ADVERBIAL MORPHEMES IN TACTILE AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE PROJECT DEMONSTRATING EXCELLENCE. Submitted to the

Transcription

1 ADVERBIAL MORPHEMES IN TACTILE AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE A PROJECT DEMONSTRATING EXCELLENCE Submitted to the GRADUATE COLLEGE OF UNION INSTITUTE AND UNIVERSITY by Steven Douglas Collins In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES MAY 2004

2 Abstract This PDE discusses an aspect of linguistic use of adverbial morphemes as applied to a single case study of Tactile American Sign Language (TASL) as used by some American Deaf- Blind signers. TASL, a variation of the visual language recognized as American Sign Language (ASL), is not visually based. Significantly, the term TASL, while descriptive of the language used by deaf-blind persons, is not officially recognized among the members of this community. For the purposes of this study, the use of the term TASL describes not only an approach towards building a bridge of understanding of the cultural norms and language habits of deaf-blind persons, but as well, this study affords a locus for the improvement of the interpreting process for the American deaf-blind community. In ASL adverbial morphemes occur on the face and are non-manual signals that the Deaf- Blind signer does not see. This requires the ASL signer to make a slight modification, from these invisible non-manual morphemes to a tactile morpheme. The researcher presents a structural analysis of a conversation between two Deaf-Blind subjects with Usher s Syndrome Type I who have used TASL for at least ten years. The study is based on a 50-minute videotaped conversation utilizing multiple video views of key angles for a detailed analysis of tactile components, non-manual signals and signing space. Accrued data concentrates on six fundamental features of adverbial morphemes intrinsic to TASL: manner/degree, time, duration, purpose, frequency, and place/position/direction. A total of 284 sign sequences were observed and analyzed comparing the tactile signing with the same message signed in visual American Sign Language.

3 Acknowledgement Acknowledgments While a graduate student majoring in interpreting, I became involved with the Deaf-Blind community. I wish to thank the Deaf-Blind community for welcoming me into their community, sharing their experiences, and allowing me to research their language. I wish to thank Mr. Randall Hogue and Dr. Ceil Lucas for the time they took to support me through this process. Additionally I thank Ms. Heather Johnson who was willing to pose for example pictures for this PDE. I especially want to thank the late Dr. Clayton Valli who was my peer on this project and who provided me with many years of mentoring, as well as being a good friend. I thank Dr. Val Dively for her insightful input on nonmanual signals. Thanks, also, to Gallaudet University for allowing me to use their equipment and lab resources during the collection of data for this project. Lastly, I wish to thank my family for all their support and encouragement in accomplishing this task. A big thank you is due Mr. Ed Singer who, with his coaching and support, I have finished this project.

4 Table of Contents Table of Contents 1. Introduction Biography Statement of the Problem Scope Social Relevance Intellectual Context and Literature Review Background and Recent Research Language Variation Tactile ASL Introduction of the Terminology Deaf-Blind Usher s Syndrome Non-manual Signals (NMS) in ASL Tactile ASL Deaf-Blind Interpreting Scope Methods Logistics and the Selection of a Site Coding and maintenance of the videotapes and database Findings and Interpretation Semantic Based Categories Manner/Degree Example One (Manner/Degree) Example Two (Manner/Degree) Example Three (Manner/Degree) Example Four (Manner/Degree) Example Five (Manner/Degree) Example Six (Manner/Degree) Summary (Manner/Degree) Time Example One (Time) Example Two (Time) Example Three (Time) Example Four (Time) Summary (Time) Duration...58

5 Table of Contents Example One (Duration) Example Two (Duration) Summary (Duration) Frequency Example One (Frequency) Example Two (Frequency) Summary (Frequency) Purpose Example One (Purpose) Example Two (Purpose) Summary (Purpose) Place/Position/Direction Example One (Place/Position/Direction) Example Two (Place/Position/Direction) Summary (Place/Position/Direction) Overall Patterns across the various adverbial types Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations A. Appendix A References B. Appendix B - Notes on Transcription Symbols B.1 General Glossing conventions B.2 Other Transcription symbols and conventions C. Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis D. Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session E. Appendix E Consent Form F. Appendix F Informant Background Information ii

6 Introduction 1. Introduction Imagine being totally Deaf and totally blind and walking into a room where you are about to partake in a presentation of a subject that is of interest to you. You have engaged a fully certified and qualified interpreter who will act as your personal interpreter for the proceedings. What is the atmosphere within the room? What is the apparent level of enthusiasm of the other persons attending the presentation? What is the physical description of the person making the presentation? It has always been a matter of deep personal concern to me that many interpreters consider their only duty to be to deliver a verbatim translation of the words that the presenter says without conveying all of these other very important and interesting factors. So much additional "message" is contained in the facial expressions and mannerisms of the presenter as well as the reaction of the audience. How much of this will actually be conveyed to the Deaf- Blind 1 person during the session? What will be the worth of the total experience to the Deaf- Blind person? In the above scenario, one can appreciate the information that facial expressions communicate at the paralinguistic level. However, in American Sign Language (ASL), facial expressions, or what are commonly called non-manual signals (NMS), communicate much more. Emotions and moods are shown, but so are grammatical features such as question types, adverbial and descriptive features (i.e., adjectives). NMS are also used to help remove the ambiguity of meanings in such words as recommend, propose, or suggest. This linguistic information, if not accurately conveyed, will distort the message drastically thus impacting the Deaf-Blind individual in social and personal ways. I have an intense interest in researching and improving the quality of interpreting for persons that are Deaf-Blind. For the past thirteen years, I have been working with Deaf-Blind persons both in the capacity as an interpreter and as a researcher, studying their techniques for 1 Throughout this PDE, there are references to Deaf, deaf, Deaf-Blind, and deaf-blind. A culture is generally considered distinct when it has its own unique language, values, behavioral norms, arts, educational institutions, political and social structures, etc. In this respect, Deaf people have a unique culture and, in this context, the use of the word Deaf or Deaf-Blind is used with the capital letter D or B. The word deaf is being used to refer either to those who are unable to hear or, refers to a context unrelated to the Deaf culture, it is used with a small letter d. Likewise, the term deaf-blind will refer to those who are deaf and blind but are not associated with the Deaf or Deaf-Blind cultures. 1

7 Introduction communication. In looking back at my earlier experiences at the North Carolina School for the Deaf, a residence school that I attended, I realized that my Deaf-Blind friends had a significant influence on me. My observation is that there is very little ongoing research in this area. Additionally, only a small amount of work related to understanding and describing the actual process of deaf-blind communication is being undertaken. The process of interpreting for a Deaf-Blind person is somewhat different from the more conventional process of interpreting for a Deaf person. Although each use American Sign Language as a basis for communication, a Deaf-Blind person must depend on tactile reception of signing as a replacement for those aspects of the language that are customarily conveyed through such sight-dependent functions as facial expressions. I have spent many research hours videotaping Deaf-Blind persons and sighted Deaf persons in order to gather data that will demonstrate the subtle nuances of their communication. I regularly collaborate with linguistic experts who have an interest in this area and I have made it a specific professional goal of mine to research this field in depth in an attempt to evolve a formal approach to the linguistic process discussed in the PDE. By doing so, it is my goal to garner an understanding of the process to a degree that I may provide high-quality training for interpreters who have a desire to interpret for Deaf-Blind clients. In my current position as a faculty member at Gallaudet University in the Department of Linguistics and Interpretation, I have an excellent opportunity to carry out these research objectives. I plan to develop a curriculum and refine it to a specific course of study for interpreters, as part of their training, so that they may better serve Deaf-Blind consumers. I have determined that my pursuit of a Ph.D. will provide a strong research foundation that includes a multi-disciplined educational approach to successfully meet my goals. This PDE reflects on three types of learning: 1) experience, 2) learning by studying, and 3) research. The experiences that have greatly influenced this work came primarily from being a part of the Deaf-Blind community as a result of living with Deaf-Blind people, and attending deaf-blind conferences, meetings and lectures with deaf-blind (and Deaf-Blind) people. Part of this experience also included having close friends in the deaf-blind community who have had a great influence on my life. As well, I have observed the communication difficulties that Deaf- Blind persons have with members of their own family and other sighted persons. These 2

8 Introduction experiences and observations instilled in me a desire to investigate obstacles specific to the Deaf- Blind experience, communication-wise. More specifically, I see a need to teach interpreters how to better meet the linguistic needs of the Deaf-Blind community. In order to accomplish this interpreters must have an intimate familiarity with, and knowledge of the structure of Tactile American Sign Language. With this in mind, I have conducted research on aspects of the language used by Deaf-Blind individuals with the overall goal of applying new linguistic findings to the field of tactile interpreting Biography I was born in 1959 in Asheville, North Carolina. I grew up in a very close-knit family with three older hearing siblings. My siblings and I are the sixth generation born away from England and raised in North Carolina. On my mother s side, one family member was Deaf. She was my Great Aunt and her spouse was Deaf. My early education was at the North Carolina School for the Deaf and I considered the people there to be my Deaf family consisting of many of the significant culturally Deaf persons in my life. I am congenitally Deaf, i.e., heredity is the cause of my deafness and research has shown that genetics plays a role in only about 10% of Deaf persons. At the age of four, my family made the decision to move to Morganton, North Carolina in order for me to attend the North Carolina School for the Deaf. This move allowed me to commute to school each day and still remain at home with my family while I received my education. During my school years I gained invaluable perspective towards both hearing and Deaf cultures. As a day student, I interacted with teachers and peers in an environment much like the Deaf community. Then at home, I was able to experience hearing culture through daily interaction and activities with my family. I developed an awareness of the different forms and methods of communication and began an exciting and challenging venture in learning about linguistics and how language is structured differently between hearing and Deaf cultures. It is particularly important to note that my entire family made a significant commitment on my behalf in making the move to Morganton. For twenty years, my father commuted 65 miles each way every day to his business in Asheville, North Carolina so that I could live in Morganton in proximity to the Deaf school. This strong commitment to give me their support 3

9 Introduction has always had a significant impact on me. When I compare the opportunities that this opened up for me with the more limited opportunities of some of my friends whose families did not make such a commitment, I truly realize the importance of family and community pitching-in to help others. I graduated from the North Carolina School for the Deaf in 1979 with honors as the Salutatorian of my class. I knew by this time that I wanted to continue learning and develop the necessary skills that provide insight into the differences in communication between Deaf and hearing cultures. I was certain that I would excel in this field because of the experience I obtained while growing up in both cultures. I applied to and was accepted at Gallaudet University in Washington, DC, where I majored in Communication Arts. While at Gallaudet, I was a co-founder of a local chapter of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity. While attending Gallaudet, I developed friendships with several Deaf-Blind students and began to interpret for them on an informal basis. This interaction provided me with an opportunity to gain perspective on the differences between communication within Deaf culture and communication within Deaf-Blind culture. Through these friendships, I gained additional insight into how language is used and structured. After my graduation in 1984, I worked for several years as a free-lance interpreter and contract instructor of American Sign Language (ASL) for the College of Continuing Education program at Gallaudet University. When Gallaudet created a Master s degree in the field of Interpretation, several of my colleagues encouraged me to enroll because of my strong interpersonal communication and interpreting skills. I felt this would be a great opportunity for me to learn about linguistics and theories of interpretation as well as to begin cross-cultural research in these two areas. Specifically, I continued to be intensely interested in communication within the Deaf-Blind community and I wanted to pursue research in this area. I enrolled and became the first Deaf person to receive a Master of Arts degree in Interpretation from Gallaudet University in June Much of my research for my Masters degree centered in this same area of Deaf-Blind communication. Subsequent to my graduation, I went to work as a supervisor for Gallaudet Interpreting Services specializing in Deaf-Blind interpreting requirements. Later, I joined the faculty as an Interpretation instructor in the ASL, Linguistics and Interpretation Department where I currently work. 4

10 Introduction Between the time of my undergraduate education and my return to graduate education, as mentioned above, I worked for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as a clerk in the Legal Affairs division. During this time, I also started to work as a free-lance American Sign Language teacher at various community colleges and schools. In addition to my interpreting skills, I had computer skills and subsequently changed jobs to work for two different high-tech companies configuring and testing computer hardware and software and preparing them for delivery to customers. In addition, I had responsibilities for purchasing and inventory. While I was doing this work, I continued to teach and free-lance interpret for deaf-blind persons. During this period, I realized that my real vocation is to teach language and interpreting. At this time, I became very interested in the complex issues of Deaf-Blind culture and, particularly, the aspects of interpretation and communication in the deaf-blind community. In 1990, I decided that I would focus my professional life in the fields of linguistics, interpreting, and teaching. My goal would be to do research in the specific area of Deaf-Blind communication in order to enhance the interpreting experience for people in the Deaf-Blind community. I began collaborating with several others in this field and subsequently have given numerous workshops and presentations as well as published several professional papers on these subjects. As previously mentioned, I enrolled in the Master of Arts degree program in Interpretation at Gallaudet University and became the first Deaf student to graduate from that institution with a Master's Degree in Interpretation. Upon graduation, I went to work at the Gallaudet Interpreting Service as the supervisor of the interpreting program for students and as the coordinator of Deaf and hearing interpreters. I supervised 100 free-lance interpreters and 12 staff interpreters. I qualified for, and received, my certification as an interpreter from the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID). In 1995, I received a temporary appointment to the faculty as an instructor in the ASL, Linguistics and Interpretation Department. In 1997, I competed for, and received a permanent appointment to that department. I am currently in this faculty position doing research and teaching interpretation and linguistics. To date, I have remained active in my research area of interest, Deaf-Blind communication, and I continue to give regular workshops and presentations around the country. In addition, I was chairman of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) special task force 5

11 Introduction for setting certification standards for Deaf interpreters (CDI Task Force). I was also an advisory committee member for the State of Connecticut National Interpreter Education Project. As well, for three years, I served as chairman of the National Coalition of Deaf and HIV (NCDH). In this capacity, I worked with the White House Aids Czar in the Clinton administration as an advisor on issues related to the education of AIDS prevention awareness within the Deaf community. Conventional public service communication is generally not effective for this population. During this period I collaborated with the author of a Time Magazine article on the subject (Van Biema 1994). In summary, I have brought my professional goals into focus specifically in the area of teaching and researching Linguistics, ASL, and Interpretation, especially as it pertains to the Deaf-Blind community. It is my goal to continue to do research to improve the interpreting environment in support of the Deaf-Blind community and to improve the teaching of interpreters who serve this community Statement of the Problem Settings for interpreting include a variety of communicative events in which two individuals have a need to communicate with each other but cannot communicate directly because they use different languages. During my doctoral program, I gained additional insight into the process of providing better deaf-blind interpreting services by conducting preliminary investigations with a specific group of Deaf-Blind consumers' non-visual and tactile signed language, Tactile ASL (TASL), and their interpreters' ASL to TASL interpreting performance. In the field of Deaf-Blind Studies, there are several primary categories of Deaf-Blind persons and these include variations in degree of visual and hearing loss. For purposes of this research, only the terms blind and Deaf-Blind are used and I am focusing on a specific group within the Deaf-Blind community, those individuals with Usher s Syndrome Type I. Further, within each of these categories, it is essential to keep in mind that there will be a significant cross section of educational backgrounds as well as a diversity of modes of communication between and among individuals in the deaf-blind community. The social variations in this specific group affects communication styles and interpreting needs of Deaf-Blind individuals. 6

12 Introduction To effectively interpret in a tactile signed language, an interpreter for the Deaf-Blind must carefully observe the manner in which information is tactually presented. This includes non-manual signals such as the grammatical use of space, as well as movement in time and space. Deaf-Blind persons who use and depend on a tactile signed language as their primary language cannot acquire or perceive grammatical information through visual means. The visual acquisition of syntactic markers on the face and shoulder in ASL must occur through the tactile expression of syntactic markers on the hands in TASL. One of the major implications that I have found in my earlier studies is that further research is necessary in all syntactic aspects. This doctoral program and PDE does that. Hence, interpreters for the Deaf-Blind will be able to express syntactic markers in their tactile production of TASL, rather than simply relying on the non-manual markers of ASL. As well, my research proves that this transformation must occur during the ASL to TASL cognitive interpreting process Scope. In this PDE the focus is on a specific category of Deaf-Blind persons who have a condition known as Usher's Syndrome Type I. This condition generally results from a degeneration, over time, of the retina, resulting in most cases, in the person being nearly totally deaf-blind by the age of 30 to 35. In addition to this pattern of becoming blind, Deaf-Blind persons with Usher's Syndrome Type I are congenitally deaf from birth. In view of the fact that the onset of their becoming blind occurs later in life after they have acquired fluent communication in ASL, these individuals will make the transition from ASL, a visual language that involves manual, facial, and other body movements, to TASL, a non-visual and tactile language, as their vision diminishes. An important element of the research relates to aspects of ASL that become apparent in this later tactile phase of deaf-blind communication. This study is concerned with a specific group of individuals who identify themselves as culturally Deaf, who are also blind. This researcher found that there is a very small body of research on Tactile Sign Language. This appears to be due primarily to a lack of knowledge and skills associated with interpreter training programs, thus leading to the heart of the PDE. Research on TASL and 7

