Bharathiar University School of Distance Education MA English Language & Literature from 2007 onwards Study material

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1 1 Bharathiar University School of Distance Education MA English Language & Literature from 2007 onwards Study material Paper IV The English Language I Text Prescribed: J.D.O Connor: Better English Pronunciation Unit I Chapter 1-4 Unit II Chapter 5-8 F.T.Wood: UnitIII Chapter1-4 Unit IV Chapter 5-8 Unit V Chapter 9-11 Compiled by: Mrs. Poornavalli Mathiaparanam HOD, Department of English PSGR Krishnammal College for Women Coimbatore

2 2 UNIT I LESSON Objective 1.1 The Beginning of Phonetics 1.2 English as an unphonetic language 1.3 Transcription 1.4 Phonetic Symbols 1.5 Phonemic Theory 1.6 Conclusion 1.7 Let us Sum Up 1.8 Lesson-End Activities 1.9 Points for Discussion 1.10 References 1.0 Objective The main objective of learning English Pronunciation is to acquire the skill to speak English in an effective and intelligible manner. English has always been the Lingua Franca of the world. It has been a link language used for communication by people who speak different first languages. 1.1 The Beginning of Phonetics Since there were many dialects in English and people could not sometimes understand people of other areas many language experts started thinking seriously about bringing about uniformity in the realm of spoken English. The study of Phonetics or the articulation of sounds became popular from the end of the 19 th Century when English began to spread to all the other continents especially to Asia, some of the British people felt that they should have a standard spoken English. This need arose because in England the dialects spoken by people of various regions differed a lot especially in the realm of pronouncing the actual sounds. The English spoken by the Yorkshire people would not be intelligible to the speakers

3 3 of the Scottish district. Welsh sounded completely different from other dialects. But soon a movement to consolidate a standard dialect became imperative. The study of linguistics and phonetics became popular in the 19 th century. The model to arrive at a concise spoken language was the English spoken in around London in South East England; the language of the court. 1.2 English as an unphonetic language If we look at the history of the English Language we will realize that because of the influence of so many languages, for example, Latin and German, the sounds of English are not uniform and phonetic. English is an unphonetic language. There is no one to be relation between the letter and the sound. In languages like Tamil and Hindi every letter is pronounced. But English is not so. For example the following words ring, women, many the letters i, o and y are pronounced as /i/ which occurs in the letter sit. The proper noun Thames is pronounced not with a long sound but into a short sound, as in them /temz/. So in English one letter does not represent just one sound. This becomes an obstacle for the new learner of the language. 1.3 Transcription Written language does not pose any problem because it immediately gets registered in the mind without any obstacle. But if we need to translate the spoken word into script then we need to use symbols and not the 26 letters of the English Language. The rendering of the written English into spoken English by using symbols is called transcription. The first phonetician who compiled the pronunciation dictionary and wrote a book on pronunciation was Daniel Jones. The next writer to concentrate on phonetics was A.C.Gimson. The current writer of the book that is prescribed for the study is J.D.O Connor who states in the forward of the book that he has adopted the Gimson transcription. 1.4 Phonetic Symbols

4 4 The next step was the emergence of the IPA i.e. the International Phonetic Alphabet. It took into account all the sounds or phonemes that can be uttered in English and each sound is given as a separate symbol. All the sounds of English are represented by 44 symbols called phonemes of these 24 are consonant sounds and 20 vowel sounds whereas in the English Alphabet there are 26 letters 5 vowels and 21 consonants. The 44 sounds of the IPA or International Phonetic Alphabet is very helpful since every phoneme represents only one sound. Given below are the 44 sounds. 1.5 Phonemic Theory We speak about a phonemic theory because the same phoneme, in different positions and in different combinations is different especially the

5 5 consonants, sound slightly different. It is explained in the following paragraph. Every sound that is produced is the result of the movements of the organs of speech. So the same phoneme uttered in different sound combinations may sound slightly different. Eg. Pin Spin Pipe appear /p/ in pin is in the initial position therefore it is aspirated; in spin it is not said with the same force in appear it is i the medial position and in pipe the final /p/ will not be strongly uttered. Similarly in two and tea and /t/ is influenced by the positioning of the following letters in both the words. Inspite of the subtle variations in pronouncing these words all the sounds belong to the same sound. This is called as the phoneme theory. The above cited groups of sounds which are represented by one symbol or phonemic alphabet is called as phonemes. The written representation of actual spoken sounds is called as transcription. Eg. This is a paper doll The first step is to learn the 44 sounds. The second step is the mastering of the phonemes in the some phonemic group by practicing the pronunciation of the same phoneme in different position. The best way to learn is to practise reading aloud, and listening. 1.6 Conclusion So you can now learn to look at spoken English in a different perspective and understand how there are so many details that are

