CURRENT TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION PRACTICES: RACIAL DISSONANCE OR RACIAL AWARENESS?

Transcription

1 Psychological Reports, 1993, 72, O Psychological Reports 1993 CURRENT TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION PRACTICES: RACIAL DISSONANCE OR RACIAL AWARENESS? CARL A. KALLGREN AND PAMELA J. CAUDILL Penn State Erie Summary.-The present study evaluated seven agencies in four major metropolitan areas to ascertain if their transracial adoption programs included placing children at an early age and evaluating and educating parents on Issues of racial awareness as has been recommended by previous researchers. These agencies were attempting to place transracial adoptees before their first birthday and were evaluating prospective adopters' ability to accept and live with racial differences. In general, agencies did not pmvide adequate literature on racial awareness, training sessions or support systems, and they did not encourage families to live in integrated neighborhoods. Recommendations for program improvements are discussed. When the practice of transracial adoption began to flourish in the 1960s, many social scientists questioned the psychological effects of the practice on the adopted children. These critics argued that transracial adoptees would be at risk for developing a poor racial identity and self-concept due to insufficient contact with others of their race with whom to identify. They also argued that the adoptees' lack of contact with their birth races would result in deficient skills for interacting with the racist elements in society as well as their birth cultures (Ladner, 1977; Silverman & Feigelman, 1981). In essence, critics argued that transracial adoptees would be abandoned in a cultural wasteland where they would be rejected by white society and isolated from their own minority society. In the intervening decades, efforts to recruit adoptive minority families for minority children have been only somewhat successful (Hogan & Siu, 1988). Although fewer than at the peak in the 1960s, transracial adoptions still occur. 1n-fact, transracial adoptions of foreign-born children have increased (Ryan, 1983; Weil, 1984), rising from 5,663 in 1975 to 9,120 in 1988 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990). Psychological research with transracial adoptees has focused on their initial adjustment to the home and their later formation of racial identity. This research has shown that two factors, the child's age at placement and the adoptive familial context, play a crucial role in the transracial adoptee's psychological development. Early age at placement is preferred because younger transracial adoptees 'A preliminary report of this research was presented at the 3rd annual meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC, June We express our appreciation to Wendy Eidenyuller and Marilyn Livosky for their constructive comments. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Carl A. Kdgren, Psychology, Penn State Erie, Erie, PA kqx@psuvm.psu.edu.

2 552 C. A. KALLGREN & l? J. CAUDILL are generally better able to assimilate into new families (Grow & Shapiro, 1974; Kim, 1978; Silverman & Feigelman, 1981). An easy adjustment to the adoptive home lays the groundwork for the transracial adoptee's later formation of racial identity. While realizing that an early age at placement is not always feasible, the present research specifically focused on this more ideal situation where there is a higher probability of good psychological adjustment. The adoptive familial context refers to the family's over-all racial attitudes, or stance, and the extent of the family's contacts with members of the child's race. Numerous studies indicate that the family's racial stance, which is classified in the literature as either racially dissonant or racially aware, can strongly influence the adoptee's ability to develop a healthy racial identity (Andujo, 1988; DeBerry, 1991; DeBerry, Scarr, & Weinberg, 1992; Feigelman & Silverman, 1984; Loenen & Hoksbergen, 1986; McRoy, Zurcher, Lauderdale, & Anderson, 1984). The key feature in a racially dissonant context is the family's lack of acknowledgement and acceptance of the child's race. Typically, the families live in predominantly white neighborhoods, and the children attend predominantly white schools. Consistent with criticisms of transracial adoption, research indicates that, in addition to lacking the skills needed to interact with a society that still fosters racial stereotypes and prejudices, chlldren who are raised in homes where their racial identities are denied typically develop an unhealthy emotional attitude towards their ethnic origins. This emotional attitude, in turn, has been shown to contribute to poor self-image (Andujo, 1988; Feigelman & Silverman, 1984; McRoy, et al., 1984). In a racially aware context, however, the family acknowledges and accepts the child's race. The families usually live in racially diverse neighborhoods, and the children attend integrated schools. Typically, adoptees are familiarized and even actively involved with their birth cultures. Transracial adoptees raised in a racially aware context are more likely to develop healthy racial identities and sense of self-esteem (Andujo, 1988; DeBerry, 1991; Feigelman & Silverman, 1984; McRoy, et al., 1984). Previous Recommendations A number of researchers recommend that transracial adoption programs ensure that transracial adoptees be raised in racially aware contexts (Andujo, 1988; Maxime, 1986; Rushton, 1989; Ryan, 1983; Small, 1984). The most comprehensive recommendations have been made by John Small. According to Small, adoption agencies placing black children transracially should look for adoptive homes which are capable of enhancing a positive racial identity for the child. The adoptive parents should also be capable of providing the cmd with the techniques necessary for living in a racist society. These include helping the child develop cultural and linguistic attributes necessary