13 Introduction interpreters requires an understanding of the linguistic features of TASL. Therefore, the fundamental research question for the present project is: What is the nature of adverbial use in Tactile American Sign Language? In previous collaborative research in which this researcher has been involved with, TASL and ASL sentence types were analyzed. It was found that in ASL, a sentence type mainly is determined by a set of certain non-manual signals. For example, ASL yes-no questions involve non-manual features such as the raising of eyebrows, the widening of the eyes, and the forward tilting of the head and/or body (Baker and Cokely 1980; Liddell 1980). In addition to providing grammatical cues that define sentence or phrase types, visual ASL uses non-manual signals in an adverbial manner; however, the deaf-blind person cannot see these signals and, consequently, they communicate these adverbs by using tactile signals. For example, according to Valli and Lucas (1995), visual ASL has features of a sign that carry adverbial meaning [which] often are incorporated directly into the structure of the adjective sign or the predicate sign. Specifically, the two researchers explain that, for instance, the sign TALL 2 is a two-handed sign in which the active hand moves from the base to the fingertips of the passive hand. The sign can be glossed VERY-TALL when the sign begins well below the passive hand, brushes it, and ends above the fingertips, along with a marked facial expression. This study demonstrates the consistent use of linguistic factors in this tactile sign language. TASL has many interesting features; my focus is on adverbials Social Relevance My internship leading up to this PDE consisted of ongoing learning experiences as an interpreter for the Deaf-Blind and as an interpreter educator, whereas my PDE is a preliminary investigation of adverbs in Tactile Sign Language. This section briefly notes how my internship and PDE integrate a process of improvement for the field of interpreter training along with a fundamental socially relevant result of an improved quality of life for Deaf-Blind persons. Initially, I participated in classes, seminars, and other doctoral learning events that are necessary in relation to my program. Thereafter, I did an internship that gave me practical 2 The use of capital letters as in TALL indicates Gloss is being used in the notation. See Appendix B for a full explaination of Gloss. 8

14 Introduction benefits from these learning experiences. Moreover, this internship contributed to my designing and developing a solid investigation of TASL and ASL-to-TASL interpreting in the United States and Italy. My internship program was done while working as a Fulbright Scholar in Italy. As an intern, the focus of my attention was to develop and incorporate deaf-blind interpreting services for Deaf-Blind employees and students. This internship provided me with a fertile ground for research and information gathering. Additionally, there is a large deaf-blind community in Seattle, Washington. I did much of my studies while working with contacts I developed primarily in the community college and interpreter training areas in Seattle. With the completion of this PDE, I will be able to share my findings with Deaf-Blind consumers, interpreters for the Deaf-Blind, deaf-blind interpreter educators, and signed language linguists regarding TASL and TASL interpreting. My PDE is a preliminary investigation of one group of syntactic markers found in communication between Deaf-Blind persons. The PDE's data collection will consist of at least two videotaped sessions of a significant communication event between two Deaf-Blind subjects. I anticipate that these findings will contribute to improved TASL interpreting services and greater sensitivity and familiarity on the part of deaf-blind interpreter education programs towards the deaf-blind community. By conducting research, establishing a program in Italy, networking with various communities on a nation wide basis, and further studying of TASL, I hope to further enlighten those who are in the field of interpreter education that TASL and ASL are variations of a unique language. By providing an improved training process for interpreters who will serve the Deaf- Blind community, both hearing and Deaf interpreters will be able to provide a means of communication access to a specific group of individuals who have historically been socially isolated from the world. Implementation of the PDE s research findings into interpreter training programs should result in more Deaf-Blind persons leading successful and fruitful lives. 9

15 Intellectual Context and Literature Review 2. Intellectual Context and Literature Review 2.1. Background and Recent Research William Stokoe is known in Deaf culture as the Father of American Sign Language (ASL). In his studies of American Sign Language (Stokoe 1960), Stokoe applied the idea of minimal pairs to reveal the distinctive parts of a sign. In doing so, he discovered the existence of three parameters: handshape, movement and location. Eventually, additional research demonstrated that orientation and a non-manual component were also distinctive, and these two parameters were then added. Although the physical form of a sign differs from the physical form of a spoken word many of the same phonological processes and principles, such as assimilation, epenthesis, and metathesis, are found in both spoken and signed languages (Padden and Perlmutter 1987; Liddell and Johnson 1989). Currently, there are several competing theoretical models of ASL phonology, each trying to best represent the hierarchical structure, the relationship between the parameters, and the features within each parameter (Coulter 1992). Liddell and Johnson s (1989) model proposes that a sign consists of a sequence of hold and movement segments, somewhat analogous to consonants and vowels, and each segment contains specifications for the four parameters. Movements are segmented in Liddell and Johnson s model. Dr. Ceil Lucas (1995) has also done studies focused on the sociolinguistics of Deaf communities, including issues of sociolinguistic variation within signed languages, issues of bilingualism and language contact, language policy and planning, and language attitudes. She has also researched the structure of sign language discourse and is the editor of a journal series entitled Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, which produces a yearly volume consisting of papers in all areas of sociolinguistics pertaining to Deaf communities from around the world. As Lucas (1995) notes, Liddell & Johnson s model is particularly suited for describing phonological processes often found in variation studies. 10

16 Intellectual Context and Literature Review The following is an example of the movement-hold notation for American Sign Language developed by Liddell and Johnson, as shown in Valli and Lucas (1995): The sign WEEK as shown on page [37] in a simplified version of the Movement-Hold notation. The sign WEEK begins with a hold (H), with the right hand (for right-handed signers) at the base of the left hand. It then moves (M) to the tip of the left hand and ends with a hold in that location. The change in the sign is in the location of the active hand, from base to tip of the passive hand. 11

17 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Using the Liddell and Johnson notation, the following examples are from the Learner s data on Tactile American Sign Language. This example shows the adverb SHOCK with emphasis, showing the degree to which the person reacted to the specific situation. The sign SHOCK begins with a hold (H), with the right hand (for right-handed signers) at the forehead. It then moves (M) to the position next to the left hand and ends with an extended hold in that location. The change in the sign is in the location of the active hand, from the head to a position next to the passive hand. 12

18 Intellectual Context and Literature Review A second example of the notation is seen with the adverb EVERY-TWO-WEEKS. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, the signer must make it clear that the every two weeks is meant to convey the frequency aspect as well as its regularity. Since the citation form of EVERY-TWO-WEEKS involves two identical movements already, it was modified to have three movements, resulting in three distinct locations. For the visual ASL signer, the non-manual signal of the lip protrusion is sufficient to convey this concept. The sign EVERY-TWO-WEEKS begins with a hold (H), with the right hand (for righthanded signers) at the base of the left hand. It then moves (M) to the tip of the left hand and ends with a hold in that location. The change in the sign is in the location of the active hand, from base to tip of the passive hand. This notation system can very easily describe the specific features that the researcher finds in the data, such as prolonged hold, tenseness, extended location, and repeated movement. For the purposes of this paper, the researcher utilizes parts of this model when studying morphological variation in the Tactile ASL data. When people think of ASL, they usually mistakenly only think of the manual component, specifically, the signs articulated by the hands. However, ASL has a complex non-manual component that involves specific configuration and movements of: facial features (the eyes, 13

19 Intellectual Context and Literature Review eyebrows, tongue and mouth); head movements (tilts, nods, or shakes); muscle tenseness (tense, lax, or neutral); and upper body positions (leans and tilts). Several ASL signs include a nonmanual feature in their underlying form. Many adjectives and adverbs in ASL consist of a nonmanual facial configuration that co-occurs while a manual predicate is being articulated (Liddell 1980; Padden 1988). The adjectival and adverbial configurations generally use the lower face, e.g., clenching of the teeth, tensing of the open lips and pursing of the mouth (Bienvenu and Colonomos 1991). This paper examines which features of TASL function as non-manual adverbs in visual ASL. The following illustrations show six examples of non-manual components of ASL which function as adverbs. These figures illustrate adverbials that are inherent in the facial grammar of ASL. Each of the six examples is shown in two forms, with and without the NMS. Figure 1 VERY WOW Figure 2 WOW Figure 1 shows the sign glossed 3 as VERY WOW. The NMS is described as puffed cheeks with narrowed eyes. The NMS is an intensifier similar to the English word very. Figure 2 shows a similar sign glossed as WOW without the puffed cheeks and widened eyes. Without the NMS the sign loses the intense meaning. 3 A gloss is a symbol for a sign in ASL. Throughout this PDE, glosses are used. For a more detailed description of glosses and gloss conventions, see Appendix B. 14

20 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Figure 3 TOO EXPENSIVE Figure 4 EXPENSIVE Figure 3 shows the sign glossed as TOO-EXPENSIVE. Figure 3 also shows the NMS described as SS or teeth clenched with cheeks pulled back and the eyes are squinted. The NMS is an intensifier similar to the English word too. Signs accompanied by this non-manual component may also have a larger movement than the citation form. Figure 4 shows a similar sign glossed as EXPENSIVE without the intensifier. Without the NMS, the sign means simply expensive. Figure 5 VERY RAINY Figure 6 RAIN Figure 5 shows the sign glossed as VERY-RAINY. The NMS is described as a tightened facial expression. Signs occurring with this NMS often have sharp forward movements. The NMS is a modifier similar to an English word ending in y such as in the English word rainy. This ASL sign means raining very hard. Figure 6 shows a similar sign glossed as RAIN without the intensifier. Without the NMS the sign loses the intense meaning. 15

21 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Figure 7 VERY-STORMY Figure 8 STORM Figure 7 shows the sign glossed as VERY-STORMY. The NMS is described as CH with squinting eyes, a spread mouth and spread fingers. The NMS is also a modifier whose meaning here is similar to the English word very stormy. Figure 8 shows a similar sign glossed as STORM without the intensifier. Figure 9 REALLY-GOOD Figure 10 GOOD Figure 9 shows the sign glossed as REALLY-GOOD. The NMS is described as SH with a tilting of the head downwards, squinting eyes and a strong quick movement of the hand. The NMS is also an intensifier similar to the English word very or really. The sign in combination with the SH non-manual component means really good. Figure 10 is a similar sign glossed as GOOD without the intensifier. Without the intensifier, the added component of really is removed. 16

22 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Figure 11 VERY-CLOSE Figure 12 CLOSE Figure 11 shows the sign glossed as VERY-CLOSE. The non-manual component is described as EE with clenched teeth and a slightly turned head. The NMS is an intensifier similar to the English word very. The sign and NMS in Figure 11 means that the location is not far away. Figure 12 is a similar sign glossed as CLOSE without the intensifier. Thus the location is close by and not very close by. In addition to providing semantic content, non-manuals also play a key role in syntax. ASL verbs are divided into several classes determined by their morphological properties (Fischer and Gough 1979; Padden 1988). These classes include spatial/locative verbs which contain a classifier, plain verbs which cannot inflect for subject or object agreement, and agreement verbs, which can inflect for subject and/or object agreement (Padden 1988). With agreement verbs, the beginning point, end point, and/or orientation of the verb changes to reflect subject and/or object agreement. In ASL, locations in the signing space can be associated with different entities and, later reference to that location is taken to be co-referential with the entity. For instance, after signing, B-O-B, a signer can point to a location on their left. In a sense, the location is now associated with Bob. If, in the articulation of the agreement verb INFORM, the hand starts pointing to the space to the signer s left (the same as indicated by IX-lf), the verb is inflected for third person subject agreement and has the meaning He/Bob informed me. B-O-B IX-lf (left) INFORM (PRO1) 17

23 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Null arguments are missing subjects or objects which are not needed in some usages because either the context or a verb ending has a specific meaning that makes it clear what the missing subject or object would be. These null arguments i.e., deleted subjects and/or objects in both subject and object position, can occur with agreement verbs as in the example above and with plain verbs in ASL. Examining data from syntactic islands within a Government and Binding (GB) framework, Lillo-Martin (1986) proposed that the null arguments with plain verbs were licensed or, controlled, differently from those with agreement verbs. She argues that null arguments with agreement verbs are licensed through agreement, similar to the licensing in other agreement languages such as Spanish. However, null arguments with plain verbs are licensed through discourse in a manner similar to the discourse licensing in non-agreement languages such as Japanese and Chinese. Following this work, Lillo-Martin (1986) proposed this discourse licensing occurred through the mechanism of topic chaining. More recently, and of relevance to this study, Bahan (1996), proposed an alternative analysis, which employs the interactions of non-manual eye-gaze, and head tilts with spatial locations. In this proposal, agreement, (the head of the AGR phrase), licenses the null arguments that occur with both agreement and plain verbs. Therefore, in addition to the null argument being licensed through verbal agreement, it can also be licensed by agreement that occurs by eye gaze and/or head tilt directed toward a specific location. In a large-scale study of sociolinguistic variation in ASL, Lucas et al, (2001) looked at variation that occurs with null arguments. Variation studies on null arguments can provide further data to be considered by the two very different analyses, and potentially provide support for one analysis over the other. Though null arguments were not a focus of this study, the fact that they may be at least partially licensed by eye gaze demonstrates once again that some critical elements of ASL are nonmanual. Furthermore, the function of eye gaze must be executed by some means that can be perceived tactually for users of TASL. The underlying word order of ASL is subject-verb-object (SVO). However, as a result of phrase and clause organization and the use of null arguments, other word orders are made possible. Word orders other than SVO tend to require non-manual grammatical markers. Nonmanuals also mark such structures as: topics, yes/no questions, wh-questions, rhetorical 18

24 Intellectual Context and Literature Review statements, conditionals, and relative clauses (Liddell 1980; Coulter 1978, 1979; Baker-Shenk 1983). At the discourse level, in addition to manual signs, there are also independent nonmanual configurations such as tensing of the muscles around the nose, around the mouth, eyegaze direction, and specific types of head nods that are used to provide turn-taking cues and back-channel feedback for regulating conversations (Baker 1976; Baker and Padden 1978; Nowell 1989). Clearly, non-manual signals are a pervasive component of ASL. They accompany single lexical items with the purpose of modifying the canonical meaning of the sign with which they occur. They are involved in the licensing of null arguments. Their presence allows alternate word orders and they are essential parts of sentence, clause and phrase types. Even at the discourse level, NMS are crucial for conversing in acceptable and predictable ways. The prominence of non-manuals in ASL strongly suggests that at least some of their functions must be carried out by some other means in TASL Language Variation In 1966, William Labov and his colleagues pioneered studies in which the focus was on linguistic variation in relation to a multiplicity of social and cultural factors. Ethnicity, for example, has played a central role in current discussions of identity, and was the focus of Labov s 1966 study of New York City English among Italian, Jewish, Irish and Black Americans. It was also the topic of Gumperz s extensive work on cross-cultural miscommunication (Gumperz 1966). Labov s work illustrated that non-linguistic factors could affect the use of one linguistic form over another. In his groundbreaking study, he showed that while a strict linguistic analysis could not account for optional r deletion in the speech of Lower East Side New Yorkers, an analysis that took into account a person s socioeconomic background and their speech style, could account for this variability. Since Labov s findings, sociolinguists have found many types of linguistic variation that are correlated with external, non-linguistic constraints. These external constraints include social and personal characteristics, such as age, gender, education, and ethnicity, and also characteristics of the interaction in which speech occurred, i.e., the formality or casualness of the situation, the context (a bar brawl versus a 19

25 Intellectual Context and Literature Review sermon), or the status relations between participants (talking to a lawyer versus talking to a Deaf friend.) In addition to external constraints, variation studies also consider internal linguistic factors and take into account their possible correlations with linguistic variations. Internal constraints that can affect variability include the neighboring linguistic environment, the grammatical category of the word (adjective, noun, verb, etc.), and the position of the variable within the sentence or discourse. While some linguistic variation can be accounted for by external constraints, or internal constraints, it is often the case that variation results from a combination of both. It appears that Croneberg (1965) was the first to systematically look at variation in ASL. As he traveled around to different states on the east coast, and to the Carolinas and Virginia, he used a 134-item sign vocabulary list and asked local people for their signs. Croneberg found that lexical variation correlated with geographic region, which was, and still is, influenced by state boundaries and the location of the residential schools for the deaf. In the 1970 s, there were several ASL studies that looked for correlations between external and internal constraints, and phonological, morphological or lexical variation. For example, Woodward (1973 a, b: 1974), and Woodward and DeSantis (1977) examined the variable use of three morphological inflections and found that the inflections were used more by those who learned ASL before they were age six, and those who had Deaf parents. In 1975, Battison, Markowicz, and Woodward studied thumb extension variation within certain signs. They found weighted linguistic constraints including a correlation between thumb extension and the bending of other fingers in the sign, the extension of the middle finger in the sign, and the sign having a twisted movement. No relationship was found between external factors such as the signer s gender, the audiological status of the signer s parents, or if the signer learned ASL before they were age six. Woodward, Erting and Oliver (1976) looked at the varied use of a sign that had two forms; one form was near the face and the other in neutral space, such as RABBIT. Results showed that New Orleans signers used the form that was near the body more often, while Atlantic signers used the other form. In 1976, Woodward found lexical variation when African- American signers and Caucasian signers were studied. Shortly after, Woodward and DeSantis 20

26 Intellectual Context and Literature Review (1977b) looked at variation in the use of a one-handed and an older two-handed form of the same sign. They report weighted internal constraints such as that of one-handed forms which have an outward movement as opposed to an inward movement, and are articulated at a higher facial location as opposed to a lower placement on the face. Woodward and DeSantis also noted external constraints, finding that older, southern, and African-American signers use the older two-handed form more often than do younger, northern and Caucasian signers. After this spurt of variation studies in the 1970 s, few studies appeared again until the 1990 s. Between the 1970 s and the 1990 s, however, there has been a tremendous increase in our knowledge of the linguistic structure of ASL and in our understanding of the complexities and diversity of the language situation in the Deaf community (Padden & Humphries 1988; Lucas & Valli 1992; Paranis 1997). This knowledge has lead to a re-examination and concern about the methodologies used in sociolinguistic studies of ASL, particularly in informant and interviewer selection, and data collection methods (Lucas 1995; Patrick and Metzger 1996). For example, several of the earlier studies used written questionnaires or direct elicitation, often had hearing researchers conducting the interviews, made broad generalizations based on a very small number of informants, and used informants with varying language backgrounds, e.g., one informant might be a native signer while another might have learned to sign when they were 19 years old. Recent methods now reflect contemporary efforts in using natural data. Data is videotaped and coded for further analysis, and careful attention is given to ensuring that subjects are representative of the group being studied (Milroy 1987 a, b; Lucas 1995). Lucas et al (2001) conducted a large study on ASL variation in the deaf black community and in the deaf white community. The ongoing analysis is based on videotaped conversational data from 207 White and African-American ASL signers in three age groups, in two socioeconomic groups, and in seven sites around the United States. In the study, three phonological variables and the linguistic and social constraints on participants were analyzed: 1) the sign DEAF which, in citation form, is produced from ear to chin and can also be produced from chin to ear or as a single contact on the cheek: 2) a class of signs represented by the sign KNOW, which, in citation form, is produced on or at the side of the forehead. The variants of KNOW, for example, were produced on or at the side of the forehead or were formed at lower locations including the cheek or even the space in front of the signer, and 3) signs produced with 21