6 6 involved. By learning these symbols you can have a better command over the language. Certain second language learners have some difficulties in pronouncing some particular sounds. O Connor points out how the Spanish language does not have 2 different phonemes to represent /d/ and /ð/. So a Spanish speaker will confuse between breed and breathe. Since English has sounds that are typical and not found in other languages it is important that the new learners of the tongue master the pronunciation especially through practice. To speak one has to hear. Nowadays the task is made easy by the use of tapes and videos; listening to the radio, and watching television also is of immense help in acquiring a good accent and intonation. Though all the speakers from non-english background may not be able to speak like the English native speakers they can always try and train themselves to speak a Standard English, may be standard Indian English or Standard African English. But the best advice would be for the students to aim at R.P.- the Received Pronunciation, which is the accepted pronunciation. Daniel Jones describes the type of pronunciation he has recorded as that most usually heard in everyday speech in the families of Southern English persons whose menfolk have been educated at the great public boarding schools. 1.7 Let us Sum Up You have now learnt to categorize the various sounds of English. So when a person speaks you can recognize the symbols and the way they speak through the learning of Phonemes. 1.8 Lesson End Activities 1. Recall the 44 sounds of Spoken English. 2. Recognize how the sound and letters do not always correlate. 1.9 Points for Discussion 1) Discuss the use of Received Pronunciation References 1. J.D.O Connor: Better English Pronunciation Chapter:1-4

7 7 LESSON 2 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 2.0 Objective 2.1 The Three systems in the production of speech 2.2 The Mechanism of Speech Production 2.3 Let us Sum Up 2.4 Lesson End Activities 2.5 Points for Discussion 2.6 References 2.0 Objective: This lesson categorizes the various organs of speech which are necessary for producing sounds of speech. The human body is unique such that it enables to speak. The production of the speech is a complicated process. The concept in the speaker s brain is first given a linguistic form and the message is conveyed by the nervous system to the speech organs. This lesson describes the process of articulation. Some people object to the use of the term organs of speech on the ground that the organs employed for the production of speech have other primary functions such as breathing, eating and smelling. However, during the process of evolution, man assigned to these organs the additional function of speech production and developed an efficient system of oral communication. All normal human beings have the same organs of speech and can therefore produce all the sounds of human speech. It is only in childhood, however, that one can easily acquire the perfect pronunciation of a language. Adult learners of a foreign language need systematic training and have to make a conscious effort before they can acquire anything resembling a native pronunciation. 2.1 The Three systems in the production of speech

8 8 The organs involved in the production of speech can be divided into three groups the respiratory system, the phonatory system, and the articulatory system. The respiratory system includes the lungs, the muscles used to expand and compress them, the bronchial tubes, and the windpipe or tranchea. The phonatory system consists of the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The articulatory system includes the nose, the mouth, the tongue, the teeth and the lips. 2.2 The Mechanism of Speech Production Here we are dealing with the actual production of sound from the time that the air passes from the lungs into the throat cavity and escapes either through the mouth or nose. The production of speech is a complicated process. The concept in the speaker s brain is first given a linguistic form, and the message is conveyed to the organs of speech by the nervous system. The resulting movements of these organs set up disturbances in the air in the form of varying air pressures and these sound waves strike the listener s ear. The information is conveyed to his brain by the nerves and

9 9 there the message is decoded or interpreted. It is necessary for effective communication that the speaker and the listener share the same linguistic code. The air-stream coming from the lungs passes through the windpipe or trachea, at the top of which is larynx. It is like a case, which contains the vocal cords, a pair of lips placed horizontally from the front to the back. They are joined in the front but separate at the back, so that they can either be brought together or parted. The space between the vocal cords is called the glottis. The vocal cords (a valve) prevent the entry of any foreign body into the trachea and the lungs. They also play an important part in the production of voice. When we breathe in or out, the vocal cords are held apart and the glottis is open. This is the position for breath and sounds produced in this way are said to be breathed or voiced for example, /f, s,,h/ in the English words feet, seat, sheet, heat. If the vocal cords are brought sufficiently close together, but not held together firmly, they are separated by the pressure of air from the lungs. As soon as a short puff of air is allowed to pass through the glottis, the air pressure is reduced and the vocal cords, being elastic, come together again. In this way they open and close regularly many times act as a vibrator and produce a buzzing sound technically known as voice. This process is called phonation, and sounds produced in this way for example, all vowels, and consonants like /m,n,l,v,z, / as in the English words meet, neat, late, vest zoo and leisure are said to be voiced. This vibration can be felt by touching the neck at the larynx and saying /z/ or the names of the letters a,e,o. the buzzing noise can also be heard by putting the fingers in the ears. The difference between a voiceless and a voiced sound can be realized by saying /f/ as in the English word fail and /v/ as in the English The frequency of vibration of the vocal cords, that is, the number of times they open and close, determines the pitch of the voice. The frequency is 100 to 150 cycles per second in the case of a man s normal voice, and 200 to 325 cycles per second in the case of a woman s voice. The higher the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch.

10 10 The size of the puff of air which escapes at each opening of the vocal cords also varies; the amplitude of the vibration determines the loudness of the sound. If the vocal cords are brought together, but not so close together as to vibrate, a soft hissing noise, or whisper is produced. If the vocal cords are held firmly together, the glottis is closed and the air from the lungs cannot pass through. When the glottis is opened, the air escapes suddenly; this is what happens when we cough. A closed glottis can be used as an initiator for a glottal air-stream; the glottis can be raised slightly to push the air out and lowered a little to draw the air in. The air-stream coming through the larynx is modified by the shapes of the cavities of the pharynx the mouth an the nose, which also act as the resonators of the note produced in the larynx. The roof of the mouth can be divided into three parts: (i). The teeth-ridge is the hard convex surface just behind the upper teeth. (ii) the hard palate is the hard concave behind the teeth ridge; and (iii) the soft palate or velum is the flexible part at the back, which can be raised or lowered. At the end of the soft palate is the uvula hanging in the middle. When the soft palate is lowered the entrance from the pharynx into the nasal cavity is open and the outgoing air passes through the nose. This is the normal position when we breathe in and out through the nose. This is the normal position when we breathe in and out through the nose. Sounds produced with the soft palate in this position are said to be nasal, if the passage through the mouth is closed as for the nasal consonants /m,n,/ in the English words make, not, sing. If the air comes out through the mouth as well as the nose, the sound produced is said to be nasalized. When the soft palate is raised, the air cannot escape through the nose. This is called velic closure, and sounds produced in this way are said to be oral, because the air comes out through the mouth only. All English sounds, except the nasal consonants. /m, n,/ The tongue is the most flexible of the organs of speech and it can assume a large number of parts. When the tongue is in the position of rest, its tip is just behind