3 CURRENT TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION PRACTICES 553 for comfortable interaction with the birth culture. In sum, the adoptive home should equip transracial adoptees with a balanced bicultural experience and promote the healthy integration of the divergent elements of the adoptees' identity. Small also recommends that adoption agencies provide racial awareness training programs for transracial adopters. Key areas the programs should cover include the lifestyle of the family, the adoptees' identification with white adoptive parents as well as with the black community, and sociahation outside the family. These programs would help the transracially adoptive family adapt to existing and future conditions; for a full discussion see Small (1984). Research with transracial adoptees from black, as well as other, cultures has shown that the general factors of an early age at placement and a racially aware context are important for the child's psychological adjustment to the home and the later formation of racial identity. We reasoned that Small's elaboration of these general factors should apply to other transracially adoptive settings because these principles are very general. The Present Study Concern for the healthy racial identity and self-image of minority children who can no longer remain with their birthparents, coupled with evidence that transracial adoption can be a healthy alternative to long-term foster care, was the impetus for the present study. Consequently, the present study assessed transracial adoption programs to examine if, and to what extent, they implemented previous researchers' recommendations, with particular emphasis on the key issues Small (1984) highlighted. Specifically, the study was designed to examine whether these agencies were placing transracial adoptees at an early age, educating adoptive parents about the need to create a racially aware family setting, counseling adoptive parents on racial identity issues, and evaluating the racial awareness of the prospective adoptive parents. METHOD Adoption agencies were identified from the Yellow Pages of four major metropolitan areas in three contiguous states. Through multiple attempts over a period of six months, all nine agencies listed were contacted, and a 100% response rate was achieved. Two of the nine returned blank surveys because they did not place children transracially. For the remaining seven agencies, a caseworker or the adoption coordinator responded by mail or by phone to a seven-item open-ended questionnaire providing information about (a) the agency, (b) the number of transracial placements, (c) the ages of most minority children when placed transracially, (d) the agency's general evaluation procedure for prospective parents, and (e) the agency's transracial adoption policies.