27 Intellectual Context and Literature Review a 1-handshape (index extended, all other fingers and thumb closed) which show a wide range of variation: thumb extended, all fingers extended etc. In all three cases, it was hypothesized that the variation would be driven by phonological factors such as features of the preceding or following sign. While there is some phonological involvement in all three cases, a Varbrul analysis with a total of 10,000 tokens has shown that the most significant factor is grammatical function: in the case of DEAF, whether the sign functions as an adjective or part of a compound, as a predicate, or as a noun adjectives and compounds favoring non-citation forms, nouns being neutral, and predicates disfavoring them; the location study involving signs like KNOW with preposition signs favoring non-citation forms and noun and verbs disfavoring them; and in the 1-handshape signs, first-person pronouns strongly favoring non-citation forms, second-person pronouns being neutral and third-person pronouns, nouns, and verbs disfavoring non-citation forms. This data was also analyzed for variation on the presence of grammatical subjects and for lexical variation Tactile ASL As stated earlier, it is primarily Deaf-Blind adults who have Usher Syndrome Type I who use Tactile ASL. These individuals typically grow up using ASL as their primary means of communication. Eventually, when their vision deteriorates, they start receiving ASL tactilely because Deaf-Blind people have increasing difficulty seeing the non-manual signals (NMS) that are an integral part of ASL. What we are seeing is that these non-manual signals are being represented manually. This manual representation of NMS is the variation that this paper examines, specifically as it pertains to the representation of adverbs. Variation defines the different ways of saying or signing the same thing where meaning remains constant. (Fasold, 1984). That is precisely what is happening with Tactile ASL: signals that are represented nonmanually in ASL are being represented manually in Tactile ASL, with no change in meaning. Using ASL in a tactile mode may appear to be a contradiction. That is, ASL, which is described as a visual language, includes non-manual components which the Deaf-Blind person cannot see; and many ASL signers use two hands while the Deaf-Blind person usually has tactual contact with only one hand. Additionally, many signs use handshapes involving combinations of the fingers, yet the Deaf-Blind person s hand is on the back of the signer s hand, not in contact with 22

28 Intellectual Context and Literature Review the fingers. Furthermore, Tactile ASL is a clear example of a dialect in a signed language, for two reasons: 1) we see variation at all levels of the language phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical, and 2) there is a community of users who show systematic use of the dialect. Opportunities for Deaf-Blind adults to interact and socialize with each other have greatly increased over the past 30 years. With the establishment of the American Association of the Deaf-Blind, Deaf-Blind adults from all over the United States have begun to convene for weeklong conventions and have established local chapters in various states. As state agencies are set up, and Deaf-Blind people learn of cities that provide quality services, they have begun to move to these cities, e.g., Seattle and Minneapolis. This fact, and the addition of job and leadership opportunities, has lead to the emergence of many Deaf-Blind communities (McNamara 1997). Padden and Humphries (1988), Lucas and Valli (1992), Patrick and Metzger (1996), and Parasnis (1997) discuss the wide range of language diversity that occurs in the Deaf Community. It is because many Deaf-Blind persons were first members of the Deaf Community, similar language diversity is found in the Deaf-Blind community. In fact, one of the problems that appeared in early research on ASL is that Deaf informants were not always ASL users. The same is true of research into Tactile ASL: not every Deaf-Blind person who uses tactile signing is a Tactile ASL user and some might use a more English-like form of signing, or one of the manual systems developed and used in educational settings. The focus of this review as well as the focus of this paper s research study is to show that language diversity exists between Tactile ASL users, as opposed to other types of tactile signing, and other communication methods used by deaf-blind persons such as palm writing, Tadoma and others. While the Deaf-Blind community in the United States is growing and Tactile ASL is receiving increased recognition, there has not been a corresponding growth in the amount of information about Tactile ASL. When Tactile ASL is mentioned, it is usually in materials for sign language interpreters. This material is generally based on personal experiences and observations of the authors, most of whom are involved in the field of Deaf-Blind interpreting, e.g., Smith (1977, 1994); Petronio (1988); and Atwood, Clarkson and Laba, (1994). Dr. Theresa Smith, an anthropologist and author of Guidelines: Practical Tips for Involving and Socializing with Deaf-Blind People, has worked as an interpreter at international conferences in Tokyo, Paris 23

29 Intellectual Context and Literature Review and Vienna and has been on the Coordinating Board for national conventions of the American Association of the Deaf-Blind since She has published a book on communicating with and interpreting for Deaf-Blind people and has often presented workshops as either a visiting or guest lecturer on interpreting for Deaf-Blind people, interpreting in legal settings, and the cultural aspects of interpreting and discourse. Smith states that while tactile interpreting, the interpreter must pay particular attention to the manner in which grammatical information is presented, including: non-manual signals, the grammatical use of space, movement in time and place, and movement in space (arc, zigzags, bounces, etc.) to inflect and inform individual signs, phrases and larger chunks (Smith 1994, p.91). Smith notes that these areas have to be modified somewhat to fit the tactual mode. With the exception of Smith s work, there is little information available for interpreters on how to modify their signing. For example, Deaf-Blind interpreting was the theme of the December 1997 issue of Views, the monthly publication of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf. However, while this issue contains 11 articles on Deaf-Blind Interpreting, none of the articles describes the linguistic features of Tactile ASL. As well, there is not one article suggesting what linguistic modifications should be made while tactile interpreting. Petronio (1986) did the first study examining linguistic features of Tactile ASL as used by fluent Deaf-Blind adults. This study questioned how Deaf-Blind adults are able to successfully use and understand ASL tactually when placing one hand on the back of the signer s hand. In Petronio s study, three skilled Deaf-Blind Tactile ASL users were videotaped as they retold a short story to each other tactually. They also retold the story non-tactually to two Deaf ASL users. Three 2-3 minute stories were designed which contained examples of three targeted features: 1) sequences involving non-manual role-shifts and eye gaze, 2) examples of two-handed signs, and 3) examples of signs with detailed information provided by the fingers. Petronio s study compared and contrasted the use of these features in the tactile and non-tactile story retellings. Additional findings show that Deaf-Blind signers use role-shift and eye-gaze in both tactile and non-tactile signing. In ASL, role-shift and eye gaze can be used to indicate direct speech: a signer s upper body will shift and their eye-gaze will be directed toward a spatial location, e.g., to the left or to the right (Valli and Lucas 1995). Deaf receivers can visually see 24

30 Intellectual Context and Literature Review this shift, Deaf-Blind receivers cannot. Closer examination showed that as the upper body shifted to the right or left, subsequently the signing space of the signs also shifted to the right or left. Thus, Deaf-Blind receivers were able to tactually perceive the role-shift by the corresponding shift in the signing space. In examining two-handed signs, the data showed that the majority were easily understood using one-hand tactual reception because either the information on both hands were the same information signs (Battison 1978), or the two hands contacted each other providing the tactile receiver with enough information to understand the sign. There were a few instances of signs with two different handshapes that were difficult to tactually perceive, e.g., JUNIOR, CANDLE, and PEANUT BUTTER. In these cases, the Deaf-Blind signer held the sign a little longer and often add fingerspelling for further clarification, e.g. CANDLE-hold C-A-N-D-L-E. It was hypothesized that the targeted one-handed number signs, SIX and SEVEN, were difficult for tactual reception because the information was on the signer s finger tips, and the receiver s hand was on the back of the signer s: in the sign for SIX, the top of the pinkie contacts the tip of the thumb, while in the sign for SEVEN, the top of the ring finger contacts the tip of the thumb. In all instances when these signs were signed, the Deaf-Blind signers held the sign slightly longer and the Deaf-Blind receiver shifted their receiving hand so they could feel the base of the signer s knuckle and determine which finger was bent. In one specific case, the receiver also added their other hand to feel which of the signer s fingers were in contact. In contrast to the two-handed difficult signs, e.g., JUNIOR and CANDLE, the signer s never added fingerspelling to help clarify these one-handed number signs. Interestingly, a study on reception of tactile signing by Reed et al. (1995) reported that when Deaf-Blind receivers misunderstood, the misunderstanding often occurred within the handshape parameter. A Deaf ASL user who had little experience communicating with Deaf- Blind tactile ASL users signed the test. Based on the findings in Petronio (1986), we can hypothesize that if a skilled Deaf-Blind Tactile ASL adult administered the receptive test, the confusion would have been avoided by having the Deaf-Blind signer modify or vary the tactually difficult signs by either lengthening or reiterating the sign and adding fingerspelling when needed. 25

31 Intellectual Context and Literature Review A study done by Collins in 1993 included videotaping and an examination of the tactile signing of interpreters as they interpreted for Deaf-Blind persons. Collins found that signing differences occurred when the interpreter used standard ASL compared to when they interpreted in Tactile ASL. The study examples point to phonological, lexical, and syntactic variation. For instance, when an interpreter used Tactile ASL, the location parameter of some signs varied: DRY, PARENTS, and REASON were signed lower than they are in standard ASL. Interpreters also used a manual sign instead of a non-manual signal that had a similar meaning. For example, instead of using the non-manual nose-twitch to show affirmation, the interpreter used the manual sign YES. In ASL, there are some signs whose phonological form is so similar they can easily be confused with another sign. While using tactile ASL, there were instances when the interpreter resorted to fingerspelling instead of using a potentially confusing sign. For example, instead of using GUN, which can be confused with the sign for TWENETY ONE, the interpreter fingerspelled G-U-N and, when signing the yes/no question MARRIED YOU (Are you married?), one interpreter added a forward movement to the string of signs, apparently to indicate that the sentence was a question. The next study of Tactile ASL was done by O Brien and Steffen (1996). The data from this study came from a one-hour videotape of two experienced Deaf-Blind Tactile ASL users signing fairy tales to each other. The data was examined for phonological variation and locative predicates. Locative predicates, also referred to as classifier verbs, spatial verbs, or verbs of motion and location, are verbs that contain specific points within the signing. Findings showed that locative predicates in Tactile ASL are used in the same manner as they are in standard ASL. For example, in the story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears, the Deaf-Blind signer located Papa Bear on his left, close to his body, while Mama and Baby Bear were on the right, further from his body. After these places were established, locative predicates were signed in a respective location, e.g., those related to Papa Bear to the left near the signer s body, those related to Mama and Baby Bear to the right, further from the signer s body. It is significant that location predicates using spatial locations occurred in both tactile and standard ASL. This provides another case, in addition to role shifting, where Deaf-Blind receivers are not able to visually access the information, however they tactually perceive the information by the place where the signing occurs. 26

32 Intellectual Context and Literature Review O Brien and Steffen s data also contained a one-handed variant of the sign BEAR, a sign which is normally two handed. The dropping of the second hand in this variant, is attributed to weak hand drop, a phonological process that commonly occurs in standard ASL (Padden and Perlmutter 1987). The authors report that instances of phonological variation occurred, particularly within the location parameter type that is found in standard ASL. Weak-hand drop is therefore not unique to Tactile ASL. Prior to this PDE s research on adverbial morphemes in TASL another paper influenced this PDE. This was research done by the Learner in conjunction with Dr. Karen Petronio (1998). The goal of that study was to compare Tactile ASL to standard ASL and begin to write a description of Tactile ASL. The primary data used in that 1998 study came from unobtrusive videotaping of Tactile ASL conversations that took place between 11 Deaf-Blind adults during a four-hour informal party. The 11 Deaf-Blind people, who knew the researchers, were asked and gave permission to videotape the party for linguistic purposes. The videotaping was done with a small hand-held camcorder with a zoom lens. While this data appears to be very natural and includes a number of people, one disadvantage is there were no long signing segments from any one person. Secondary data came from the videotaped retelling of stories by the three Deaf- Blind adults used in Petronio (1986). All 14 of the Deaf-Blind people involved in this study had Usher Syndrome Type I and used ASL before they became legally blind. As well, the participants regularly socialized with other Deaf-Blind adults and were comfortable and experienced in using Tactile ASL. Collins and Petronio hypothesized that variation could occur at any level of language. The researchers utilized the following questions to formulate and examine their hypothesis: Phonology: In Tactile ASL, the receiver s hand is placed on the signer s hand. Does this physical difference result in changes in any of the sign parameters: handshape, movement, location, and orientation? Morphology: Deaf-Blind persons are unable to see the non-manual adverbs and adjectives that accompany many predicates. How are these non-manual morphemes conveyed in Tactile ASL? 27

33 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Discourse: The back-channel feedback given by addresses in visual ASL is inaccessible to Deaf-Blind persons. What type of back-channeling in Tactile ASL replaces the head nods, head tilts, and facial expressions of back-channeling of standard ASL? In regards to physical changes influencing the parameters of a sign, it was noted that the same type of variation occurred in the tactile data as have been found in standard ASL. However, in addition to signing variation resulting from phonological processes such as regressive and progressive assimilation, Tactile ASL has a specific variation that is sometimes due to: 1) the signer and receiver being physically closer to each other than they generally are in standard ASL, and 2) the receiver s hand is in closer contact with the signer s hand. For example, because of the physical closeness, the signing space used in Tactile ASL is generally smaller than that used in visual ASL. This smaller space results in the signs having smaller movement paths than typically occurs in standard ASL. Also, the receiver s hand is in close contact with the signer s hand, and thus the signing space shifts to the area where the hand is in contact. Correspondingly, the location of signs articulated in neutral space also shifts to this same area. In order to accommodate the receiver s hand placement on the signer s hand it appears that more variation occurred within the orientation parameter than is found in standard ASL. One change, unique to Tactile ASL, occurred with several signs that included body contact: In addition to the signer s hands moving toward the body, the torso also, often moves towards the hands. This adaptation allows the receiver to maintain comfortable contact with the signer. However, it should be noted that this varies, as some signs with body contact occur when the signer s body does not move forward. A data corpus would permit further examination of probable constraints within the different types of signs that include body contact. Questions posed in standard ASL can have a variety of word orders (Humphries, Padden, & O Rourke 1985, Petronio and Lillo-Martin 1997). Wh-questions have a non-manual whquestion marker that includes a furrowing of the brow typically found in standard ASL, e.g., whsigns appeared at the beginning of wh-questions, at the end, or they appear at both the beginning and end. In standard ASL, under certain conditions, a wh-sign can be null (Lillo-Martin and Fischer, 1992). In this regard, the data on Tactile ASL appeared to differ from standard ASL: all the wh-questions had an overt wh-sign. This finding has a certain logic to it: since Deaf-Blind 28

34 Intellectual Context and Literature Review receivers cannot see the non-manual wh-questions marker, instead they rely on the wh-sign to indicate that the sentence is a wh-question. Without a wh-sign, it would be easy to misunderstand the sentence, because the sentence is ungrammatical. As grammatical markers are not observed by Deaf-Blind people, this dialect community has a restricted set of whconstruction. In standard ASL, a signer looks directly to the receiver while asking a wh-question, and thus, the receiver knows the question is specifically for them. In the Tactile ASL data, several wh-questions were preceded by the sign YOU directed toward the receiver. However, YOU was not the subject or the object of the sentence, e.g., YOU WHAT PLANE WHAT What kind of plane was it? In these cases, it appears that the sign YOU was a substitute for the signer s eyegaze. The sign YOU gets the receiver s attention, and informs them something will be directed toward them. Yes/No questions in standard ASL occur with a non-manual syntactic marker that includes a brow raise and head tilt. In standard ASL, yes/no questions can optionally occur with a manual sign glossed as QUESTION. All of the examples of yes/no questions in the tactile ASL data occurred with the sign QUESTION. Thus, it appears that while the sign QUESTION is optional in standard ASL, in Tactile ASL, it is acting as a substitute for the q-marker and its use has become obligatory. Back-channel feedback was the last area investigated by the Collins and Petronio 1998 study. The use of back-channel feedback in all languages allows receivers to provide feedback to the speaker/signer, e.g., they can indicate if they understand, agree, disagree, doubt, or are puzzled. In standard ASL, back-channel feedback is often given non-manually with a head nod or a shake; with eyebrows rising or lowering; and with nose wrinkles. The data was examined to determine how Deaf-Blind receivers were providing back-channel feedback to the Deaf-Blind signer. An unexpected unique tactile system was found. This system included a one-finger tap, a four finger tap, squeezes and tactile nods in which the receiver tapped, squeezed or nodded on the back of the signer s hand. For instance, the one finger tap was used to show I understand. Subtle differences of meaning were expressed by varying the speed or number of repetitions of the tap. A squeeze was used to ask for repetition. Further study is needed to better describe this unique means of providing feedback. This back-channeling system is a clear example of a 29