11 11 the lower teeth. The part of the tongue lying against the teeth ridge is called the blade, the part against the hard palate is called the front, and that against the soft palate is called the back. The part where the front and the back meet is called the center. The edges of the tongue are called the rims. Any part of the tongue can be raised to any height within the oral cavity and may even be brought into contact with the roof of the mouth. The tip and the blade are on contact with the teeth ridge for /t,d,n/ as in the words tea, day and no. The front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate for the sounds / / as in the English words ship, measure, and young, and for the vowel /i:/ in the English word tea. The back of the tongue makes a contact with the soft palate for /k,g, / as in the English words key, go, sing. The back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate for the vowel /u:/ in the English word who. The lips can also assume various shapes and thus affect the shape of the cavity in the mouth. They can be held tightly shut to close the air passage completely, for example, for /p,b,m/ in the English words pay, boy, and my. The lips can be held apart but sufficiently close together so that the air escapes with friction. For vowel sounds the lips may be (i) in a spread position for the vowel /i:/ in the English word see : (ii) in a neutral position, as for the vowel in the English word bed : (iii) open, that is, wide apart without rounding as for the vowel in the English word card ; (iv) open rounded, as for the vowel in the English word hot ; or close rounded as for vowel in the English word do. The articulation of the various vowel and consonant sounds thus depends on the various positions of the movable organs of speech the soft palate, the tongue and the lips. 2.3 Let us Sum Up In the second lesson we have classified the various organs of speech involed in the production of English sounds. Maybe, we do not normally think about the involvement of the organs like the soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge etc. This lesson has helped you to think in a scientific manner about a mechanical process that goes on in human communication.

12 12 Having learnt about the way the organs of speech are necessary for the production of the spoken language it will be good for you to practice and articulate the sounds in front of a mirror. 2.4 Lesson End Activities 1) Try to articulate the sounds of fusert at the end of English in front of a mirror or your friends. 2.5 Points for Discussion 1) Discuss the unique sounds of your mother tongue and English with your friends. 2.6 References 1. J.D.O Connor: Better English Pronunciation Chapter:1-4

13 Objective 3.1Consonants chart 3.2 Place of Articulation 3.3 Manner of articulation 3.4 Let us Sum Up 3.5 Lesson End Activities 3.6 Points for Discussion 3.7 References LESSON 3 CONSONANTS 3.0 Objective The objective of this lesson is to learn that though there are 21 consonants in the English alphabet, the actual consonant sounds have been identified as 24 in number. This chapter deals with the description and articulation of consonant sounds or phonemes. We shall now look at the consonants which may be called as the body of the syllable. Consonants are phonemes which have to be properly pronounced. Since their function is very important; for example, the /p/ of the word past and the /f/ of the word fast if interchanged will drastically change the meaning. Therefore, nonnative speakers should master the consonants of the English Language. The chart with the 24 consonants is given in the next page. They are categorized as plosives or stops where the sound from the vocal cavity comes out without any friction but as an explosion. The friction consonants are those where the air is obstructed and then released during the articulation of the sound. They are also called as fricatives and affricates. The nasal sounds are sounds where the air passes through the nasal cavity. /m/ /n/ /h/.

14 14 /l/ is the only lateral sound where the air is released in the sides on the down. 3.1 Consonants chart Manner of Articulation Stops/ plosives Voiceless Voiced Affricates Voiceless Voiced Fricatives Voiceless Voiced Nasals Bilabial /p/ /b/ /f/ /v/ Labio dental Inter dental /q/ /ð/ Alveolar /t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ Post / tò / /dz / ò / Z alveolar / alveo palatal Palatal Voiced /m/ /n/ /h/ Velar /k/ /g/ Guttrral / /h/ glottal Lateral Voiced Semi vowels/ Frictionless continuants Voiced /l/ /w/ /r/ /j/ The vocal cords are held apart for voiceless sounds and they are in vibration for voiced sounds. Consonants can be either voiced or voiceless. For voiced consonants the breath force is generally weaker than for voiceless consonants the

15 15 breath force is generally weaker than for voiceless consonants. The terms fortis (strong) and lenis (weak) are used to indicate the degree of breath force and muscular effort required for the articulation of consonants. There is a velic closure for oral sound but the velum is lowered for nasal and nasalized sounds. 3.2 Place of articulation The Consonants of English like the vowels are categorized according to the use of the organs of speech like the positions of the tongue, lips etc. The organs of speech that restrict the air passage at various places and in various ways to produce the different consonant sounds are known as articulators. One of the articulators, referred to as the active articulator, is moved towards another one, called the passive articulator. Most articulatory movements are upward movements of the active articulators the lower lip, the tip, the blade, the front and the back of the tongue towards the passive articulators the upper lip, the upper teeth, the teeth ridge, the hard palate and the soft palate or the velum. Consonants can be classified according to the place of articulation. The descriptive term used in an adjective derived from the name of the passive articulator. Generally the active articulator is the one opposite the passive articulator when the speech organs are in the position of rest. When the two articulators are not opposite each other, the active articulator also has to be indicated in the descriptive label used. The important categories are listed below: 1. Labial: The upper lip is the passive articulator and the lower lip is the active articulator. The term bilabial is also used for such consonants. Example: /p/ as in the English word speak /spi:k/ 2. Labio-dental: The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper front teeth are the passive articulator. Example: /f/ as in the English word fall /v/as in the English word voice

