Grammar is thought of as the central part of language as it stands in a middle position between semantics, on the one hand, and phonology and writing, on the other. Meaning is also important as it carries the message of the text. It is both the beginning and the end point (ibid: 6). The main function of language is effective and efficient communication which cannot be fulfilled without delivering the meaning accurately. It is possible to produce correct grammatical sentences which are unclear and difficult to follow blocking the channel of communication between the sender and the receiver The Relationship between Linguistics and Translation Studies: Having shed light on the relation between two of the components of language, i.e. semantics and grammar, the study turns to the relation between linguistics in general and translation studies. Such a relation, as the title of the thesis suggests, is important in the present study which examines the translation of the Security Council resolutions from a linguistic point of view. Linguistics and translation have much to offer to each other and the relation between the two fields is two-fold: the findings of linguistics can be applicable to the practice of translation and vice versa. Knowledge of linguistics is indispensible to the translators. Roger Bell states that translators as applied linguists do have certain obligation to the furthering of our understanding of language and our ability to explain the acts of communicating in which we are continually engaged (xii). Bell considers translators as applied linguists who play critical roles in helping people communicate using language as a tool for this purpose. Linguistics supplies translators with the necessary tools to understand language and to generate 7

15 meaning. These tools ought to be part of the competence of the translator. (qtd. Peter Fawcett in Baker, Routledge 124). Contrastive analysis, also named contrastive linguistics, is one of the fields that have had great impact on translation. There is a bidirectional relation between translation studies and contrastive linguistics: translation of certain texts may provide the data for contrastive linguistics and the latter may provide explanations of difficulties encountered in translation (Michael Hoey and Diane Houghton in Baker, In Other Words 49). Munday (9) also points out that in 1950s and 1960s translation studies were mostly linguistically-oriented. Many scholars like Vinay and Darbelnet, Georges Mounin and Eugene Nida are classic examples of such an approach to translation. However, contrastive linguistics is concerned with the sentence rather than the text as the core of its attention and analysis. The emergence of text linguistics, which focuses on texts as an object of the study, changed the attitude of both of linguists and translators. M.L. Larson states with the increased interest in the whole texts, semantics, communication theory, and sociolinguistics, translators are finding much in linguistic theory which does, in fact, have important implication for a theory of translation (qtd. in Asher and Simpson 4685). During the 1970s, the concentration of linguists turned from sentence grammar to the whole text. Consequently, the emphasis of many translators tuned from translating sentence by sentence to considering the text as the unit of translation. Text linguists like Robert de Beaurgrande and Wolfgang U. Dressler have distinguished many standards that are applicable to texts as cohesion and coherence. It is true that Newmark gives examples of cohesion devices like theme and reheme, anaphoric and cataphoric references, and conjunctions, but he considers the application of cohesion as a marginal aspect because the sentence is usually the basic translation unit, and often has a coherent appropriate meaning ( Newmark, Approaches to Translation 32). 8

16 The clearest manifestation of the linguistics-translation relationship is the contributions of some linguists to the field of translation studies. Since the model of the study represents Roger Bell's linguistic model of Systemic Functional Grammar [SFG], the following part outlines the contributions of some scholars to this area. One of the most prominent figures is M.A.K. Halliday, who likes to define himself as a grammarian. Although Halliday is a linguist, not a translation scholar, he shows interest in some aspects of linguistics which relate closely to the theory and the practice of translation (qtd. in Marian Manfredi 56). Halliday introduces a model of discourse analysis where Systemic Functional Grammar is the base of his model and where communication plays a central role. The model also considers the meaning in the writer's linguistic choices (Munday 90) in relation to social and communicative framework. Halliday introduces three functions of language called metafunctions. These functions are called macrofunctions by Roger Bell later on. The three functions are ideational function realized through the TRANSITIVITY pattern, interpersonal meaning realized through the patterns of MODALITY, and textual meaning realized through the thematic and information structures and cohesion ( ibid :91). Halliday's ideas and concepts have had a great impact on other successive scholars; among them is Roger Bell whose model is adopted in this study. There are other scholars like James Catford, Basil Hatim and Ian Manson, and Juliana House. James Catford, a British linguist and a translation theorist, proposed a linguistic theory of translation in 1960s in his well-known book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965) where he follows Halliday's footsteps. Like the Hallidayan linguistic model, Catford's model is based on regarding language in relation to communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of different levels (e.g. phonology, graphology, grammar, lexis) and ranks (sentence, clause, phrase, word, morpheme, etc.) (ibid: 61). 9