35 Intellectual Context and Literature Review change that has occurred in Tactile ASL. This is a system that has replaced the standard ASL non-manual back-channel system. After collecting and analyzing the data from this study, the findings were presented to the Deaf-Blind persons who were videotaped. Of note is the participant s reaction to the back-channeling information: they were equally surprised and unaware that they were using this tactile feedback system. Yet, once they learned of this, the participants remarked on how extensively they use it. This system, which has unconsciously evolved in the Deaf-Blind community, is widespread: all of the signers used it, regardless of geographic location. Despite the limited amount of data that was analyzed in the Collins and Petronio 1998 pilot study, the findings have provided ample evidence that language variation and language change occurs in Tactile ASL. Further studies of Tactile ASL have tremendous potential to contribute to the field of language change and language variation. The aim of the current research project is to create a more extensive Tactile ASL corpus that can then be used for a more in-depth analysis of a wider variety of variables. Having longer data samples from a variety of Tactile ASL signers will allow the analysis to include a description of linguistic and social constraints on the variables. The Deaf Swedish linguist, Dr. J. Mesch (2001) focused her study on turn-taking and questions in conversations between deaf-blind persons using tactile sign language. Her material consists of video tape recordings of six conversations, four with two deaf-blind persons and two where one was deaf and the other was deaf-blind. The Mesch study demonstrates that deaf-blind signers use their hands in two different conversation positions. In the monologue position both of the signer's hands are held under the hands of the listener, whereas in the dialogue position both participants hold their hands in identical ways: the right hand under the other person's left hand, and the left hand on top of the other person's right hand. The research also describes how these two positions affect two-handed signs, and how feedback is given in the two positions. Also, Mesch discusses how differences in the vertical and horizontal planes between the two persons are used in turn-taking regulation. In the study, four different conversational levels were identified in the vertical plane, i.e. places where the hands are positioned during conversation: 30

36 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Resting level (neutral) Turn level Hesitation level Turn change level The speaker (turn-holder) may signal that he is ready to end his turn by lowering the hands from the turn level to the turn change level. Alternatively, he may signal that he is not ready to give up his turn, but needs a moment to think before continuing by holding the hands at the hesitation level. In the horizontal plane three different turn zones were identified: Closest to the speakers are their own turn zones. In the middle is the joint zone. When finishing his turn, the speaker moves the hands to the joint zone. Furthest from the speaker is the other speaker s turn zone. Mesch s (2001) study also analyzes 137 questions in the material, both yes/no questions and wh-questions, to determine which elements in tactile sign language take over the role of visual interrogative facial expression. She hypothesized that yes/no questions are marked with a manual signal that has an extended duration of the final sign of the utterance. In her study only 46% of the extended durations resulted from actual yes/no questions and the remainder of the durations were for other reasons such as a signal for turn-taking. Mesch concluded that, in general, if there were no interrogative signals, the context of the utterance would account for its interpretation as a question. In summary, the topics that have received special focus in the research on tactile sign language are as follows: Hand arrangements Turn taking Marking of questions Feedback 31

37 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Transformation of non-manual grammatical elements Effectiveness (how fast and accurate) and where it fails All of the researchers discussed in this PDE express the need for further research in tactile sign language, and on deaf-blind communications in general. The rest of this paper will focus on adverbial morphemes in the U. S. Deaf-Blind community. At this point, this researcher knows of no other research on this same topic. However, European researchers might be researching this same topic. The present study examines the linguistic properties and variation found in Tactile American Sign Language, a variety of American Sign Language used in the Deaf-Blind community. This project is a continuation of the pilot study done by Collins and Petronio (1998). The 1998 study examined target features in a limited corpus of Tactile ASL data and found examples of variation on phonological, lexical, syntactic and discourse levels. The current study does an in-depth look at how non-manual adverbials are conveyed tactually, using a case study methodology Introduction of the Terminology Deaf-Blind Prior to defining relevant terminology in this paper, two words must first be discussed: the terms d/deaf and b/blind. Naturally, these terms refer to a person who is both deaf and blind to certain degrees. Yet, the definition of these two terms necessarily includes factors such as a Deaf-Blind individual s background, medical history and upbringing. Medical professionals such as ophthalmologists may view the Deaf-Blind from the medical perspective an individual with both vision and hearing losses. In some cases, some vision and hearing difficulties can be corrected with aids, glasses or even surgery. In other cases, the damage is inevitable and so far, there is no way to reverse the effects of genetic traits or alter much of the physiology of vision and hearing loss. Members of the Deaf-Blind community view the label Deaf-Blind from a cultural perspective. The Deaf-Blind community is composed of a rich range of sight/blindness giving the Deaf-Blind community its character and personality (Brennan 1997). 32

38 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Mark Landrenau (1995) documented varied communication styles between hearing, Deaf, and Deaf-Blind people, in terms of: greetings, introductions, eye contact, space, language, communication, conversation turn-taking, conversation maintenance, lighting, equipment, other devices/aids, how information is presented and valued, the value of time, and recreational activities. His research proved that Deaf-Blind individuals live independent and productive lives. Theresa Smith (2002) described how a positive self-identification and active participation as a vital member of the Deaf-Blind community contributes to an overall sense of well being and mental health of Deaf-Blind individuals Usher s Syndrome Usher s Syndrome is a condition in which Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) occurs along with a significant congenital hearing loss. This condition manifests as several types and this paper focuses exclusively on individuals with Usher s Syndrome Type I. This recessive genetic condition results in individuals who are born deaf and then, later on in life, begin to lose their vision due to RP which causes progressive night blindness and a progressive narrowing of the field of vision (tunnel vision), and then results in the loss of all usable vision. In view of the fact that significant effects of RP do not occur until early adulthood, many persons with Usher s Syndrome Type I grow up unaware that they will have vision problems. Most of them grow up as members of the Deaf community, attend residential schools for the Deaf, and use ASL as their primary language. Later, when their vision has become significantly affected to the degree that they can no longer see ASL effectively, they switch to receiving ASL tactually by placing either one or both hands on top of the signer s hand or hands. This population was chosen because their primary means of communication was visual ASL prior to their loss of sight Non-manual Signals (NMS) in ASL As members of the Deaf Community, many Deaf-Blind individuals claim American Sign Language as their native language. In recent years, ASL and its accompanying culture have been the topics of much research, debate and scholastic analysis. Thanks in large part to William Stokoe (1960) ASL has withstood the debate and linguistic scrutiny of its status as a language. 33

39 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Early on, the first linguistic researcher of American Sign Language, William Stokoe (1960), claimed non-manual signals were used as grammatical markers. Stokoe recognized that the negative side-to-side head shaking without a manual sign, clearly conveyed independent information. Liddell (1989) in the late 70s and early 80s demonstrated in his research that facial expressions and other non-manual signals provide emotive, lexical and grammatical information. As well, other non-manual grammatical signals take the form of changes in eyebrow movements. Additionally, Bridges and Metzger s work (1996), while not exhaustive, provides a fairly comprehensive look at the large gamut of non-manual signals, their functions and their meanings. The authors categorized NMS s into six roles: reflections of emotional states, constructed action, conversation regulators, lexical, grammatical markers and modifiers such as adverbs. Based on this discussion, the question can be asked: How do non-manual signals, which are provided visually, become incorporated into the language of those producing and processing tactile ASL? Tactile ASL According to Collins and Petronio (1998), Tactile ASL is the process wherein a Deaf- Blind person places his/her hand on top of another signer s hand and receives the ASL message through the sense of touch. There is a limited amount of research that describes the differences or similarities between the structure of forms of signs used in visual and tactile ASL. Space does not permit a detailed discussion of the findings pertaining to phonology, syntax and discourse, but a full account can be found in Collins & Petronio (1998). In that work, signs were examined in terms of their handshape, location, movement, and orientation. One major finding of this 1998 work was the phonological assimilation that occurred due to the necessity of the signers proximity. Certain sign production parameters were changed due to the need for body contact or to the physical limitations of space. A second finding, related to ASL syntax, was also discussed. As previously mentioned, attention has been given to the sentence types produced in visual ASL and how they are translated into tactile ASL. Collins and Petronio describe the tactile substitutions necessary for the non-manual markers to be communicated clearly to the Deaf-Blind individual. 34

40 Intellectual Context and Literature Review Another finding in the Collins & Petronio research was in regard to discourse. When individuals are communicating with one another, certain actions provide feedback to the speaker or listener that the communication was received, understood, agreed to or disagreed with. This process of back-channeling goes through phonological assimilation when tactile ASL was used. These variations, adaptations and assimilations that Collins and Petronio describe are examples of linguistic change that has occurred and is continuing to occur in the United States Deaf-Blind community. The authors attribute these sociolinguistic changes to the expanding socialization opportunities for Deaf-Blind individuals. Through various organizations Deaf- Blind individuals who were once isolated now have opportunities to get together, communicate and make language contact changes that fit their linguistic needs. The researchers had the opportunity to discuss adverb and adjective changes in tactile ASL in the 1998 work. It was mutually agreed on by both Collins & Petronio that the pilot study was just the beginning step of a vast journey into morphemic assimilation. The pilot study determined that with certain ASL non-manual adverbials and adjectival morphemes an auxiliary muscle tension and movement were added to a specific facial configuration such as: oo with mouth pursed to mean thin or objects with a small size; mm with mouth closed in a normal way meaning regularity; cha with mouth opened means objects of a big size; and ee with mouth widened meant caution or anxiety. This paper supports the 1998 findings and expands upon other morphemes serving the same function; however these facial configurations are not the subject of this study Deaf-Blind Interpreting Research states firmly that it is very important for interpreters to be familiar with linguistic variation. According to Frankel (2002), it is essential that an interpreter must be able to mediate the language as well as the variation that occurs when the modality changes from visual to tactile. One such communicative setting occurs when one of the interlocutors is Deaf- Blind as they have unique tactile language needs. Thus it is crucial that an interpreter adjusts their interpreting to clarify information received from non-manual signals. This paper s research elucidates on the variation that occurs in a Deaf-Blind person s use of non-manual signals (facial expression) that are used as adverbials. To clearly understand how 35

41 Intellectual Context and Literature Review NMS carry into tactile American Sign Language, it is first necessary to comprehend what happens in formal TASL discourse. In the 1992 pilot study the research showed that sighted individuals adjust their language to accommodate understanding during a Deaf-Blind interaction. The same is true for nonsighted individuals. Individuals who have Usher s Syndrome Type I communicate in their primary language, ASL, while making adaptations to fit a tactile mode. Tactile ASL has phonological, lexical, and syntactic variation, specifically concerning the representation of nonmanual signs and their location during production. Furthermore, interpreting between English and ASL, two distinct languages, is a complex cognitive process. Research done by Cokely (1996) investigated error types when interpreting between these two languages. Adding a fairly unfamiliar variation of ASL to the formula when interpreting from English complicates the matter further. Errors will continue to occur in the form of miscues in movement, handshapes, orientation, and non-manual signals. Dr. Melanie Metzger has worked as an interpreter serving the American Deaf and hearing communities. Her graduate education is in linguistics with a concentration in sociolinguistics. Her research has addressed pronoun variation, the use of space, non-manual signals, issues in language acquisition and multilingual-multicultural education including issues in data collection unique to signed language research and the analysis of interactive interpreting. According to Bridges and Metzger (1996), authors of Deaf Tend Your: Non-Manual Signals in American Sign Language, the misuse of non-manual signals by non-native speakers clearly identifies them as much less fluent users of the language Scope While it would be vastly beneficial to develop a curriculum for Deaf-Blind interpreting, that is outside of the scope of this research project. Before a language can truly be taught to nonnative speakers, the language must first be understood in its linguistic and sociolinguistic contexts. Tactile ASL has yet to be examined to the degree necessary for that to happen. The current work is one of the preliminary steps to understanding the language used by members of the Deaf-Blind community. This paper expands upon the initial work of Collins and Petronio (1998). However, the paper does not examine all of the phonological, morphological, syntactic, 36

42 Intellectual Context and Literature Review and grammatical and discourse features of tactile ASL. Rather, the way in which adverbial nonmanual signals in visual ASL are produced manually in TASL is isolated and analyzed. Once the research is completed the learner then analyzes the data for effectiveness of the isolated morphemes and not the effectiveness of the overall piece. Upon careful examination and understanding, interpreters will then be asked to incorporate the non-manual signal information in a tactile interpretation. This research is not meant to evaluate the quality of the interpreters work but rather to identify if any adaptations were made to incorporate the visual information. Tactile ASL has many interesting features to analyze in terms of variation; the learner s focus hereon is adverbials. It is a perfectly reasonable narrowing of focus. Furthermore, the analysis here focuses on features of Tactile ASL, features which are linguistic in nature. One might be tempted to characterize them as paralinguistic features but this would be incorrect. Paralinguistic features have to do with features that may accompany linguistic units but are not themselves analyzable as linguistic units. Bussman (1996: 347) states that paralinguistic factors include particular types of articulation and phonation (breathing, murmuring, whispering, or clearing one s throat, crying, and coughing) and intonation. Some linguists do not consider intonation to be a paralinguistic feature and not surprisingly, no mention is made of paralinguistic factors as they pertain to sign languages. However, the features of adverbials that I am analyzing here are of a linguistic nature: they contribute directly to the creation of linguistic units that have specific meanings. The features that I am describing do not accompany linguistic units; they are themselves linguistic units, without which the desired meaning cannot be realized. 37

43 Methods 3. Methods This Project Demonstrating Excellence (PDE) takes the form of a qualitative linguistic case study of two Deaf-Blind individuals conversing in Tactile ASL. The objective of the research was to determine the nature of adverbial use in tactile American Sign Language. A pilot study was first conducted. Two Deaf-Blind individuals were matched for sex, age, vision loss, and involvement in the Deaf and Deaf-Blind communities. A topic was provided to the subjects and the resulting conversation was videotaped. Key information regarding the logistics of collecting data was used in the main study. This included experimenting with various positions to discover optimal placement of the video cameras to ensure that the subjects could be clearly observed. For the main study, again each Deaf-Blind participant in the communicative event had Usher s Syndrome Type I, and were also matched for sex, age, vision loss and involvement in the Deaf and Deaf-Blind communities. Both subjects were males, in their 50s, native users of ASL and have used Tactile ASL for at least 10 years. Additionally, each of the subjects had used standard ASL before they used Tactile ASL, and they regularly interact and socialize with other Deaf-Blind adults. It was important that the participants be members of this community as this research investigated adverbial variation as a sociolinguistic phenomenon. The subjects were asked to complete a consent form expressing their willingness to participate in this project. In addition, answers to the questionnaire provided important information needed for the analysis of the session. A copy of the Consent Form used is provided in Appendix E. The videotaped sessions were approximately 50 minutes in duration, producing a sample of interactive natural discourse. The range of topics that were suggested prior to taping related to oppression, life experience as a Deaf-Blind person, and a discussion stemming from their experiences related to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack. The purpose of suggesting the topic was to elicit conversation that would likely contain adverbial use. This was based on experience gained in the 1998 pilot session. Pairs of signers were used because the two signers must be in physical contact with each other. Since tactile communication is almost always oneon-one, the use of group interviews would be a marked situation and likely to skew the results. 38

44 Methods A variety of data collection methods were considered prior to the pilot. One option was to use the taping method used in the 1998 pilot study but would change the environment: the taping would occur during a social event with naturally occurring conversations. However, this option has three possible drawbacks. The first is related to respect for the privacy of individuals. It would not be ethical to videotape persons in signed conversation when they are unaware of the taping activity. This would be particularly true for deaf-blind persons since they would very likely be totally unaware of the cameras. The second drawback is the likelihood that the conversation might not contain the type of desired data. A third drawback is that multiple cameras would be needed in order to capture unobstructed views necessary for the analysis. The final controlled session, as developed from the pilot, was unique in that the learner was able to obtain the individual subjects permission and they were aware of the videotaping. In this manner, the privacy of the individuals was maintained. During the videotaping session, the subjects occasionally lapsed into conversation that, in fact, did discuss information of a private nature. The goal of the data collection effort relates primarily to capturing certain formational aspects of the conversation and not to the actual content of the conversation. Consequently, the full videotape session will be kept confidential and only short pertinent video clips showing the desired results will be released as part of the study. In addition to providing the above-mentioned controls to insure privacy, the subjects were given the suggested topics for their conversation. However, the subjects were not informed of the specific observations that were being made. In this way, they would not be predisposed to any of the target structures. The duration of the sessions were approximately 50 minutes of conversation followed by an opportunity for the researcher to interview the subjects to collect the information on the questionnaire. Once the videotaped sessions were completed, the entire piece of discourse was transcribed into a glossed format. The transcript, in conjunction with video footage, was then analyzed to determine whether or not any assimilations or adaptations occurred with regard to the adverbials under study. The pool of adverbial expressions was then classified according to function. The transcription of the full conversation session shows the features and functions of the adverbials in tactile sign language. The full transcription is provided in Appendix D. 39

45 Methods 3.1. Logistics and the Selection of a Site The learner has full access to the use of the Gallaudet University Interpreting Lab. The sessions were videotaped using five video cameras. These cameras, four of which were digital video, recorded in a high quality mode that allows for editing and the future possibility of disseminating research findings on CD-ROMS or via the Internet. Multiple cameras were needed for the interview sessions. If a single camera had been used, the receiver s hand, which was positioned on the signer s hand, may have blocked some of the signing. Due to the fact that all of the communication happens in the area where the two hands are in contact, the camera shots were from the waist up to ensure that all aspects of the signing space was properly captured on the videotape. The equipment was set up and operated automatically and no other person was in the room at the time of the session. Figure 13 shows the arrangement of the subjects and the cameras for the taping sessions. Figure 13. Arrangement of subjects and cameras 40

46 Methods (A) Long shot providing a framed view of the entire discourse not focused on specific detail. (B) Close up view of subject #1 including a view of the face, hands, and the signing space. (C) Close up view of subject #2 including a view of the face, hands, and the signing space. (D) Close up view, from the front, of the hands and signing space. (E) Close up view, from overhead, showing a very detailed view of the hands from an unobstructed angle. 41