16 16 3. Dental: The upper front teeth are the passive articulator, and the tip or the blade of the tongue is the active articulator. If the tip of the tongue is used, the descriptive term is apico-dental; if the blade is used, the term adopted is lamino-dental. 4. Alveolar: The teeth-ridge is the passive articulator and the tip or the blade of the tongue is the active articulator. The terms alveolar and lamino-alveolar are used to indicate which part of the tongue is the active articulator. 5. Post-alveolar: The rear part of the teeth-ridge is the passive articulator and the tip of the tongue is the active articulator. 6. Retroflex: The tip of the tongue is the active articulator; it is raised and curled back towards the hard palate, which is the passive articulator. 7 Palto-alveolar: The teeth-ridge and the hard palate are the passive articulators, and the blade (or the tip and blade) and the front of the tongue are the active articulators. 8. Palatal: The hard palate is the passive articulator and the front of the tongue is the active articulator. 9. Velar: the Velam (the soft palate) is the passive articulator and the back of the tongue is the active articulator. 10. Uvular: The end of the soft palate, including the uvula, is the passive articulator and the back of the root of the tongue is the active articulator. 11. Glottal: Produced by an obstruction, or a narrowing that causes friction but not vibration, between the vocal cords. In the description of some consonants it is necessary to refer to a secondary place of articulation in addition to the primary. Examples In the English word little /litl/ as pronounced in England, the two /l/ sounds are both alveolar, but for the first /l/ there is also some palatalization, that is, a raising

17 17 of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate. For the final /l/,as pronounced in the south of England, there is either some pharugalization, a retraction of the root of the tongue towards the back wall of the pharynx, or some velarization, a raising of the back of the tongue towards the soft palate. The palatalized variety or pharynalized variety called a dark/ l / 3.3 Manner of articulation Consonants can be classified according to the type of stricture, that is, the relative position of the articulators and the nature of the obstruction in the air passage at the place of articulation. For example, there may be a complete closure, with the articulators in contact with each other and stopping the air-stream completely, s for /b/ and /g/ in the English word bag, /b eg/, or only a close approximation of the articulators, with the air-stream passing through a narrow passage with audible friction, as for / ò / in the English word ship The important categories are listed below: A stop is produced by a complete closure of the air passage, with the articulators in contact with each other and the nasal cavity also shut off by a velic closure. The egressive air-stream is thus held up and gets compressed. When the articulators are separated, the air escapes with a slight explosion. The term plosive is used for a stop made with a pulmonic egressive air stream and released with an explosion. Plosives can be voiceless or voiced, unaspirated or aspirated. (i) Voiceless unaspirated: The glottis is open during the closure, but voicing begins immediately on release. (ii) Voiceless aspirated: The glottis is open during the closure and also during the release. (iii) Voiced unaspirated: The vocal cords vibrate during the closure, and during the release. (iv) Voiced aspirated: The vocal cords vibrate during the closure, but during the release there is what is sometimes called breathy

18 18 voice, that is, a lot of air escapes through the vocal cords while they are vibrating. A stop made with a glottalic egressive air-stream is called an ejective, and that made with a glottalic ingressive air-stream is called an implosive. A stop that is released slowly so that instead of an explosion there is friction called an affricate, for example, / ò,tò, Z dz / A nasal is also produced with a complete closure of the air passage in the mouth, but the velum (the soft palate) being lowered, there is no velic closure and the air-stream comes out through the nose A trill or a rolled consonant is produced by an intermittent closure of the air passage through the mouth, the active articulator making a rapid succession of taps against the passive articulator, for example, the Scottish English r, for which the tip of the tongue taps against the teeth ridge. [ A flap is produced by a single tap of the active articulator against the passive articulator. For example, for /v/, as in some English speakers pronunciation of the English word very /veri/, the tip of the tongue strikes once against the teeth ridge. It can also be called a one-tap trill. For some flaps the active articulator moves in such a way that in passing it strikes against the passive articulator A lateral is produced by a complete closure in the centre of the air passage, with a free passage on the sides A fricative is produced by a continuous flow of the air-stream through a narrow passage so that there is audible friction. This position is called close approximation of the articulators A Frictionless continuant is produced by a continuous flow of the air-stream without any audible friction, the position of the articulators being one of open approximation A semi-vowel is a short vowel glide to a more prominent vowel.