4 554 C. A. KALLGREN & P. J. CAUDILL Agency responses were rated by two independent researchers. In all, 15 discrete dimensions were rated. The mean interrater reliability was 95.2%; see notes to Tables 1 and 2. Disagreements were discussed to consensus. The agencies' education and evaluation programs were rated using seven questions related to the key factors identified in previous research for the formation of healthy racial identity by transracial adoptees. These rating questions placed particular emphasis on whether the agencies ensure that the child is raised in a racially aware context and whether they provide parents with the resources and support needed to raise a minority child in a society that stdl fosters racial stereotypes and prejudices. Many of the questions addressed concerns similar to those in Small's previous recommendations. These questions were: (1) Does the program go beyond a homestudy by providing extra literature on transracial adoption and racial issues or by providing racial awareness training programs? (2) Are prospective parents evaluated on their ability to accept and live with racial differences? (3) Are prospective parents counseled about extended fady reactions to a transracial placement? (4) Are prospective parents counseled about community reactions to a transracial placement? (5) Are prospective parents encouraged to live in racially diverse neighborhoods and to send their children to integrated schools? (6) Are prospective parents counseled about their child's racial identity? (7) Are transracial adoption support groups available in the area? General Agency Characteristics and Age at Placement The types of agencies and the nature of their transracial placements are presented in Table 1. The two public agencies surveyed were the only ones which did not place children transracially. The majority of the private agencies placed black (86%) or biracial children (86%) transracially. Almost threefourths of the agencies (71%) were also involved in an adoption program for foreign-born children. Consistent with previous recommendations, five of the seven agencies generally placed a minority child in a white home before the child's first birthday. One agency performed only older children/special needs adoptions. Education and Evaluation Programs The education and evaluation program components are summarized in Table 2. Ratings were favorable on two of the seven dimensions for the majority of agencies. AU but one agency evaluated prospective transracial adopters on ability to accept and live with racial differences (Q2) (Note: Question numbers in parenthesis correspond to question numbers in Table 2). Also, all of the agencies counseled prospective transracial adopters about community reactions (Q4) and their child's racial identity (Q6). Given the importance of a racially aware familial context to transracial adoptees' psychological well-being, these results are encouraging.

5 CURRENT TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION PRACTICES TABLE 1 TYPES OF TRANSRACIAL ADOFTIONS CONDUCTED BY AGENCIES FOUR MAJOR METROPOLITAN AREAS Placements Agenciesn f 9bb Type Black x x x x x x Biracial x x x x x x Native American x x x Latin or South American x x x x x Korean x x x Other EthnicitiesC x x Age Under 6 months x x months x x x months Varies x x Note.-Agencies were drawn from the metropolitan areas as follows: Agency 1 =Area A, Agencies 2-4 = Area B, Agencies 5-8 =Area C, and Agency 9 =Area D. The interrater reliability for all dimensions was 97% or greater. 'Agencies 3 and 9 did nor complete surveys because they did not place children transracidy. b~ercentages are based on 7 ngencies completing surveys. 'These agencies also placed children from China, Thailand, and Japan IN TABLE 2 PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF ADOPTION AGENCY EDUCATION AND EVALUATION PROGRAM COMPONENTS Questions Agencies" f ab Beyond a homestudy? Racial awareness evaluated? Extended family reactions? M M M Community reactions? M Integrated neighborhoods and schools? M M Child's racial identity? Transracial adoption sup- DOH ECOUDS?~ Note.-Agency numbers correspond to numbers in Table 1. 1 =item present, 0 =item absent, M = missing. Interrater reliabilities for the questions are Q1 = loo%, Q2 = 100%, Q3 = 57.18, Q4 = 71.4%, Q5 = 71.4%. Q6 = 85.78, Q7 = 85.7%. 'Agencies 3 and 9 did not complete surveys because they did not place children transraciall b~ercentages are based on 7 agcncles corn leting surveys, minus any missing res onses for in21 vidual uestions. 'Codes for tr.niracial alption support gmur,are; 1.-.:dab{ for parents of foreign%orn children only, 2 =available for parents of all et mcltles, 0 -no transracial adoption support groups were available. Agencies addressed the area of extrafamilial contact less effectively. Only 50% of the agencies counseled adoptive parents about extended family reactions to a transracial placement (Q3). One notes that only 60% of the agencies encouraged transracially adoptive parents to live in racially diverse neighborhoods and to send their children to integrated schools (Q5). Clearly,