47 Methods 3.2. Coding and maintenance of the videotapes and database A previous study on Tactile Sign Language by Karen Petronio, Val Dively and their assistants used a software program called Filemaker Pro and transcription software developed in Germany for use in coding sign language data. This researcher decided not to follow this method. For the analysis of the 50-minute conversation between two deaf-blind men, a database was developed using a transcription format which indicates specific symbols for each utterance. The entire conversation was analyzed and each occurrence of an adverb in the conversation was entered into an Excel spreadsheet according to six categories as discussed in more detail in the next section. During the transcriptions the code C and D were used for the two subjects. From the pilot study, various past studies on the structure of ASL, and from recent studies on ASL variation there are a variety of features that have been identified as target features/variables for study. This paper focuses exclusively on adverbs. Information on these features was entered into the database along with information on the linguistic environment in which they appear, their grammatical category, their phonological form, and other information that was determined to be relevant, or potentially relevant. This is in addition to considering usual social constraints such as age, gender, educational background, audiological status of parents and siblings, and the age at which ASL was acquired. The following information was obtained from the Deaf-Blind informants: The age at which they used Tactile ASL for the first time The age at which they started using Tactile ASL as their primary receptive means of communication. The age at which they first became aware of the process of Tactile ASL. Their degree of involvement in the Deaf-Blind community. How often do they interact with other Tactile ASL users? This information was included in the database for later study and research concerning variability. The purpose for analyzing the data was to account for and describe variation that occurs between Tactile ASL and standard ASL. The analysis involved a quantitative and qualitative 42

48 Methods analysis of specific variables. The data also analyzed how often, when and where the variability occurred, specifically in the use of adverbial forms. This resulted in a description of the form of and the use of variability, and an analysis and description of linguistic and social constraints. The reason the learner uses semantically based categories in this analysis is because the variation in form observed has direct bearing on the meaning of the adverbials. As I will show, specific phonological features such as hold, lengthening, and tenseness help produce adverbial meaning in the TASL forms. Clearly, the categorization of adverbials based on semantic category is both conventional (see for example, Klima and Bellugi 1979, Liddell 1980; Baker and Cokely 1980; Padden 1988; Bienvenu and Colonomos 1991; and Bridges and Metzger 1996), and theoretically supportable. In addition, or perhaps because of these two factors, if the learner were to attempt a phonetically-based categorization of visual ASL adverbials, this would constitute a dissertation topic in its own right. This is so because it would be a new area that counters conventions in the literature with an attempt to reclassify and analyze the visual nature of these linguistic forms. This question is beyond the scope of this paper s research questions. It would make an interesting topic for a future project. 43

49 Findings and Interpretations 4. Findings and Interpretation It is important to keep in mind that this paper investigates Tactile ASL as a variety of ASL, the visual sign language of the North American Deaf community. The source of the data was a videotaped conversation between two Deaf-Blind men. Section 3 discussed the methodology utilized in establishing the parameters of the research of the conversation and recording of the results Semantic Based Categories Initially it was suggested to the subjects that they have a conversation about the September 11 th terrorist attack. However, the two subjects had very little detailed knowledge of this event and their conversation changed to topics including assistive devices for Deaf-Blind people, guide dogs, work, and current football standings. The videotaped session consisted of a 50-minute Tactile ASL conversation. This conversation was transcribed and analyzed for adverbs and adverbials. The analysis showed a total of 284 adverb/adverbial tokens. The 284 target units were then classified according to the meaning they contributed to the discourse. This paper discusses both single-sign adverbs and multi-sign phrases as adverbials. The target units yielded the following six semantic-based categories: Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction Each category is described below along with several examples of each taken from the transcription of the session. Analysis provides a comparison of Visual ASL and Tactile ASL. This comparison is crucial, as it serves to demonstrate the unique structure of Tactile ASL and the specific nature of the variation. For each selected example, a table is provided containing the following essential elements: 44

50 Findings and Interpretations A gloss taken from the transcription. The target adverb is shown in bold text. Appendix B provides a detailed description of the glossing conventions and the transcription symbols. An English transcription of the conversation segment. A discussion of how the target adverb is signed in visual ASL. A discussion of how the target adverb is signed in Tactile ASL. An analysis of the variation in the signing between the two. Comments as required or applicable to the parameters of the research objectives. Specific features occurred consistently, depending on the adverbial. Each adverbial and its features will be described and discussed. 45

51 Findings and Interpretations Manner/Degree Adverbials of manner or degree answer these questions: How? In what manner? To what degree? The following are several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects videotaped conversation: Example One (Manner/Degree) Gloss from Transcription: English Translation: PRO1 LOOK-AT (man) SHOCK (emph) I looked at him and was very shocked. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in which the eyebrow is raised with a widening of the eyes. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual prolongs the final hold segment with a tense feeling in the hands. The path for the tactile version is also longer. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for SHOCK does not need to have a prolonged hold in the final segment. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes the prolonged hold segment with a tensing of the hands and longer path to convey the same information. Comments: This is an example of the adverb SHOCK with emphasis, which shows the degree to which the person reacted to the specific situation. 46

52 Findings and Interpretations Example Two (Manner/Degree) Gloss from Transcription: HEY/ WITH (emph) // COME WITH KEYBOARD YES+++ OVER 6- THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED YES++ MEAN ALONE [WELL]//BRAILLE ALONE THOUSAND 7-HUNDRED // English Translation: When the Braille device comes with a keyboard the cost is $6,500. If it is only the Braille device, it costs $3,700. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign WITH with a facial expression in which the eyebrows are raised with a widening of the eyes. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign WITH, the Deaf-Blind individual prolongs the final hold segment with a tense feeling in the hands. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for WITH does not need to be prolonged in a hold of the segment. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the nontactile portion of the sign and substitutes the prolonged hold segment with a tensing of the hands to convey the same information. Comments: In this example, the adverb WITH is in the category of Manner/Degree in that its use is in the context of differentiating the Braille device with the other keyboard or without the other keyboard. 47

53 Findings and Interpretations Example Three (Manner/Degree) Gloss from Transcription: CL:3 bent securely mounted box on the CL:B door jamb MORE++ T-I-N CL:C securely mounted box on the CL:B door jamb STRONG (emph) /// English Translation: The box is mounted on the doorjamb with tin. It is really secure. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in which the eyebrows are lowered and the sign is made with a slightly tense and quick movement. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual signs STRONG (emph) with a quick tense movement and holds the final segment. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for STRONG does not need to be prolonged in a hold of the segment. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the nontactile portion of the sign and substitutes with a prolonged hold segment. In addition, the movement of STRONG has tense emphasis to indicate that it is holding quite securely. Comments: This is an example of the adverb STRONG, which shows the degree to which the tin box is attached to the doorjamb. 48

54 Findings and Interpretations Example Four (Manner/Degree) Gloss from Transcription: YOU CL:C fire alarm mounted on CL:B ceiling FINISH(that s all) NONE CL:II cord coming down? English Translation: Is the fire alarm attached to the ceiling a wireless device that does not need a wire running down from it? Visual ASL: In visual ASL, the sign for NONE does not need to be used. The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in which the eyebrow is lowered and there is a squinting of the eyes while moving the head back and forth in a motion that indicates no. In addition, the visual ASL sign would indicate does not have at the end. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual signs NONE by prolonging the hold segments. Additionally, the movement of the sign NONE is done with a tenseness that places emphasis on the holds. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is an important component of the sign. There is a specific sign for does not have. The sign does not need to have a prolonged hold segment. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes the prolonged hold segment. In addition, the movement of NONE has a tense emphasis to indicate that it is holding. The other component of the sign that is different is that a Tactile ASL signer adds a specific sign indicating a question. Whereas, a visual ASL signer has conveyed this with a non-manual facial expression. Comments: This is an example of the adverb NONE showing degree in the sense that it is emphasizing that there is no wire coming from the wireless alarm. 49

55 Findings and Interpretations Example Five (Manner/Degree) Gloss from Transcription: INTERESTING(emph) IX(second one/doorbell) DOOR++++ CL:C mounted box on the CL:B flat surface // NONE CORD(from CL:B down the wall ) English Translation: It is very interesting that there is no cord coming down from the wall. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile facial expression of mouthing with pursed lips while signing INTERESTING. Tactile ASL: The Deaf-Blind individual signs INTERESTING with a movement away from the chest in an extended distance. This movement is then followed by a prolonged hold. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for INTERESTING does not need to have a prolonged hold segment. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes the longer and slower movement away from the chest as well as a prolonged hold segment. In addition, the movement of INTERESTING has tense emphasis to the sign. Comments: INTERESTING (EMPH) is an adverb of manner/degree in that it expresses the signer s degree of interest and/or understanding of the subject being discussed. 50

56 Findings and Interpretations Example Six (Manner/Degree) Gloss from Transcription: PHONE YES++ ONLY PLUG-INTO(phone) CONNECT PHONE CL:Ob cord runs from phone over to tty) PLUG-INTO(tty) TTY FINISH(that s all)? English Translation: There is a phone plugged into the TTY. There is a cord running between the TTY and the phone. Is that all? Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression of the mouthing of SS and a widening of the eyes and a raising of the eyebrows without actually signing FINISH. Tactile ASL: The Deaf-Blind individual signs FINISH with a hand movement with a tensing of the hand and a final hold segment. As a question the movement of FINISH is signed with a movement forward in the direction of the other person to show it is a question. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. The sign for FINISH does not need to be prolonged in a hold of the segment. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the nontactile portion of the sign and substitutes a tensing of the hand during the sign along with a final hold segment. In addition, the movement of FINISH includes the push forward to show it is a question. This push in the Tactile ASL sign is equivalent to the raised eyebrow in the visual ASL sign. Comments: This example demonstrates that finish is posed as a question and involves a push movement forward for the Tactile ASL as opposed to the raising of the eyebrow or the necessity of adding a question sign at the end of the sentence. 51

57 Findings and Interpretations Summary (Manner/Degree) This series of examples of adverbs of the type manner or degree show that one of the features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of a sign is the use of an extended final hold segment often accompanied by a tensing of the hand during this hold. 52

58 Findings and Interpretations Time Adverbials of time answer one question: When? Following are four examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects video-taped conversation: Example One (Time) Gloss from Transcription: English Translation: Two years ago Visual ASL: TWO^YEAR PAST / TWO The signer uses a non-manual production of the sign with a facial expression of the head moving from up to down accompanied by a downward eye gaze. The signer would not add the additional TWO at the end of the sign. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign, the Deaf-Blind individual adds an additional TWO at the end of the sentence Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to repeat the additional TWO at the end of the sentence. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and substitutes a second occurrence of TWO at the end of the sentence to clarify the fact that this is an adverb specifying time. 53

59 Findings and Interpretations Example Two (Time) Gloss from Transcription: WHEN PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY YOU[held] /// YOU WALK-OVER-TO (the phone) CL:Y pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down #OR #WHAT WELL? English Translation: When I call you, do you go over to the TTY, pick up the handset and set it [on the TTY], or what? Visual ASL: In visual ASL, the sign for WHEN in when I call you is expressed with an upwards tilt of the head and a raising of the eyebrows. It is not explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, the sign for WHEN must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign WHEN. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and consequently, WHEN must be signed explicitly. 54

60 Findings and Interpretations Example Three (Time) Gloss from Transcription: SHOW-ME PRO1 LATER / YOU CURIOUS YOU [hesitation] YOU++ HAVE THREE(emph) RIGHT V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L INCLUDED? // English Translation: You can show me the Vibracall later. I am curious, you have three Vibracall units installed, right? Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in which the head tilts upwards and there is a raising of the eyebrows. LATER is not explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, the sign for LATER must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. LATER is signed after the subject and, in this case, the hand is moved slowly. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign LATER. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf- Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and consequently, LATER must be signed explicitly. The sign is used after the subject and is accentuated by having it signed slowly. Comments: The adverb LATER is functioning as an adverb showing time. 55

61 Findings and Interpretations Example Four (Time) Gloss from Transcription: THREE THAT / PLUG-INTO CL:1 wire goes around over the table TABLE / WHERE PUT a,b,c, LEAVE-IN-THAT-PLACE /// NOT USE IX-lf (control unit?) WAVE-NO UNTIL YOU FEEL++ / SEE #IF PAGER STILL WORK // PUSH-BUTTON (on phone transmitter) KEEP+++ UNTIL GOOD PUSH-BUTTON (on phone transmitter)++ / DEAD // SAME-AS CL:C mounted box on the CL:B door jamb // PUSH-BUTTON(on doorbell transmitter)++++ DEAD / CHANGE(battery) IX(doorbell)++ V-O-L-T // IX(phone transmitter) V-O-L-T 9 CHEAP / PAGER EXPENSIVE(emph) / EXPENSIVE English Translation: I just leave the three transmitters where I put them. You don t touch the control unit unless you want to test if the pager is still working. You keep the button pressed until you see (the battery) is good. This is similar to checking the doorbell battery. Use a 9-volt battery when changing the battery. A 9-volt battery is inexpensive while it is very expensive to replace the pager battery. Visual ASL: In visual ASL, it is rarely necessary to use a sign for UNTIL in order to show a time frame. Conditionals like this are produced with a facial expression consisting of a movement of the head up and then downwards. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, the sign for UNTIL must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign UNTIL. In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual is not able to observe the non-tactile portion of the sign and consequently, UNTIL must be signed explicitly. Comments: The adverb expressing time is UNTIL. 56

62 Findings and Interpretations Summary (Time) This series of examples of adverbs of the type time characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of a sign and the use of an additional signed word in order to make the context of time clear. Often this additional sign is produced more slowly to make it clear. 57

63 Findings and Interpretations Duration Adverbials of duration answer the question: For how long? The following shows several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects videotaped conversation: Example One (Duration) Gloss from Transcription: CL: LL signaler #IF PUSH-BUTTON MAKE STILL LIVE VIBRATING- ALARM+++ THAT English Translation: You push the button to make sure the [battery] still has a good charge [and will vibrate the pager]. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression in which the head tilts downwards slightly and there is a raising of the eyebrows. STILL does not have to be explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign STILL must be explicitly signed because a Deaf- Blind individual cannot observe the non-manual signal. STILL is signed with a movement of the hand followed by a hold segment and a tensing of the hand. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign STILL, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign STILL. In Tactile ASL, it is necessary for STILL to be signed. Additionally, the lengthening of the final hold segment with a tensing of the hand is used. Pragmatically speaking, visual ASL typically uses non-manuals to signal conditionals along the lines of If then statements in English. The addition of signs like IF and in this case, STILL, would be redundant in visual ASL. Comments: In this example STILL is an adverb of duration. 58

64 Findings and Interpretations Example Two (Duration) Gloss from Transcription: UP-TIL-NOW NONE++++ WHY(rh) PRO1 LOOK-FOR++ MY FAVORITE BALTIMORE RITENOFF PRO1 BUY(from Ritenoff)+++++ COME(to me) ORDER (from Ritenoff) TIME PRO1 SEND-TO (Ritenoff) CALL-TO (Ritenoff) /// SAY O-W-N-E-R QUIT / SELL OTHER NEW O-W- N-E-R LOOK-AT WEAVING / THROW-OUT DON T-KNOW HOW IX(new owner) THROW-OUT / NONE EMPTY // PRO1 DISAPPOINTED GIVE-UP WOOD BUY++++ IX(Baltimore) English Translation: I [haven t bought] any for a while because I was looking for my favorite [vendor] in Baltimore, Ritenoff, that I bought from all the time. I ordered it and it came to me. One time, I called them They said the owner quit, sold [the business] to a new owner who took one look at the weaving [supplies] and threw them out. I don t know how he did it but he threw it all out there s nothing left. I m disappointed that I have to give up buying it in Baltimore. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign by raising the eyebrows and tilting the head back slightly. Additionally, there is a movement of the sign UP-TIL-NOW in a small arc. Tactile ASL: In the production of the sign, a Deaf-Blind individual signs UP-TIL-NOW with a bigger and more pronounced movement in a larger arc. Analysis of Variation: The primary difference in the signing of UP-TIL-NOW in this example, is that a Tactile ASL signer follows a far more pronounced movement in a larger arc. A visual ASL user signs with a smaller arc Summary (Duration) This series of examples of adverbs of the type duration demonstrates that one of the features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of the sign is the use of an extended hold segment often accompanied by the use of a larger sign space. Duration is also shown in Tactile ASL by use of a specific sign such as UP-TIL-NOW, not just with the use of extended holds. 59

65 Findings and Interpretations Frequency Adverbials of frequency answers the question: How often? Following are several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects videotaped conversation: Example One (Frequency) Gloss from Transcription: YES // COMPANY VISIT LIKE W-SIGN-NAME++ HUSBAND #JOHN WATCH++ #tv W-SIGN-NAME++ CL:Vb sit Deaf-Blind style CHAT++ FOUR-HOURS #JOHN WATCH++ #tv // SOMETIMES (I) VISIT (them) #JOHN WATCH (his TV) PRO CHAT (with W) WELL / UNDERSTAND+++ English Translation: It is confirmed that there is company who visits like W. Her husband, John watches TV sometimes. W and I will chat for four hours while John watches the TV. Sometimes I visit them. John watches TV and she chats. [John] understands. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a nodding of the head up and down while the sign for SOMETIMES moves in a fast circle making it an adverb of frequency. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, a Deaf-Blind individual needs a slow movement of the sign in a bigger circle in order to make it clear that the meaning is SOMETIMES, as opposed to a similarly formed sign. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile nodding of the head and the movement of the sign in a fast circle is sufficient to convey the adverb SOMETIMES. A Tactile ASL signer must slow the movement and move in a larger circle in order to clarify the sign in the context of frequency. This movement compensates for the inability of a Deaf-Blind individual to observe the head movement. 60