19 19 Sometimes the shape of the active articulator has also to be mentioned in the description. For example, one important difference between /s/, as in see /si:/ and as in she /ò /; is that for /s/ there is a narrow groove in the middle from the front to the back of the tongue. A complete description of the consonants is based on the classification given previously. For example, the consonants in the English word milk /milk/ can be described as follows: /m/ /f/ /k/ (i) pulmonic, egressive air-stream (ii) Vocal cords in vibration; (iii) no velic closure (iv) lower lip active articulator (v) upper lip passive articulator (vi) complete closure of the air passage through the mouth (vii) air-stream escapes through the nose. (i) pulmonic, egressive air-stream (ii)vocal cords in vibration (iii) velic closure (iv) tip of the tongue active articulator (v) teeth-ridge passive articulator (vi) secondary articulation verlar (vii) complete closure in the centre (viii) air-stream escapes through the sides (i) plumonic egressive air-stream (ii) vocal cords held apart (iii) velic closure (iv) back of the tongue active articulator (v) soft palate passive articulator (vi) complete closure of the air passage (vii) compression of air (viii) sudden release of air with explosion

20 20 The same description can be indicated briefly by using three-term labels, assuming that the air-stream is pulmonic egressive in each case. The first term in the label indicates the state of the glottis, that is, whether the sound is voiced or voiceless, the second term is an adjective indicating the place of articulation and the third term is a noun indicating the manner of articulation. The three consonants described above can be thus given the following labels: /m/ voiced labial (or bilabial) nasal /l/ voice alveolar lateral (velarized) /k/ voiceless velar stop ( or plosive) 3.4 Let us Sum Up We have seen that all the possible consonant sounds in spoken English have been beautifully reduced to 24 consonant sounds by through the great efforts the experts. 3.5 Lesson End Activities (1) It is for you as students to look into the dictionary and identify the symbol and the sound in each word. 3.6 Point for Discussion 1) List out all the words you know and identify the consonants of the English language. 3.7 References 1. J.D.O Connor: Better English Pronunciation Chapter:1-4

21 21 LESSON 4 CONSONANT SEQUENCES / CLUSTERS 4.0Objective 4.1 Consonant Clusters 4.2 Initial Consonant cluster 4.3 Final Consonant Clusters 4.4 Let us Sum Up 4.5 Lesson End Activities 4.6 Points for Discussion 4.7 References 4.0 Objectives The peculiarity of the English Language is also due to the fact that the combination of sounds especially commands. This has to be understood by the students 4.1 Consonant Clusters This paragraph explains what is a consonant cluster and gives examples By consonant clusters we mean a sequence of two or more consonants at the beginning or end of a syllable. In other words, a sequence of two consonants will have to form part of the same syllable if it has to be considered a consonant cluster. For example the sequence /b/ and /1/ in the word blue is a consonant cluster because both the consonants forming the sequence belong to the same syllable. Similarly, the consonants /s/ /k/ and /s/ in the word asks form, a consonant cluster because all the three consonants once-again belong to the- same syllable. On the other hand, theconsonants /h/ and /k/ in the word uncle do not form a consonant cluster because in the speech of most English speakers /h/ arrests.the-first-syllable and the /k/ releases the next. In other words, the /h/ and the /k/ belong to two different syllables. Such sequences of consonants that do not form a consonant cluster are called abutting consonants.

22 Initial Consonant cluster Two consonants coming together like p+l, b+l, t+r, d+t, dj etc., In English upto three consonants can begin a syllable (as in spleen and stream) and upto four consonants can end a syllable as in texts /teksts/ and /tempts/). Given below is a list of consonant clusters that commonly occur in English. 4.3 Initial Consonant Clustes Two Consonants /p/ as the first element /pl-/ play, please /pr-/ pray, press /pj-/ pure, puny /b/ as the first element /bl-/ blue, bless /br-/ bright, bring /bi/ bugle, beauty as the first element /tr/ train, treasure /tj-/ tutor, tune /tw-/ twine, twenty /d/ as the first element /dr-/ dry, drink /dj-/ duty, during /dw-/ dwell, dwindle /k/ as the first element /kl-/ clay, client /kr-/ cry, cross /kj-/ cure, curious /kw-/ quite, queen /g/ as the first element /gl-/ glad, glass /gr-/ grass, green /f/ as. the first element /f1/ fly, flint /fr-/ fry, fresh /fj-/ few, furious /v/ as the first element. /vj-/ view /q/ as the first element /qr-/ three, thrice /s/ as the first element /sp/ spine, spell /st-/ state, sting.

23 23 /sk-/ school, scale /srn-/ smell, smile. /sn-/ snail, snake. /sl-/ slay, slate /sw-j sweet, swine - /m/ as the first element / mj/ muse, music as the first element /nj/ new, neuter as the first element /hj/ huge, hue Initial Consonant Clusters - Three Consonants consonants coming together spl, spr,str,skr, skw Note: In English if three consonants form an initial consonant cluster, the first element is always /s/ and the second element one of the three voiceless plosives. /spl/ spleen, splendid - /spr../ spring, sprint /str-/ string, straight. /stj-/ student, stupid.... /skr-/ screen, scream /skw-/. square. Squall 4.3. Final Consonant Clusters Two Consonants sp, lp, kt, pt,sr /p/ as the final element /-sp/ clasp, wasp /-lp/ help, pulp /-mp/ lamp, pump /b/ as the final element/-lb/ bulb /t/ as the final element /-pt/ helped, adopt /-kt/ fact, cooked /-tjt/ attached, watched /-ft/ laughed, coughed /-st/ whilst, past /-ft/ pushed, wished /-nt/ ant, want