17 Basil Hatim and Ian Mason acknowledged Halliday's contributions to translation studies. They state: a new approach developed by Halliday and his colleagues in Britain in 1960 and 1970 provided translation studies with an alternative view which approached language as text (Discourse 36). They employed a Hallidayan model of language to analyze translation as a means of communication considering the sociocultural context. Their theory views texts as expressions of communicative events. The German linguist, Juliana House (2001) also developed a functional model of translation. Her model was primarily based on Hallidayan systemic functional theory, but also drew on discourse analysis and text linguistics. House mentions that Systemic Functional Language [SFL] is not only useful, but also the best approach to apply to translation. Her systemic functional translation evaluation model offers an analysis of texts in terms of three levels: language, register and genre. Thus, the above points illustrate how the two fields, i.e. translation and linguistics, are co-related and how they affect each other. 1.3 Translation Studies: The study of translation is evinced by many dichotomies. The dichotomy of translation as an art or a science is one of them. The scientific approach to the study of translation is adopted by some linguists [an orientation which is also adopted by Roger Bell] who sought to create some kind of objective description of the phenomenon (Bell 4). However, it is argued that translation is an art and it is not amenable to objective description or explanation. This view prevailed for a long period of time where the literary texts were the main occupation of most scholars and it has continued up to the present time especially with the translation of the Bible. What is really striking, as Bell explains, is that the view should still persist in the closing decade of the twentieth century, when the vast proportions of 10

18 the translators are not literary, but technical, medical, legal (and) administrative (ibid: 5). There is another dichotomy related to translation studies: Translation as a process vs. translation as a product. If we look the meaning of the word translation up in a general dictionary, we will find the following two definitions: 1-Spoken or written words that have been changed into a different language. 2-The activity of changing spoken or written words into a different language. (Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced learners 2002: 1530) The first definition represents translation as a product, the result of the translator's activity whereas the second focuses on the role of the translator in taking the source language [SL] and turning it to another language [TL]. Shuttle and Cowie make this distinction clear. They define translation as an incredibly broad notion which can be understood in many different ways. For example, one may talk of translation as a process or a product, and identify such sub-types as literary translation, technical translation, SUBTITLING and MACHINE TRANSLATION (181-capitalization is the authors'). It is worth mentioning, however, that the present study examines the translated Security Council (SC) resolutions as a product. In 1959, the Russian-American linguist, Roman Jakobson, wrote a seminal paper entitled On Linguistic Aspects of Translation where he makes a distinction between three types of translation. Jakobson states that we distinguish three ways of interpreting a verbal sign: it may be translated into other signs of the same language, into another language, non verbal system of symbols (qtd. in Venuti 114). The first type of translation is labeled interlingual translation (rewording), the second is named intralingual translation and the third is called intersemiotic translation. Of the three kinds, this study is concerned with interlingual translation which is deemed as translation proper by Roman Jakobson. This kind of translation is still the core of translation research. 11

19 1.3.1 Translation and Equivalence: Many other definitions of translation exsit in relation to equivalence. Meetham and Hudson introduced a broad definition of this controversial term equivalence. According to them, translation is defined as Replacement of representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully or partially equivalent), in respect of different levels of presentation (equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for- sentence). (qtd. in Roger Bell 6) Like many other scholars, Bell believes that the idea of total equivalence is a chimera (ibid: 6). It is impossible to be achieved since languages differ greatly. They are different in form having different codes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meanings (ibid: 6). For example, no two meanings coincide totally. Since it is hard to find absolute synonymy between words in the same language, it is not a surprise that there is lack of synonymy between two languages. Theorists have different approaches to this crucial concept equivalence. The following section sheds light on such different views Different Approaches to the Concept of Equivalence : The concept of equivalence is one of the most crucial concepts that helps analyze the chosen resolutions of the SC. Thus, trying to shed light on this concept is inevitable. Some theorists like Toury, Nida and Taber, and Anthony Pym have defined translation depending on its relation to equivalence. Nida was in favour of two basic orientations or types of equivalence : formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence (Toward the Science of Translating, 159). According to Nida, formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself in both form and 12

20 content One is concerned that the message is the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language. (ibid: 159). This means that formal equivalence focuses on the structure of the source text, which exerts strong influence in determing accuracy and correctness (Munday 41). Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, is based on Nida's concept of the principle of equivalent effect which means that the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors (Nida and Taber 200). This means that translation has to be produced in accordance to a three-fold process of analysis, transfer and reconstruction in order to be dynamically equivalent to its counterpart. Nida's target is naturalness which can be achieved by adopting grammar, lexicon, and cultural references that are so close to those of the ST. Nida's concept of dynamic equivalence in relation to its three-fold process of analysis, transfer and reconstruction is a key one. The study compares the ST product to the TT product where the TT is considered the final stage of translation as a process (Dickness, Harvey and Higginess 217). Although the product is the focus of the analysis, shedding light on translation as a process is also important. Peter Newmark introduces Nida's same idea using new terminologies, namely communicative translation vs. semantic translation. He produced two important books: Approaches to Translation (1981) and A Textbook of Translation (1988). In the latter, he believes that the translator has to attempt to produce the same effect on the TL readers as was produced by the original on the SL readers (22). In other words, the emphasis is on conveying the message of the original in a form which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of the TL rather than mirroring the actual words of the SL as closely as possible (Shuttleworth and Cowie 20). This has to be done without bringing in the TL norms. 13