66 Findings and Interpretations Example Two (Frequency) Gloss from Transcription: WAVE-NO COMMUNITY PRO1 HAVE TWO[HOLD] / GIRL++ / HELP++ #SSP // EVERY-TWO-WEEKS+++ / GIRL FROM BALTIMORE // COME (to my house) TAKE (out) STORE++ English Translation: Every two weeks, the girl who is the SSP, helps me out. She is from Baltimore. She comes to my house and takes me to the stores Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a reduplicated movement and protruding lower lip. The protruding lip indicates regularity. It is not necessary to sign EVERY-TWO-WEEKS three times. Furthermore, this is a two-handed sign. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL it is necessary to demonstrate regularity with repetition. This is a necessary substitute for the facial expression. Also, the non-dominant hand has been dropped. The dropping of the non-dominant hand results from having the added duty of watching for feedback. Analysis of Variation: In the Tactile ASL production of the sign, the signer must make it clear that the every two weeks is meant to convey the frequency aspect as well as it s regularity. Since the citation form of EVERY-TWO-WEEKS involves two identical movements already, it was modified to have three movements. For the visual ASL signer, the non-manual signal of the lip protrusion is sufficient to convey this concept Summary (Frequency) This series of examples of adverbs of the type frequency demonstrates that one of the features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of a sign is the use of repeating signed words or phrases in order to make the meaning clear. Redundancy occurs in other places in TASL discourse as well to ensure comprehension. Often this additional movement is produced in a larger signing space 61

67 Findings and Interpretations Purpose Adverbials of purpose answer these questions: Why? For what purpose? For what reason? Following are several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects videotaped conversation: Example One (Purpose) Gloss from Transcription: YOU V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L FOR PHONE RING ONLY? English Translation: Do you have the Vibracall [signaler] just for indicating that the phone is ringing? Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign along with a facial expression by raising the eyebrows. FOR is not explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, a Deaf-Blind individual cannot see the non-manual facial expression and, consequently, FOR PHONE RING ONLY is signed to indicate purpose (for what purpose). Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign FOR. In Tactile ASL, there must be a compensation for the Deaf-Blind person who is unable to observe this non-manual signal. The additional sign is added to show purpose. 62

68 Findings and Interpretations Example Two (Purpose) Gloss from Transcription: YES BUY /// YOU NEED WRITE-LIST SEND (to Silent Call) TO S-I-L-E- N-T ASK (multiple) ABOUT MORE++ TWO E-X-T-R-A?? TWO-OR- THREE CONNECTED // YES FOR FLASHER THAT // WELL // CAN ASK- (Silent Call) REQUEST-lf (from Silent Call) S-I-L-E-N-T C-A-L-L COMPANY IX-lf (Silent Call) /// English Translation: Yes, you can buy one. You should write down the questions you have about connecting two or more signaler systems at once in order to flash [light signals to your roommates]. Sure, ask the Silent Call company. Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign along with a facial expression of a raising of the eyebrows. FOR is not explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, a Deaf-Blind individual cannot see the non-manual facial expression and, consequently, FOR FLASHER is signed to indicate purpose (for what purpose). Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign FOR. In the Tactile ASL, there must be a compensation for the Deaf-Blind person who is unable to observe this non-manual signal. The additional sign is added to show purpose. Comments: The adverb here, FOR is used to indicate purpose. The purpose is to buy a flasher and this is what FOR signifies. 63

69 Findings and Interpretations Summary (Purpose) This series of examples of adverbs of the type purpose shows that one of the features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of the sign is the use of an additional signed word in order to make the context and purpose clear. In the examples shown here, the extra word FOR was signed. There are extra words because the conventional way of expressing the same purpose as the signer intended would not include the sign FOR. A conventional way of referring to the purpose of the flasher would be to use the sign POSS, a possessive pronoun sign that refers to the flasher s purpose, rather than FOR. If the sign POSS were used in this example it would have a higher risk of being misunderstood. 64

70 Findings and Interpretations Place/Position/Direction Adverbials of Position/Location/Direction answer these questions: Where? Which location? In which direction? Following are several examples of this usage as taken from the transcription of the subjects videotaped conversation: Example One (Place/Position/Direction) Gloss from Transcription: WHERE PHONE CL: Y put down phone handset WHERE WELL? /// [waits for response] PHONE SUPPOSE YOU SUPPOSE PRO1+++ CALL YOU (stressed) // PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY (I call you) HOW YOU YOU HOW KNOW YOU WELL? English Translation: Where do you put the handset? If I call you I call you with the tty How do you know that I m calling? Visual ASL: The signer uses a non-tactile production of the sign with a facial expression of raising the eyebrows for a question or direction. WHERE is not explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, WHERE is signed, with emphasis, at the end of the sentence. It is a tense and fast movement. Analysis of Variation: In the visual ASL production of the sign, the use of a non-tactile facial expression is sufficient to communicate the adverb. There is no need for the signer to sign WHERE. In the Tactile ASL, it is necessary to sign WHERE with the emphasis and tense movement it conveys to show that it is an adverb of place. 65

71 Findings and Interpretations Example Two (Place/Position/Direction) Gloss from Transcription: K-R-O-W-N / IX-lf WILL SHOW-YOU DON T HAVE-TO++ CL: Y move handset from lf to rt / LEAVE BECAUSE CONNECT #WIRE IX-lf CL: I wire moved to -rt FROM // (interrupted) B-R-A-I-L-L-E-H-P-H-O-N-E CL: I wire moved to rt English Translation: Krown. I ll show you. You don t have to move the handset from the tty. You just leave it there because it s connected by a wire to the BraillePhone. Visual ASL: In visual ASL, the sign FROM uses a non-manual facial expression of an eye gaze at the same time as the sign is indexing to the BraillePhone. It is not explicitly signed. Tactile ASL: In Tactile ASL, FROM, must be signed because a Deaf-Blind individual cannot observe the eye gaze non-manual facial expression. Analysis of Variation: The primary difference in this example is the necessity of explicitly signing the adverb FROM in the Tactile ASL production to compensate for the inability of a Deaf-Blind individual to observe the facial expression and eye gaze. Comments: Here the adverb FROM is used to make clear the direction. It is accompanied with eye gaze to show direction Summary (Place/Position/Direction) This series of examples of adverbs of the type place/position/direction demonstrates that one of the features that characterizes many of the Tactile ASL variations of the sign is the use of an additional signed word in order to make the context clear. Here again, we see redundancy in the content as a way of reducing ambiguity. 66

72 Findings and Interpretations 4.2. Overall Patterns across the various adverbial types The data in Section 4.1 shows examples from each of the adverb types considered. In each of the adverbial types, Tactile ASL has a characteristic pattern of variation differentiating it from the visual ASL signing pattern. In summary, the findings are as follows: Adverbial Feature: Prolonged Hold Specific or Extra Sign Tenseness of the Hand Extended Location Longer and Slower Movement Redundancy Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/ Direction Table 1 - Summary of Findings In the table above ( ) indicates that the feature is sometimes found in an adverbial of the indicated type. Whereas, this same feature is generally not present in visual ASL. The features observed, as shown in the table are: 1. Prolonged Hold. The signer will introduce a final hold segment into the sign in order to provide clarity. 2. Specific or Extra Sign. The signer will introduce an extra sign that substitutes for the unobserved non-manual signal. 3. Tenseness of the Hand. The signer will tense the muscles in his/her hand in a way that can be felt by the other person. 4. Extended Location. The signer will expand the size of the signing space in order to provide the other person with an opportunity to understand the sign. 5. Longer and Slower Movement. The signer will slow-down the production of the sign thus spreading it out over a longer time. 6. Redundancy. This means the signer will repeat information that would otherwise be unnecessary. 67

73 Findings and Interpretations Five of these features prolonged hold, tenseness, extended location, longer and slower movement, and redundancy have to do exactly with phonetic production of the adverbials and very adequately capture the nature of the variation. The sixth feature, specific or extra sign, is a feature of a syntactic nature. In addition, the five phonetic features are identical to or similar to features used by other sign language researchers to describe adverbials, starting with Klima and Bellugi in 1979 and continuing with work by Baker and Cokely (1980), Liddell and Johnson (1989), Metlay and Supalla (1995), Bridges and Metzger (1996), to name a few. In ASL, manner is often fused with the verb, that is, the verb is modulated so that it includes information on how the action was carried out. For example, verbs describing actions that were performed quickly may have rapid movements, while verbs that provide temporal information may have reduplicated segments or circular movements. This type of modulation has generally been treated as a morphological process which marks aspect. In addition to movement modulation, non-manual signals contribute adverbial-type meaning. This non-manual component is one of the focal points of the current project. Non-manual signs provide an additional layer of meaning to adjectives, predicates and adverbials. Without the non-manual component, the meaning of a sign or group of signs is the canonical uninflected denotative meaning. The 50-minute videotaped conversation used in this PDE was analyzed to find and identify occurrences and distribution of the types of adverbials as described above. There were a total of 282 sign sequences containing a total of 284 adverbials identified and coded in the 50-minute session. Most of the sequences contained a single adverbial. However, some of the sequences contained more than one adverbial. Data was summarized and presented showing the number of occurrences of each type of adverbial among all of the adverbials. Type Number of Occurrences Percentage Duration % Manner/Degree % Time % Frequency % Place/Position/Direction % Purpose % Table 2 - Occurrence of data by type 68

74 Findings and Interpretations Table 2 shows each of the adverbial types as described above. The Number of Occurrences denotes the number of times the adverbial type appeared in the videotaped session. The Percentage box shows the percentage of this particular adverbial type present among all of the adverbials. By observing the percentage, one gets a sense of the relative frequency that each of the adverbial types occurs in a prolonged conversation. It is important to note that these observations apply only to the specific conversation observed. The following chart presents this data in the form of a pie chart. Percentage of Type in All Place/Position/Direction 21% Frequency 1% Purpose 4% Duration 10% Manner/Degree 37% Duration Manner/Degree Time Frequency Place/Position/Direction Purpose Time 27% Figure 14 - Percentage of Occurrence of Types In this data three adverbial types of Manner/Degree, Time, and Place/Position/Direction accounted for the majority of occurrences. The conversation between the two subjects that resulted in this data could, very easily, have ventured into a far different subject matter. They spent a significant amount of the conversation describing how things work. There was a discussion about various text communication devices and devices that are used for signaling such 69

75 Findings and Interpretations as doorbells and TTY 4 devices. As a result, there was a good deal of discussion of manner and degree of describing the performance of these devices and the positioning of these devices in the subjects respective homes. As well, there was a lengthily discussion about sports. The subjects discussed how various teams did at various points in time in the past. This produced a large number of adverbial samples of the type time. Regarding the fact that relatively few adverbs of frequency were used, it is generally acknowledged that ASL makes use of a rather rich inflectional system in which some temporal senses are marked on the verb itself rather than with a separate adverb sign. The ability of the language to encode some types of frequency in its morphology indicates that the presence of certain adverbs is either unnecessary or redundant. At least some of the aspectual markers in visual ASL involve non-manual signals as well as the manual component. The meaning carried by the non-manual signal is somewhat redundant. It does seem though, that Deaf-Blind people are also expressing redundancies. Along with the manual portion of the verb marked for frequency, there is some evidence that a specific adverb sign is also added. Due to the low incidence of such signs in the data, the addition or deletion of adverbs of frequency needs to be examined more closely. Although, this researcher does not have data to support this conclusion, there is a suspicion that any given conversation would tend to have more frequent representations of specific adverbial types depending on the topic and flow of the conversation. This conclusion acknowledges that some adverbial types would appear less frequently than others. This sample is, therefore, an accurate reflection of general tendencies to use or omit certain adverb types. That is to say, the types of adverbs that appeared less frequently in the transcribed conversation is itself an interesting point. This researcher s intent, in future analysis, is to study in more depth the factors presented here. An important aspect that is demonstrated in this paper is the consistent pattern in the manner in which the Deaf-Blind individual incorporates one or more of the features, as summarized in Table 1, into their signing that introduces a tactile component into their conversation as a compensation for the visual NMS that they cannot observe. 4 A TTY device is a teletypwriter device that allows for a text conversation to be conducted over a telephone line. They are widely used in the deaf community. 70

76 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations This study has demonstrated that grammatical variation exists between visual ASL and Tactile ASL. It has, for a long time, been recognized that non-manual signals are a significant component of a full and rich communication in ASL. It has been demonstrated here that a specific class of Deaf-Blind individuals, those with Usher s Syndrome Type I, compensate for their inability to observe these non-manual signals with a system of specific and consistent variations in their use of Tactile ASL. Non-manual signals are important in all areas of ASL structure including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and discourse. For example, in morphological structure the signals can have independent meaning and may attach to a variety of signs. The mouth configuration glossed as MM has the meaning of regularity or normalness and can be produced with many different verbs such as drive, study, read, and walk. A different mouth configuration glossed as TH can be used with these same verbs, and many others, and carry a meaning of carelessness. Non-manual signals are, similarly, important for ASL discourse, that is, at the level of language above the individual sentence either in a one-way communication such as a speech or lecture, or in a two-way conversation where they play an important part in turn-taking or topic control. The subjects of my research, Deaf-Blind individuals with Usher s Syndrome Type I, were selected because persons in this group almost always begin in early life as Deaf and sighted and then, later in life, the onset of blindness occurs often leaving them completely blind by mid-life. As a consequence of this factor, these individuals are skilled at visual ASL and are familiar with the non-manual signals that are a part of their language. This provides a basis for them to compensate for the non-manual signals with a system of tactile non-manual signals as they lose their ability to observe the visual non-manual signals. Through this adaptive pattern, the subjects in this study are quite capable of a full conversation and are able to understand each other very well in spite of the fact that they no longer can observe the non-manual signals. In this study, I focused on the non-manual signals associated with six types of adverbs used in everyday conversation: 71

77 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations Adverbs of manner or degree Adverbs of time Adverbs of frequency Adverbs of duration Adverbs of location or position Adverbs of purpose, place, or direction The transcripts of an extended conversation between two subjects were analyzed in detail and each adverb phrase in one of the above categories was compared to the way a visual ASL signer would sign the sequence and the way the subjects of the study altered the language to compensate for the lack of non-manual signals. In order to collect the data, a carefully controlled setup of five video cameras was used to capture each and every handshape, motion and nuance of the signing technique. This extensive detail was then captured in the transcripts of the conversation. Analysis depended both on the written transcripts and the actual videotape footage of the conversation. The findings from the analysis were significant in that they demonstrated that in almost all cases, the Tactile ASL signers had a specific and consistent system of compensations for each of the categories of adverbs observed. This is clear evidence of sociolinguistic variation. For example, in the case of adverbs of manner or degree, there is a specific pattern of extra movement of the signing hand with a marked tenseness of the hand and finger muscles. This motion and tenseness does not occur in the same sign produced by a visual ASL signer. In adverbs of time and frequency as used in TASL shows that there is a pattern of making a sign clear by the insertion of an additional word or repeating a word as a compensation for the nonmanual signal. As a result of many years of experience with working with Deaf-Blind persons, this researcher has set out to formulate and demonstrate the validity of a theory of a system of nonmanual signals transposed into Tactile ASL communication. The purpose of this research is to contribute to the effectiveness of communication for people who want to work with persons in the Deaf-Blind community, especially with those who have Usher s Syndrome Type I. It is my 72

78 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations belief that this dialect of ASL, that Deaf-Blind people use naturally, will provide a far superior means for interpreters and other sighted ASL signers to engage in conversations with Deaf-Blind individuals rather than asking Deaf-Blind people to decode English influenced word-for-word signing or fingerspelling of full English sentences as a means of tactile communication. This paper strongly recommends that interpreters who work with deaf-blind consumers must be aware of the linguistic forms described here. The process of interpreting should include the use of prolonged holds, tension in the hands and additional lexical items in order to match the language used by Deaf-Blind people. Additionally, professionals in the field, such as educators, need to include training in the Tactile ASL dialect and interpreter training programs should be enhanced to include this variation, as well. Finally, based on the findings shown here, further study of Tactile ASL communication should be conducted to gain insight into other linguistic adaptations used in Tactile ASL. Incorporating the techniques demonstrated in the findings will contribute greatly to breaking down the barriers to communication for Deaf-Blind persons. 73

79 Appendix A - References A. Appendix A References References Atwood, A., J. Clarkson, & C. Laba Being in Touch: Communication and Other Issues in the Lives of People who are Deaf-Blind. Washington D.C.: Gallaudet University. Bahan, B Non-Manual Realization of Agreement in American Sign Language. Boston, MA: Boston University Baker, C Eye-openers in ASL. Sixth Annual California Linguistics Association Conference: Proceedings Baker, C What s not on the other hand in ASL. In Papers from the Twelfth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, eds. S. Hufwene, C. Walker, & S. Streeven. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Baker, C. & C. Padden Focusing on the Non-manual Components of American Sign Language. In Understanding Language through Sign language Research, ed. P. Sipe, New York, NY: Academic Press Baker, C. & D. Cokely American Sign Language: A teacher s resource text on Grammar and Culture. Silver Spring Md.: T.J. Publishers. Reprint, Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press Baker-Shenk, C., A micro-analysis of the non-manual components of questions in American Sign Language. Ph.D. Diss., University of California, Berkeley. Battison, R Lexical borrowing in American Sign Language: Phonological and Morphological restructuring. Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press. Bienvenu M. J. & B. Colonomos The Face of ASL. Videotaped series. Burtonsville, MD: Sign Media, Inc. Brennan, M Point of View Mental Health Issues of Deaf-Blind Adults. In JADARA, vol.30, #2&3, pp Bridges B, & M Metzger, Deaf Tend Your: Non-Manual Signals in American Sign Language. Calliope Press Bussman, Hadumod Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London: Routledge. P