24 24 /-lt/ felt, tilt as the final element /-bd/ robbed, mobbed /-gd/ bagged, begged /-d3d/ bulged, judged /vd/ solved, paved /-od/ breathed, writhed /-zd/ confused /-md/ warmed, blamed /-nd/ hand, band /- hd/ banged /ld/ cold, bold /k / as the final element /-jk/ wink, think /-lk/ milk, bulk / tò / as the final element /-n / branch, lunch / tò / belch / / as the final element /dz orange, hinge /dz bulge /f/ as the final element /-lf/ self, wolf /v/ as the final element /-lv/ slove, revolve /0/ as the final element /p,0/ depth /tq / eighth. /-dq / width. /..f q/ fifth /-mq / warmth /-nq / month /- hq / strength /s / as the final element /-ps/ caps, maps /-ts/ cats, mats /-ks/ ox, box /-fs/ laughs, coughs / qs/ fourths /-ns/ dance, since

25 25 /-ls/ false, else as the final element /-bz/ rubs, cubs /-dz/ lads, pads /-gz/ dogs, fogs /-vz/ lives, saves /- /breathes, loathes /-mz/ comes, warms /-nz/ sins, fans /- hz/ lungs, rings /-lz/ pulls, sells Final Consonant Clusters Three consonants /t/ as the final element /-dst/ midst /-kst/ fixed, next /-skt/ asked /-mpt/ tempt /-ntò / drenched /-nst/ against /- kt/ thanked /- st/ amongst /-lpt/ helped /-lkt/ milked /- lst / whilst /d/ as the final element /-ndzd/ arranged /-vd/ solved /0/ as the final element /-kst / sixth /-lf / twelfth /s/ as the final element /-pts/ adopts /-p s/ depths /-kts/ acts /-fts/ lifts /-sps/ clasps

26 26 /-sts/ beasts /-sks/ asks /-mps/ lamps /-nts/ wants /-hjks/ thinks /-lps/ helps /-lts/ tilts /- lks/ silks /z/ as the final element /-ndz/ lands /-ldz/ holds /-lvz/ solves Final Consonant Clusters: Four Consonants /s/ as the final element /-ksts/ texts /-ksqs/ sixths /-mpts/ tempts /-lfqs/ twelfths 4.4 Let us Sum Up Thus we have come to learn how only particular combinations of consonants occur in English. Thus we can understand that every language has a limitation with regard to combinations of consonants. 4.5 Lesson-End Activities I. Transcribe the following English words phonemically. Divide them into syllables. Indicate syllable-division with a hyphen. Write the structure of each syllable. Follow the model given: Model: remember /ri-mem-b / cv-cvc-cv (This shows the syllable structure) (1) academy (24) cucumber (48) houses (2) achievement (25) culprit (49) language (3) acrobatic (26) daffodils (50) peace (4) aesthetic (27) damsels (51) peas (5) afterwards (28) dragonfly (52) photographic

27 27 (6) anvil (29) dramatic (53) pink (7) archaic (30) dramatisation (54) practical (8) ballads (31) English (55) prayer (9) balloon (32) example (56) princess (10) bamboo (33) expelled (57) queue (11) battle (34) fanfare (58) remarkable (12) becoming (35) fantastic (59) rhythmical (13) brother (36) finger (60) ring (14) capitalists (37) fortunate (61) sprinkled (15) catastrophe (38) friction (62) straight (16) caterpillar (39) frostbite (63) stranger (17) cigarette (40) frozen (64) suddenly (18) circus (41) fumble (65) texts (19) climatic (42) fungus (66) threshold, (20) com? (43) government (67) thumbs. (21) composer (44) graceful (68) umbrella (22) composition (45) grammatical (69) unit (23) condition. (46) greengrocer (70) university (47) heavenly. 4.6 Points for Discussion 1) Compare the phonemic system of English with your mother tongue. 4.7 References 1) J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation (Chapter 1-4).

28 28 UNIT II LESSON Objective 5.1 Pure or Cardinal Vowels 5.2 Diphthongs 5.3 Let us Sum Up 5.4 Lesson End Activities 5.5 Points for Discussion 5.6 References 5.0 Objective: This chapter deals with the 20 sounds of English called vowel phonemes which are important in speech. The vowels are sounds that can make a difference. For example, the 2 words fright and freight are entirely different in domain. The only difference is the dipthongs /ai/ in fright and /ei/ in freight 5.1 Pure or Cardinal Vowels Of the 20 vowel sounds 12 are called as pure vowels /i:/ /i/ /e// / / :/ /u/ /u:/ /Ù// e//a :/ É://É/ The articulation of vowels. Vowels are voiced sounds produced with an open approximation of the articulators that is without any clousure, or narrowing that will produce audible friction. The quality of a vowel depends on the shapes of the cavities of the pharynx, the mouth and the nose, which in turn depend on the positions of the soft palate, the tongue and the lips.

29 29 The vowels are articulated and categorized according to the way the sound is produced and the use of the speech organs of the production of the sounds. The soft palate is raised for oral vowels and lowered for nasalized vowels. For the production of vowel sounds some part of the main body of the tongue is generally raised, so that the upper surface of the tongue is convex. To describe the tongue position tongue along the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. We have to say which part of the tongue is raised and how high it is raised. For the vowel /i:/ as in the English word beat /bi:t/, for example, the front of the tongue is raised, but for /a:/ as in the word bath /ba: /, there is only a slight raising of the back of the tongue. For purposes of description, we refer to three points on the horizontal axis to indicate the position of the highest point of the tongue front, central and back. /i:/ as in beat /bi:t/ i an example of a front vowel, / / as in bird /b :d/ is an example of a back vowel. Along the vertical axis we use a four-point scale close, half-close, halfopen, and open. For a close vowel the tongue is brought close to the roof of the mouth, but the passage for the air-stream is not so narrow as to cause audible friction. /i:/ as in beat is an example of a close vowel, while /a:/ as in bath is an example of an open vowel. The lips can assume various positions for vowel sounds. They can be spread, that is, the corners are drawn back, or they can be rounded, that is pushed forward. /i:/ as in beat is produced with spread lips, while /u:/ as in boot is produced with rounded lips. The term unrounded can also be used instead of spread. A three term label is used to describe vowels and indicate the tongue and lip positions. For example, /i:/ as in sheet can be described as front close unrounded and /u:/ as in shoot as back close rounded. Sometimes the degree of muscular tension of the tongue is also indicated. For example, /i:/ as in beat /bi:t/ is said to be a tense vowel and /e/ as in bit /i/ is said to be a lax vowel.