6 556 C. A. KALLGREN & P. J. CAUDILL living in a racially diverse neighborhood and attending integrated schools, although possibly involving major life changes, are important ways to arrange for contact with minority cultures. Of course, in some instances such as remote areas with little racial diversity this may be more difficult. Nevertheless, it is still of concern that parents may not even consider these actions unless agencies emphasize them. A majority of agencies studied did not provide adequate resources (Ql) or support systems for transracially adoptive parents (Q7). In the domain of resources, not surprisingly, all agencies performed state-mandated homestudies. Only two agencies went beyond this by providing racial awareness training programs, a wide range of literature (e.g., books, article reprints, pamphlets, booklists) covering key transracial adoption issues, or both. In the domain of support systems, the majority of agencies studied were also inadequate. Only two agencies responded that there was a support group for parents of foreign-born children, and only one agency indicated the existence of a support group for parents of children of all ethnicities. These findings are troublesome because transracially adoptive parents need practical information about such issues as: (a) how to deal with insensitive questions from strangers, (b) how to help a child develop a healthy racial identity, (c) how to create a racially aware setting, and (d) how to expose their adopted child to a culture of which the parents are not members. Adoption agencies are the main sources for this information, and research has shown that a typical homestudy does not effectively address these issues. Also, because these are long-term and recurring issues that are unique to the transracially adoptive situation, parents should have access to support groups and other resources throughout their children's growing years. Implications The present study illuminated a number of strengths in agencies' transracial adoption programs. These strengths included (a) an early age at placement, (b) evaluation of prospective adopters' abihty to accept and live with racial differences, and (c) counseling about community reactions and transracial adoptees' formation of racial identity. A number of agencies indicated they were aware of the importance of a racially aware context in a transracially adoptive home. Frequently they volunteered that budgetary cutbacks resulting from decreased federal funding had limited their efforts. Our results indicate that, despite this awareness, agencies were not consistently fulfilling four identified needs of transracial adopters. First, agencies need to make greater effort to counsel transracially adoptive parents about extended family reactions. Second, they need to encourage transracially adoptive families to live in racially diverse neighborhoods and to send their children to integrated schools. In those instances in which this may not be practical, the other points listed here should stdl be

7 CURRENT TRANSRACIAL ADOPTION PRACTICES 557 addressed. Third, the majority of agencies did not provide adequate literature or training sessions for transracial adopters. We have argued that to provide a healthy, racially aware family setting for their children, transracial adopters need practical knowledge about such long-term issues as how to cope with discriminatory interactions and how to encourage a healthy racial identity within a family. While training sessions are time-consuming and resource intensive, providing literature and minimal discussions are not. It is recommended that adoption agencies address adopters' needs by distributing selections from the diverse transracial adoption literature currently available. Workshops could also be organized to help adopters deal with identity and attachment issues in the family. Similar programs have already been instituted in Great Britain to help parents understand the experiences of minority children. Preliminary results are encouraging (Maxime, 1986). Fourth, agencies should organize support groups to provide transracial adopters opportunities to share experiences with others in similar situations. These groups would not only help the parents cope with some of the dayto-day conflicts that may arise when raising an adopted minority child but may also help them to expose their child to a culture of which the parents are not a part. Such groups would also support parents' efforts to arrange contacts between their child and other children in like situations. Also, support groups could be used in the preplacement education and evaluation process. Requiring prospective parents to observe and even participate in support groups would provide adopters with a real-life perspective before placement. Conclusion In conclusion, much has been learned in the last few decades about the importance of a racially aware context for the formation of racial identity by transracial adoptees. We have shown that, while incorporating some of these findings into their transracial adoption programs, agencies need to address more adequately the areas of extended family reactions and neighborhood and school racial composition. To assist adoptive parents in creating a racially aware context and in dealing with the long-term and recurring issues unique to the transracially adoptive situation, agencies should also make more resources and support groups available to adopters. REFERENCES ANDUJO, E. (1988) Ethnic identity of transethnically adopted Hispanic adolescents. Social Work, 33, DEBERRY, K. M. (1991) Assessing ecological competence and racial identity in transracial adoptees: path-analytic approaches. Paper presented at the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development Biennial Meetings, Minneapolis, MN, July. DEBERRY, K. M., SCARR. S., & WEMBERG, R. (1992) Racially relevant variables affect transracial adoptees' ad'ustment. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Convention of the American ~sychological Society, San Diego, CA, June.

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