80 Appendix A - References References Cokely D The Effects of Lag Time on Interpreter Errors. Sign Language Studies, Vol. 53. Collins, S Deaf-Blind interpreting: The structure of ASL and the interpreting Process. In Gallaudet University Communication Forum 1993, ed. E. Wilton, Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet School of Communication. Collins, S. & K. Petronio What is Tactile ASL? In Pinky Extension and Eye Gaze: Language Use in Deaf Communities, ed. C. Lucas. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press. Coulter, G Raised eyebrows and wrinkled noses: The function of facial expression in relative clauses and related constructions. In Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on Sign Language Research and Teaching, ed. Caccamise. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of the Deaf. Coulter, G American Sign Language Typology. University of California, San Diego. Coulter, J. ed Phonetics and Phonology. Volume 3, Current Issues in ASL Phonology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Croneberg C The Linguistic Community. In A Dictionary of American Sign Language, eds. W. Stokoe, D. Casterline, and C. Croneberg. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press Fasold, Ralph The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell. Fischer, S. & B. Gough Verbs in American Sign Language. In Sign Language Studies 18: Fischer, S. & B. Gough Verbs in American Sign Language. In The Signs of Language, eds. U. Bellgui & E. S. Klima. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Frankel, M. A Deaf-blind interpreting: interpreter s use of negation in tactile American Sign Language. In Sign Language Studies 2: 2, Gumperz, John J On the Ethnology of Linguistic Change. In: W. Bright (ed.), Sociolinguistics, pp The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted in: D. Cherubin (ed.), Zur Theorie des Sprach Wandels. Frankfort: Degrayer 1975.) Humphries, T., C. Padden, & T. J. O Rourke Videotaped series that accompanies A Basic Course in American Sign Language. Silver Spring, MD: T.J. Publishers, Inc. 75

81 Appendix A - References References Landrenau, M Personal interview by Steven D. Collins. Liddell, S American Sign Language syntax. The Hague: Mouton. Liddell, S Non-Manual Signals in American Sign Language. In Proceedings of the First National Symposium on Sign Language Research and Teaching Liddell, S American Sign Language: The phonological base. In Sign Language Studies 4: Liddell, S. & R. E. Johnson American Sign Languages: The Phonological Base. In Sign Language Studies, 64, Lillo-Martin, D & S. Fischer Overt and Covert wh-questions in American Sign Language. Paper presented at the First International Symposium on Sign Language Research, Salamanca, Spain. May Lillo-Martin, D Two Kinds of Null Arguments in American Sign Language. In Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 4: Lucas, C Sociolinguistic Variation in ASL. The Case of DEAF. In Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, ed. C. Lucas, Vol. 1, Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press. Lucas, C Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, ed. C. Lucas. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press. Lucas, C. & C. Valli Language Contact in the American Deaf Community. New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc. Lucas, C., R. Bayley, & C. Valli [in collaboration with Mary Rose, Alyssa Wulf, Paul Dudis, Laura Sanheim, & Susan Schatz] Sociolinguistic Variation in ASL Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities, vol. 7. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press. McNamara, J Deaf-Blind Interpreting. RID Views. Vol. 24, Issue 11, December 1997, pp Mesch, J Tactile sign language: turn taking and questions in signed conversations of deaf-blind people. In International Studies on Sign Language and Communications of the Deaf. Vol.38. Hamburg: Signum. 76

82 Appendix A - References References Metlay, Donald S. & Supalla, Ted Morpho-syntactic structure of aspect and number inflections in ASL. In: Emmorey, Karen & Reilly, Judy S. (eds): Language, gesture, and space. (International Conference on Theoretical Issues in Sign Language research) Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum (1995) pp Milroy, L. 1987a. Language and social networks, 2 nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Milroy, L. 1987b. Observing and Analyzing Natural Language. Oxford: Blackwell. Nowell, E Conversational Features and Gender in ASL. In The Sociolinguistics of the Deaf Community, ed. C. Lucas. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. O Brien & C. Steffen Tactile ASL: ASL as used by Deaf-Blind Person. In Gallaudet University Communication Forum vol. 6, eds. L. Byers. & M. Rose, Washington, D.C. Padden, C Interaction of morphology and Syntax in American Sign Language. Outstanding dissertations in Linguistics Series. New York, NY: Garland Publishing. (from Padden 1983) Padden, C. & D. Perlmutter American Sign Language and The Architecture of Phonological Theory. In Natural Languages and Linguistic Theory. 5, Padden, C. & T. Humphries Deaf in America: Voices from a Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Parasnis, I, ed Culture and Language Diversity and the Deaf Experience. Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press. Patrick, P. & M. Metzger Sociolinguistic Factors in Sign Language Research. In Sociolinguistic Variation: Data, Theory and Analysis, eds. J. Arnold, R. Blade, B. Davison, S. Schwenter, & J. Solonon. Stanford, CA: CSLI. Petronio, K. & D. Lillo-Martin Wh-Movement and the Position of Spec CP: Evidence from American Sign Language. In Language 73 (1): Petronio. K Some Features of Tactile ASL. Unpublished manuscript. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University. Petronio. K Interpreting for the Deaf-Blind students: Factors to consider. In American Annuals of the Deaf, 133(3):

83 Appendix A - References References Reed, C. M., L. A. Delhorne, N. Durlach, Il, & S. D. Fischer A study of the Tactual Reception of Sign Language. In Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 38: Smith, T Guidelines for working/playing with deaf-blind people. Unpublished paper. Seattle, WA: Seattle Community College. Smith, T Guidelines: Practical tips for working and socializing with Deaf-Blind people. Burtonsville, MD: SMI, Inc. Smith, T Guidelines: Practical tips for working and socializing with Deaf-Blind people. Burtonsville, MD: SMI, Inc. Stokoe, W. C Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American Deaf. In Studies in Linguistics: Occasional Papers 8. New York, NY: University of Buffalo. Valli, C. & C. Lucas Linguistics of American Sign Language: A resource text for ASL users, 2nd edition. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press. Van Biema, David AIDS. Time Magazine, April 4, Woodward, J. & S. DeSantis Two to One it Happens: dynamic Phonology in Two Sign Languages. In Sign Language Studies. 17, Woodward, J. C. 1973a. Implicational lecturers on the deaf diglossic continuum. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Georgetown University: Washington, D.C. Woodward, J. C. 1973b. Interrule implication in American Sign Language. In Sign Language Studies 3, Woodward, W., C. Erting, & S. Oliver Facing and Hand(l)ing variation in American Sign Language. In Sign Language Studies. 10,

84 Appendix B Notes on Transcription symbols B. Appendix B - Notes on Transcription Symbols Throughout this paper, glossing symbols are used to describe signs. This section provides a key to understanding these symbols: B.1 General Glossing conventions Signs glossed in English are presented in all capital letters; for example: MAN. Where more than one English word is needed to provide the essence of a sign s meaning, the gloss takes the form of several words separated by hyphens as in: ONE- MORE. More recent ASL gloss transcriptions often include script-based representations of some important non-manual signals. These are generally shown as a letter or series of letters that are intended to represent corresponding mouth postures, head positions or movements, eyebrow positions and/or nose movements. A horizontal line that appears above the glossed sign or signs with which the non-manual signal co-occurs accompanies the abbreviated facial expressions. In the example below, the nonmanual signal t is an abbreviated convention used for topic marking in ASL. The topic NMS includes raised eyebrows and a slight backward and sideways tilt of the head. In the example below, this topic marker is held throughout the production of the first three signs. A somewhat literal translation appears under the ASL sentence. t MAN STAND IX-lf MY FATHER As for the man standing over there on the left, he is my father. Lexicalized fingerspelling is shown as a number sign (#) followed by the gloss as in: #JOB. Non-lexicalized fingerspelling is documented as the sign for each letter separated by hyphens as in: K-R-O-W-N. 79

85 Appendix B Notes on Transcription symbols B.2 Other Transcription symbols and conventions General directional information about the sign is given in the form of: -lf, -rt, -high, etc. This means that the signs were aimed at, or positioned in, that direction or area. Some formational information is provided in brackets such as [osc] for oscillating movement, [held] for an extended hold segment. Discourse features like hesitations, false starts, interruptions, clarification requests, overlaps and other transcription notes are also shown in brackets. Signs that seem to function as discourse markers are noted by [dm]. Manual signals that appear to function like gestures are shown as [gesture]. Information about subjects, objects and locations that are indicated by a sign s location, placement, aiming or movement is provided by comments in parentheses such as the bolded comments in this example: PRO1 OBSERVE THAT IX++ (AADB) AT A-A-D-B EXAMPLE IX++ (man at AADB) MAN TELL^ME 6 (moves C s thumb to read number better) Plus signs indicate reduplication or repetition. Unmarked glosses mean there is one iteration of the sign, two plus signs (++) indicate a repeated movement as in the example: YOU++. Some signs have two or more forms, one in which the transition between hold segments includes a simple flexion of the finger or fingers at one or more joints and one in which the flexion is reduplicated. The reduplicated form appears as wiggling and is signified by wg as in the example: WANT wg. Some signs are marked by emphasis, usually a sharp or accelerated movement. This is shown by using either! or (emph). 80

86 Appendix B Notes on Transcription symbols A single slash (/) marks a short pause. These tend to be phrase boundaries or topic changes. A longer pause, possibly a sentence boundary is marked by a double slash (//). A long pause, possibly a sentence boundary or the end of a turn is marked by a triple slash (///). Signs in brackets are signed on the weak hand as in: [WELL]. WELL is the gloss used for the Wh-sign often glossed as WHAT. I chose this gloss to show the difference between WHAT, with the index finger brushed across the palm and the gesture-like sign with the palms up. Signs with a ^ between them appear to be compounded as in: LOOK^LIKE. The first person singular pronoun I or ME is shown as: PRO-1. Some signs include the index finger pointing to the right or left. This is shown as: IX-lf. This may be a pronoun, a determiner, or a location in space. For the purpose of this study, I have chosen to collapse these items under one gloss. Some signs have traditionally been glossed as FINISH but actually have distinct forms and meaning as in: FINISH (that s all) [osc]. This sign had the meaning that s all and has an oscillating movement. The use of [overlap] is used to show that a signer has been overlapped in conversation and the corresponding overlap of the other person appears in the next line. Where appears at the beginning of a line means that the signer continued without any more overlap. Classifiers are notoriously difficult to document briefly in print as in the following example: CL:Y pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down. For this transcription, I have indicated classifiers with the abbreviation CL: followed by a short notation for handshape, Y, in this case, and finally, a short description of it s meaning in quotes such as pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down. 81

87 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis C. Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Spreadsheet. Data from Transcription showing Adverbial Phrases in each of the selected categories. This data is in the form of an Excel Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 1 TWO^YEAR PAST 2 WITH(emph) AT A-A-D-B 3 WITH KEYBOARD 4 SHOCK 5 THAT S-ALL 6 STILL 7 STILL 8 WHEN PRO1CALL-BY- TTY(I call you) 9 FROM //(interrupted) B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H- O-N-E CL: wire moved to rt 10 NEXT-THING 11 STILL 12 FROM NATIONAL F-L-A-S-H 13 FOR PHONE RING ONLY 14 ON PHONE 15 FOR PHONE+++ ALARM+++ 82

88 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 16 STILL 17 OUTSIDE-OF-THE-DOOR OUTSIDE OUTSIDE-THE-DOOR 20 OUTSIDE(emph) 21 ON(emph) DOOR 22 ON(emph) DOOR 23 IX(here on the jam)++ 24 STRONG(emph) 25 STRONG(emph) 26 FINISH 27 GOOD 28 GOOD(emph) 29 OUTSIDE BETTER 31 IX door on the inside LITTLE-BIT 34 INSIDE 35 INSIDE 36 BETTER IX(here on your right of trim of the outside door)

89 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 37 LONG(emph) 38 FOR CL:C mounted box on the CL:B door jam 39 FINISH(that s all) 40 INSIDE 41 LATER 42 WHERE 43 UNTIL YOU FEEL++ 44 STILL 45 UNTIL GOOD PUSH- BUTTON(on phone transmitter)++ 46 EXPENSIVE(emph) 47 EXPENSIVE 48 IX(ceiling) 49 IX(up on ceiling) 50 FINISH(that s all) 51 INTERESTING(emph) 52 ONLY PLUG-INTO(phone) 53 FINISH(that s all) 54 STILL 55 FINISH 84

90 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 56 FINISH 57 SEPARATE[emph] 58 FOR FLASHER 59 FINISH 60 THEN 61 FOR FLASH WHEN ANY PERSON PUSH-DOORBELL 63 SAME TIME MY PAGER-GOES-OFF SAME TIME 65 AGAIN 66 IN 67 R-O-C-H-E-S-T-E-R #MICH 68 FINISH 69 ONLY 70 FINISH(that s all) 71 FREE(emph) 72 NOT-YET++ 73 WHEN PRO1 RETIRE 74 BETTER 75 BIG!(emph) 76 BIG!(emph) 85

91 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 77 BIG!(emph) 78 WOW 79 NEW++ 80 AGAIN 81 FINISH 82 NO-MORE 83 UP-TO-LIMIT FOR GUIDE-AROUND 85 UP-TO-LIMIT ENOUGH 87 ENOUGH 88 THEN 89 FINISH 90 3-WEEKS^AGO 91 BIG 92 BIG 93 STRONG(emph) 94 REALLY 95 NICE(emph) 96 HELP WOW! 97 AFTER PRO1 RETIRE 86

92 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 98 FROM HOME 99 TO A-A-D-B HOME^OFFICE 100 NICE 101 FINISH (that's all) 102 THAT S-ALL 103 NEXT-YEAR(emph) 104 REALLY 105 #TOO 106 EARLY[emph] 107 #TOO 108 NOW 109 FUTURE!(emph) 110 WOW 111 STILL BECAUSE PRO1ALONE WANT ACCOMPANY- EVERYWHERE 112 IN MY HOUSE 113 IN MY HOUSE 114 STILL 115 FINISH(that s all)[osc] 116 IX(path far out in front of me) 117 REALLY 118 REALLY 87

93 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis 119 JUST 120 ONLY Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 121 IN YOUR #APT RIGHT 122 BETTER 123 BETTER 124 YOUR #APT 125 REALLY 126 NEAR-FUTURE 127 BIG(emph) 128 WOW SO-FAR 130 NOT- YET NOT-YET 132 NOW TO V-A-S-S #NORTH-CAROLINA 134 IX(Vass) 135 FAR!(emph) 136 NEAR #SOUTH-CAROLINA #SOUTH- CAROLINA 137 NOT-YET 138 ALL-ALONG 139 UP-TIL-NOW 88

94 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 140 IX(Baltimore) 141 NOW 142 OTHER PLACE 143 IN #NC 144 TIL SIGN-NAME-K[false start] [COMPUTER BRAILLE ARRIVE](cond) 145 WITH L-A-R-R-Y 146 FROM #PA+ 147 NEAR PRO1 148 NOW 149 FOR? #STAIN 150 #OFF 151 NOW+++?? 152 FINISH 153 FROM THAT COMPANY 154 #SO THAT PRO1 CAN RUN POSS1 BUISNESS SELL(different things) 155 NEW GOOD[emph] 157 EXPANDING[quickly] 158 #SO PRO1 USE POSS #WWW[hold for feedback] 89

95 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 159 TO SELL ADVERTISE 160 THEN 161 NOW 162 REALLY 163 MONTHS-AGO[hold] MONTHS[hold] 165 FROM MY FRIEND THEN 168 NOW 169 NOW LATER 171 GOOD[emp] #SO PRO1 BUY(business) F- R-A-N-C-H-I-S-E[hold] 172 IN W-H-E-A-T-O-N 173 FINE-wg 174 NONE[emph/hold] 175 ALL-ALONG 176 NONE[emph] 177 ALL-THOSE-IN-LIST 178 NONE[emph] 179 #ALL 90

96 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 180 #ALL 181 ALL[emph] 182 CLOSE-TO STORE 183 NEXT-TO-BEYOND(Amhern) 184 EVERY-TWO- WEEKS- BEGINNING- AND-AND-OF- MONTH FROM BALTIMORE 186 TO PRO1 #MA #MA M-E-T-R-O A-C-C-E- S-S[hold] 187 FINE-wg 188 ALL-ALONG 189 NOW 190 ALL-ALONG 191 GOOD[emph] 192 TIME 1: :00 TIME [to] 1: AT 1: TO PRO1 EXPECT TWO-OF- US(appointment) 197 FINISH 91

97 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 198 THEN TWO-OF-US(you and I) EAT IX(reference?) 199 BIG[emph] 200 BIG[emph] 201 BACK 202 BACK-THERE(rt) 203 DOWN-HALLWAY(on right) 204 IX(up far right) 205 IX(path snakes) 206 #ALL(whole apt) 207 IX-to left 208 FOUR-HOURS 209 SOMETIMES 210 STILL 211 SOME 212 BEHIND![emph] 213 BEHIND![emph] 214 FINISH 215 STILL[emph] 216 AWESOME 217 WOW 92

98 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 218 YESTERDAY 219 PAST SUNDAY 220 NOW 221 FINISH HEAVY-COMPETITION[emph] 223 BIG-LEAD 224 STRONG[emph] 225 WOW![emph] GOOD 227 WOW REALLY 229 BACKWARDS 230 BAD 231 HUGE-IMPROVEMENT[emph] 232 IMPROVE[emp] 233 NOW 234 WOW! TREND-DOWN-UP-DOWN-AND- UP-DRAMATICALLY 236 LOUSY 237 ALL-ALONG 238 FROM OAKLAND 93