30 30 Sometimes the tip of the tongue is curled back towards the hard palate to produce what are called retroflexed vowels. These are heard in the west of England and in the USA in words such as car and door. Vowels can have different durations. The sign /:/ is used to indicate a comparatively long vowel. Cardinal vowels: The pure vowels are 12 in number. The short vowels are /i/, /e/,/ e / /Ù/,/ /,/u/. The long vowels are signified by/:/ /i:// ://u:/a:/ Professor Daniel Jones devised what is called the system of cardinal vowels., a set of eight theoretical vowels, that can be used as points of reference so that the vowel sounds of any language can be described in relation to them. The system is based on tongue-positions, the end points representing certain extreme positions of the tongue. For example, Cardinal Vowel /i/ represents a vowel for which the highest point of the tongue is as far forward as possible and as close to the hard palate as possible without any friction being produced. Cardinal vowel /a/ is produced with the highest point of the tongue as far back as possible and as low as possible. Between /i/ and /u/ there are three intermediate points on the scale: /e/, /Ù/ and /a/. The lips are unrounded for all these Cardinal vowels. Cardinal vowel /u/ is another extreme point on the scale; it is produced with the highest point of the tongue as far back as possible and as high possible and the lips rounded. Between /a/ and /u/ there are two intermediate points: / e / and / /; the lips are rounded for these vowels also. If the quality of a vowel remains constant, as in the case of / :/ in the English word heard /h :d/, it is sometimes called a pure vowel or a monophthong. If the vowel changes in quality, as in thecase of /ai/ in the English word hide /haid/, it is called a vowel glide or diphthong. For the description of a diphthong we have to indicate the positions of the tongue and lips at the beginning and the positions towards which they move. It has to be noted that the term diphthong is used only for a vowel glide within the same syllable.

31 31 During the articulation of the vowel, the centre of the tongue is raised in the direction of that part of the roof of the mouth that is between the hard and soft palates to a height between half close and half open. The lips are spread. /:/ is thus a central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open. /:/ can occur initially, medially and finally in words, as in earn, learn and err respectively. /a :/ in heard, being followed by a voiced, consonant, is longer than it is hurt (in this case it is followed by a voiceless consonant). Non-final / / has the same articulatory description as /:/. The only difference between /:/ and // in the non-final position is one of length. In the final position, the centre of the tongue is raised in the direction of the midpoint between the hard and soft palates to, a height just below the half-open position. / / is thus a central unrounded vowel just below half-open. / / is the most frequently occurring vowel in English. It can occur initially, medially and finally in a word, as in about, forget (first syllable) and tailor (second syllable) respectively. Also, / / occurs commonly in the weak forms of many words such as a, an, the, to, her, for, etc. We shall discuss weak forms in a Subsequent chapter. / /, in R.P. does not occur in accented syllables 5.2 Diphthongs The diphthongs are the 8 sounds that are also called as vowel glides. The slide is from one vowel to another. They are 8 in number /ei/,/i /,/u /,/ u/,/e /,/ i / There are, as we have mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, eight vowel glides or diphthongs in R.P. These are sounds during the articulation of which the tongue starts in the position required for the articulation of a particular vowel and moves in the direction of the position required for the articulation of a different vowel. The glide, it should be remembered, should take place within one syllable: The

32 32 starting point is usually referred to as the first element of the diphthong and the point in the direction of which the glide is made is often called its second element. /ei/ During the articulation of this diphthong, the front of the tongue starts from a point just below the half-close position and moves in the direction of RP /il. The lips are spread. This diphthong may therefore be described as a glide from a front unrounded vowel just below half-close to a centralised front unrounded vowel just above half close. /ei/ can occur initially, medially and finally in a word as in aim, pain and play respectively. As in the case of the pure vowels, the length of the diphthong varies considerably, depending on the positions in which they occur. Diphthongs are considerably longer. /ei/ /ai/ /i / Non-final /i / is thus a glide from a centralised front unrounded vowel just above half-close to a central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open. Final /i/ has the same starting point as non-final /i/ but the glide is in the direction of a central unrounded vowel just below half-open. /i / can occur word-initially, word-medially and word-finally as in ear-ring, fierce and fear respectively. /i / is long in words likefear and fears than it is in words likefierce. It must be pointed out here that in unaccented syllables (like in the second syllables of period and serious, for example) the first element /i/ in this diphthong may be the weaker of the two elements and the second element / / is stronger. Such diphthongs with a strong second element are called rising diphthongs and diphthongs in which the first element is stronger are called falling diphthongs. /u / During the articulation of the diphthong, the glide starts with a tongue-position similar to that of RP /u/ and moves in the direction of RP non-final / / if the diphthong occurs in the non-final position and in the direction of RP final / / if the

33 33 diphthong occurs finally in a word. The lips are rounded in the beginning and spread towards the end. /u / is thus a glide from a centralised back rounded vowel just above half-close to a central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open if the diphthong is non-final. If the diphthong is final, the glide is in the direction of -a central unrounded vowel just below the half-open position. /u / occurs medially and finally in words as in during and cure respectively. It does not occur initially in a word. Eg: surely, poor. During the articulation of this diphthong, the glide begins in the front halfopen position and moves in the direction of RP non-final / / if the diphthong is wordfinal. If the diphthong is final, the glide is in the direction of RP final. The lips are neutral throughout. /e / is thus a glide from a front half-open unrounded vowel to a central unrounded vowel between half-close and half-open if the diphthong is nonfinal. If it is final, the second element is a central unrounded vowel just below the half-open position. /e / can occur initially, medially and finally in a word, as in aeroplane, careful, and care respectively. /e / is longer in words like care and scares than it is in words like scarce. /au/ It is a diphthong that occurs in words like now-found -doubt. /ai/ / u/ It is a diphthong that occurs in words like light -file rice It is a diphthong that occurs in words like so- go- home / i / It is a diphthong that occurs in words like boy- soil, noiselight -file rice Thus a diphthong is a combination of a vowel and a glide

34 34 Here are a few examples for Diphthongs. 5.3 Let us Sum Up This we are able to identify that there are certain special features called diphthongs about which we were not aware of identifying them sharpen our phonetic perception. 5.4 Lesson End Activities 1) Take a passage from an article in the news paper and pick out the diphthongs. 5.5 Points for Discussion 1) Discuss with your friends the nature of diphthongs in your mother tongue. 5.6 References 1) J.D.O. Connor: Better English Pronunciation, (Chapter 5-8).

35 35 LESSON 6 WORDS IN COMPANY 6.0 Objective 6.1 Differences in Pronouncing Noun and Verb Forms of Words 6.2 Pronouncing r in Different Positions 6.3 Examples of transcription 6.4 Let us Sum Up 6.5 Lesson End Activities 6.6 Points for Discussion 6.7 References 6.0 Objective A language is spoken not in single sounds or words. We speak in groups. The groups can be breath groups denoted by comma or sense groups punctuated by the period or full stop. When we speak we utter words together in a group. We may say single words as answers to questions etc. But mostly we speak in groups. The pause marks at the end of the group. We pause when the sense is complete. I saw two little birds drenched in the rain - We also pause when the utterance is long and we need to take a breath I saw two little birds drenched in the rain,that made me take pity on them. Whatever the length of the utterance maybe it is important to speak without hesitation and committing mistakes. Fluency is important in speech. Another point to be borne in mind is the reduction that words and sounds incur in spoken English. Strong forms of words get reduced to weak forms. eg in a cup; of tea the of which is transcribed / f/ becomes / u/. I take a bus to go to school. /tu/ become /t /. The phoneme /r/ is never pronounced at the end of words or when not followed by a vowel sound. I came by car /ka:/ and farmer /fa:m /. The third feature in speech is the rhythm of speech. Every syllable is given a length of time like the beat in music.

36 36 This leads us to mention the supra segmental features of English which are called as stress and intonation. 6.1 Differences in Pronouncing Noun and Verb Forms of Words Below are given examples of how the same word is pronounced differently the noun form and the verb form. The same word in English will have different meanings if pronounced with different consonant sounds or stress. Stress or emphasis is indicated by the mark ( ). It is the extra force used at a certain place in a word to change its meaning. Given below are the most common words in our everyday speech, where a noun becomes a verb or vice versa due to a charge in the stress pattern. It will be extremely useful for the learner to practice them for an impressive performance. Though the concept of STRESS is dealt in the next session we hear, have given single words, spoken with stress Explanation 1 Abstract stress in noun on abs shifts to tract in verb form (abs-tract) stress in noun on pro, shifts to gress in verb; also the sound au in noun becomes in verb (pro-gress)

37 37 stress in noun on pro shifts to ject in verb; also the sound in noun becomes in verb (pro-ject) stress in noun on sub shifts to ject in verb; also the sound of noun becomes shorter, i.e. (sub-ject) stress changed; in Noun form before kn in verb form before tkt; vowel changes into stress changes in the same way as above in contact 6.2 Pronouncing r in Different Positions The sound of R is pronounced sometimes but sometimes it is not. The different situations where such retention or dropping is practised are given below as examples. They should be studied and practised to acquire mastery over pronunciation. 1. The initial position R is pronounced in the initial (starting) position. read /ri:d/ root /ru:t/ roof /ru:f/ rest /rest/ rough /r f/ rice /rais/ rate reit right - /rait/ rally /rli/ 6.3 Examples of transcription Vowel/diphthong sounds transcribed 1. i pit, hit, kid, mid, did, sit, /pit/, /hit/, /kid/, /mid/, /did/, /sit/ 2. i: seat, heat, meat, feet, /si: t/, /hi:/ /t/, /mi:/ /t/, /fi:/ 3. u put, could, should, would, /put/, /kud/, / ud/, /wud/ 4. u: move, shoot, loot, root, /mu: v/, / u:t/, /lu:t/, /ru:t/ 5. e bet, set, let, fed, /bet/, /set/, /let/, /fed/ 6. bat, catch, rat., mat,/bt/, /kt /, /rt/, /nt/