99 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 239 CLOSE+++(to others in division 240 YESTERDAY 241 YESTERDAY 242 STILL 243 FAR-AHEAD(against team a) 244 FAR-AHEAD(against team b) 245 FAR-AHEAD(against team c) 246 FAR-AHEAD(against team d) 247 GOOD[emph] 248 LAST-YEAR 249 ONE-WEEK-AGO 250 ONE-WEEK-AGO 251 TRAVEL-DOWN-FAR 252 MORE YESTERDAY 254 OUTSTANDING[emph] 255 WOW! NEW[emph] 257 WOW! STRONG 259 LAST-YEAR 94

100 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction YEARS-AGO YEARS-AGO 262 STRONG STRONG STRONG 263 ALL-ALONG 264 IN U-S-A 265 HOT![emph] 266 SUNDAY 267 WEEK-END 268 THAT TIME 269 TO NUMBER ON TOP NOT ON NOT-YET 273 TWO-WEEKS-AGO 274 LONG-TIME-AGO 275 THEN 276 AROUND AROUND 278 LATER 279 THEN 280 GOOD YES++ 95

101 Appendix C Data for Adverbial Phrases for Analysis Manner/Degree Time Duration Frequency Purpose Place/Position/Direction 281 NEXT- YEAR[unattended] 282 NEXT-YEAR 96

102 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session D. Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: OK GO-AHEAD HOW-MUCH WORTH KNOW YOU C: BRAILLE PRICE 3 THOUSAND 7 HUNDRED DETERMINER Quantity tells how many dollars D: 3 [checking for clarification] N/A C: 3 THOUSAND[signed in D s palm] 7 HUNDRED DETERMINER Quantity tells how many dollars D: DROPPED-IN-PRICE C: YES D: TWO^YEAR PAST TWO DETERMINER. However, the whole phrase is an adverbial TWO^YEAR PAST Tells When (time) // PRO1 OBSERVE THAT IX++(AADB) AT A-A-D-B Adverbial of PLACE EXAMPLE IX++(man at AADB) MAN TELL^ME 6 [moves C s thumb to read number better] [overlap] // C: [dm: Uh-huh] D: THOUSAND FIVE-HUNDRED+++++ DETERMINER Quantity// YOU DROPPED-IN-PRICE WIDE-EYED C: HEY/ WITH(emph) MANNER It comes how? // COME WITH KEYBOARD MANNER It comes how? YES+++ OVER 6-THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED Determiner YES++ MEAN ALONE MANNER [WELL]// BRAILLE ALONE+++++ MANNER 3-THOUSAND 7-HUNDRED // Determiner D: NO++++ / PRO1 REMEMBER IX(man at AABD) MAN PRO1 ASK(man) HOW^MUCH PRICE BOX ONE CL:CbCb small thin tty NAME++ K-R-O-W-N BRAILLE T-T-Y PRO1 ASK(man) SCREEN? GOOD? 6 [twists wrist to reposition C] THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED Determiner // PRO1 LOOK-AT(man) SHOCK DEGREE/EXTENT How shocked? // PRO1 TELL(man) PRO1 FEEL++++/++ ONE-MORE ADD LIKE S-P-E-E-D CONTROL LIST-OF-SPECIFIC-THINGS PRO1 WILL THINK-ABOUT BUY(tty) BUT WELL-NOT-SURE /// YOU 3-THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED YOU PRO1 CURIOUS YOU++ 3-THOUSAND 5-HUNDRED DOLLARS THINK #IF YOUR BRAILLE MUST PAY-FOR WITH OTHER COMPUTER QUESTION-wg NONE C: NONE Adv MANNER/DEGREE D: THAT ONLY-ONE? Adj.? Adv? MANNER/DEGREE?? C: ONLY-ONE / ONLY-ONE Adv-Frequency MONITOR-SCREEN BRAILLE++ THAT S-ALL Adv Time. D: WHERE PHONE CL:Y put down phone handset WHERE WELL? /// [waits for response] PHONE SUPPOSE YOU SUPPOSE PRO1+++ CALL YOU(stressed) // PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) HOW YOU YOU HOW KNOW YOU WELL? 97

103 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: 3 // KEYBOARD CL:1 plug in back of keyboard / PUT-IN(back of braille display) BRAILLE PUT-IN(put in back of braille display)yes++ // 2 / / PUT-IN(back of braille display) / PUT-IN(back of keyboard) YES D: WAVE SUPPOSE PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) // MEAN PHONE RING CL:Y phone handset taken off hook and placed down #WHERE WELL? C: makes a point to repeat the information on how to connect the phone line. I noticed also that he holds the final segments longer than a sighted person might. C: OH-I-SEE HOLD-ON[dm] PRO GET NEW C-BR-(false start) UMM PHONE(false start?) B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H-O-N-E TWO / IX-lf IX-rt CL:Y put down phone handset on -rt K-R-O-W-N CL:Y put down phone handset on -rt YES+++ Note: it seems clear that C is using YES+++ to indicate assertion. Whereas sighted Deaf use a non-manual head nod for assertion, C uses the manual sign YES to show it. C: SEPARATE verb? #IF PRO-1 CL:(remove cord from tty-lf) CL:(insert cord into ttyrt) PHONE(handset) LEAVE -lf IX-lf+++ / CL:Y phone handset on -rt LEAVE lf / IX-rt EMPTY STILL WORK++ Adv. Duration STILL WORK++ Adv. Duration D: YOU MEAN CL:Y handset [Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] CL:? cord runs from?? and plugs into the Krown K-R-O-W-N FINISH(that s all)? C: YES+ D: WHEN PRO1CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) Adverb - Time YOU [held] /// YOU WALK-OVER-TO(the phone) CL:Y pick up the handset from the cradle and set it down #OR #WHAT WELL? C: K-R-O-W-N / IX-lf WILL^SHOW-you DON T^HAVE-TO++ CL:Y move handset from lf to rt / LEAVE BECAUSE Conj? CONNECT #WIRE IX-lf CL: wire moved to rt FROM //(interrupted) B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H-O-N-E CL: wire moved to rt Adverbial - Location D: OH-I-SEE C: B-RA-I-L-L-E- P-H-O-N-E D: WAVE[dm] BRAILLE?[emph meaning Braille-what? asking for clarification] C: WAVE[dm] B-R-A-I-L-L-E[overlap] D: B-R-A-I-L-L-E[overlap] NEXT-THING Adverb - Time IX-(C s hand)[dm asking for repetition of the next word C had spelled] C: /// THOUGHT^DISAPPEAR /// THOUGHT-DISAPPEAR WAIT-A-MINUTE D: T- H- YOU SAY BRAILLE NEXT-THING C: [interrupts]wave-hey B-R-A-I-L-L-E P-H-O-N-E(slower) [overlap] D: #OH #OH THAT C: PHONE+++ CL:Y phone handset on top of machine -lf IX-lf+++++ LEAVE(emph) / Just looks like emphasis. PRO-1 ICL:(remove cord from tty-lf) ICL:(insert cord into tty-rt) // PHONE(false start) IX-lf ALARM TYPE STILL / [overlap] Adv. Duration D: OH-I-SEE(emph)++ C: YOU HAVE LEAVE lf LEAVE-lf WITH 2 WELL 98

104 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: HOW YOU KNOW PRO1 CALL-BY-TTY(I call you) / WHERE YOU FEEL BOX RING HOW YOU FEEL C: PAGER++++ SHAKE VIBRATE[overlap] D: [dm gesture tell me more ] C: V-I-B-R-A-T-O-R / D: OH -I-SEE C: NAME++ S-I-L-E-N-T-C-A-L-L /// D: YES+++ YOU BUY [false start] PAGER IX-pager FROM NATIONAL F-L-A-S-H Adv. Location THAT++ YOU C: WAVE-NO / OLD IX-high-lf R-R-(city sign name) R-R-(city sign name) #MICH // NAME++ COMPANY S-I-L-E-N-T-C-A-L-L D: YES+++++ C: NAME V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L /// D: YES++ REMEMBER YES++++ C: 8-HUNDRED++ LOWERED 4-HUNDRED++++ LESS 4-HUNDRED++ MAYBE Modal/Aux PRO-1 GET++ BREAK SEND-AWAY GET++ NEW++ D: YOU V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L FOR PHONE RING ONLY Adverbial Purpose QUESTION C: PHONE++ AND DOOR++^BUTTON DOOR++ D: [false start] C: FIRE D: PRO1 CL:II cord CL:II cord IX-down(tty) / NONE CL:II cord C: NONE+++++ D: REALLY / MEAN VIBRACALL HOW YOU EXPLAIN PRO1 ONE MORE ABOUT V-I-B-R-A / C-A-L-L // MEAN THAT PAGER CL:Cc pager unit put on pants /// YOU UMM OTHER CL:LL small box CL:C box mounted on the CL: door ON DOOR // OTHER [interrupted] C: OTHER D: CL: small box mounted ON PHONE Adverbial - Location C: YES++++ RIGHT(interrupted) D: NONE WIRE / NONE C: WAVE-ATTENTION PHONE++ CL:FF[false start] CL:1 box outline CL:1 wire runs over to jack and plugs in J-A-C-K-S // THIS Pronoun FOR PHONE+++ ALARM+++ CL:1 box outline /// [moves under D s hands] CL:1 box outline-lf FINISH / CL:o cord runs over to jack-rt J-A-C-K-S D: YES++ C: CL: LL signer #IF PUSH-BUTTON MAKE STILL Adverb Duration LIVE VIBRATING-ALARM+++ THAT D: WHAT ABOUT DOOR+++ C: YES++ CL:BB flat surface of the inside of the door CL: C signaling box mounted on the inside of the door CL:o small clip? on top of the signaling box CL:C clamped onto the edge of the door FINISH(that s all) YES+++ 99

105 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: WIRE C: WAVE-NO NONE+++++ D: REALLY? C: YES++++ // BETTER // CL:C signal box on the door AND / CL:C clamped onto the edge of the door ALARM [interrupted] D: INSIDE DOOR // KNOW DOOR++ OUTSIDE-OF-THE-DOOR++++ Adverbial Location Note: (subject combines the signs OUTSIDE with the CL for the door) C: OUTSIDE+++ Adverbial - Location D: OUTSIDE-THE-DOOR Adverbial - Location PUT(next to the door) verb DOORBELL++ // OR[gesture] PUT(inside next to the door) PUT-THERE QUESTIONwg C: OUTSIDE(emph) Adverbial - Location / PRO-1++ CL:BB door frame on right and left / DOOR / CL: door surface in front of me / CL:B-lf door jam on my left CL:C-rt box mounted on the door jam on the left // DOOR CL: door surface in front of me CL:B-lf door jam on my left / CL: large door surface in front of me / CL:B-lf door jam on my left / DOOR CL: door surface in front of me CL:B-lf door jam on my left / CL:C-rt box mounted on the door jam on the left // YES++ // TAPE(mounted on the door jam) V-E-L-C-R-O WAVE-NO CL:C mounted box FINISH(ok then) TAPE(mounted on the door jam) S [false start] T-I-N CL:C mounted signal box SCREW++++ BECAUSE HOT / WHY-rhq DOOR [interrupted] D: ON(emph) DOOR Adverbial - Location // #OR / CL:B-lf door CL:c-lf flat wire goes up the left side of the door, across the top, and down the right side CL:C-rt signal box mounted on the left ON(emph) DOOR Adverbial - Location C: DOOR / WAVE-NO++++ CL:B-lf door jam on my left CL:C the board that goes down S-I-D-E CL:C the board that goes down / DOOR CL:B-rt the edge of the door meeting the jam, and the door swings open out to the right ++++ // D-O-O-R CL:B-rt the edge of the door meeting the CL:B jam, and the door swings open out to the right CL:c mounted box on the CL:B door jam IX(here, on the jam)+++ // CL:B-lf door jam extends out far to the left BUILDING CL:BB walls extend out to the left and right / CL:BB doorway is here / DOOR / CL:C mounted box on the CL:B door jam IX(here on the jam)++ Adverbial - Location CL:C mounted box high up on the CL:B door jam HIGH CL:C mounted box high up on the CL:B door jam C: CL:3bent securely This is a CL. We said we weren t doing Cls mounted box on the CL:B door jam 1-HUNDRED Det MORE++ T-I-N CL:C securely This is a CL. mounted box on the CL:B door jam STRONG(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree /// D: YOU MEAN [takes C s other hand for clarity] CL:BB walls extend out to the left and right / CL:BB doorway is here / DOOR(opens to the right) CL:c mounted box on the CL:B door jam C: YES+++(back channel) D: HOLD-ON HOW PEOPLE PUSH-DOORBELL[held] / YOU PAGER 100

106 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: SIGNAL-RECEIVED STRONG(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree UMM LIMIT 100 M-I-L-E NO-WAIT 100 F-E-E-T // FINISH Degree LIMIT 100 Det. F-E-E-T WELL(discourse marker)?? // [overlap] D: YOU[overlap] C: GOOD Adverbial Manner WORK++ GOOD(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree /// Let me explain why these two are different GOOD tells how it worked but GOOD[emph] tells to what degree it worked GOOD. There s an added element with the [emph] D: YES++YOU [hesitation] SUPPOSE++++ YOU YOUR DOOR++ CL:C Doorbell signaler mounted outside C: YES++ D: OUTSIDE+++ Adverb Location YOU DOOR CL:C Doorbell signaler mounted there RIGHT? C: YES++++ D: RAIN+++ CL:B rain run down onto the signaler WHICH HURT WELL? C: PRO1+++ CL:BBbent roof over the entance // YOU CAN COVER MAYBE BETTER WARN++ BECAUSE Conj.? HAVE H-O-L-E CL:F thin gap [made on D s CL:B wall A-I-R CL:5 wind blowing through hole CL WEATHER RAIN++ MAYBE / BETTER Modal CL: Bbent small roof to shelter the box ALSO Conj -? A- W-N-I-N-G SMALL CL:Bbent awning draped over CL:Bbent place where box is // BETTER Degree D: REASON PRO1 ASK-FAVOR YOU BECAUSE MINE++++ CL:BB walls come in from both sides with doorway coming in TWO DOOR++ CL:B door to the outside CL:B door on the inside C: YES+++ D: IX door on the inside CL:B inside door WOOD DOOR CL:B inside door opens in to the right ++ CL:B outside door I-R-O-N C: YES+++ D: B-A-R-S CL:4 iron bars coming down WITH GLASS CL:B surface of glass on the door CL:BB outside door opening out to the right CL:BB inside door opening in to the right C: YES D: HAVE MINE DOORBELL(on your right of the outside door) OUTSIDE-THE- DOOR // CL: B outside door CL:B inside door IX(here on your right of trim of the outside door) // RAIN++ CL:5 rain runs down the trim and across the doorbell HURT QUESTION 101

107 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: GOOD QUESTION ABOUT RAIN++ YES++ HAVE CL:01 small gap LITTLE- BIT Degree YES++ CL:F thin gap [made on D s CL:B wall and Cb about 1 inch wide CL:4 rain can go into the gap INSIDE Adverb Location CL:01 small gap SMALL++ RAIN INSIDE Adverb Location YES++++ // BETTER Degree COVER-OVER A-W-N-I-N-G SMALL+++ CL:Bbent awning draped over CL:Bbent place where box is // (takes D s rt-hand, D s hand represents the box. C s rt-hand represents awning.) PUT(over the box, to shelter it.) WELL D: INTERESTING // YOU CURIOUS V-I-B-R-A C-A-L-L YOU [false start and hesitation] INSIDE B-A-T-T-E-R-Y #OR WHAT C: B-A-T-T-E-R-Y B-A-T-T-E-R-Y SPECIAL POSS++(Silent Call) S-I-L-E-N-T C-A-L-L POSS++(Silent Call) SPECIAL LONG(emph) Adverb Extent DON T USE V-O-L-T WAVE-NO // V-O-L-T 9 FOR CL:C mounted box on the CL:B door jam DOOR++ CL:C box mounted on wall PHONE+++ CL:Lbent phone signaler / TWO FINISH(that s all) Adverb Manner/Degree // PAGER++ C: PRO1 HAVE++ PRO1 PAGER IX(left)++ SUITCASE HAVE INSIDE Adverb Location IX(left) WHERE POSS1 SUITCASE (looking around) D: SHOW-ME PRO1 LATER Adverb Time YOU CURIOUS YOU [hesitation] YOU++ HAVE THREE[emph] RIGHT V-I-B-R-A-C-A-L-L INCLUDED? // THREE++ / FIRST PAGER SECOND-IN-LIST DOOR CL: C door signaler attached to the CL:B wall / THIRD-IN-LIST PHONE CL:C phone signaler with CL:Lb wire coming from signaler TO K-R-O-W-N THEN? RIGHT? C: ONE CALLED J-A-C-K-S CL:X plug into jack D: [interrupts] THAT #OK WHAT IX- the thing just referred to C: THAT / CL:CCbaby small box-like object CL: 1 plug into CL:B flat surface PHONE ++++ CL: 1 plug into CL:B flat surface /// D: YOU MEAN PHONE / CL:BB box-shape of phone <C interrupts> PHONE-DIAL CL: 1 plugs into back of phone C: WAVE-NO++++ J-A-C-K-S W-A-L-L CL:BB wall surface W-A-L-L-S CL:BB wall surface CORNER CALLED J-A-C-K-S D: YES++[tap on C s leg] YES+++ C: THREE THAT / PLUG-INTO CL:1 wire goes around over to the table TABLE / WHERE Adverb Location PUTa,b,c, Locative Verb LEAVE-IN-THAT-PLACE Locative Verb /// NOT USE IX-lf(control unit?) WAVE-NO UNTIL YOU FEEL++ Adverbial - Duration / SEE #IF PAGER STILL Adverb - Duration WORK // PUSH- BUTTON(on phone transmitter) KEEP+++ UNTIL GOOD PUSH-BUTTON(on phone transmitter)++ Adverbial - Duration / DEAD // SAME-AS CL:C mounted box on the CL:B door jam // PUSH-BUTTON(on doorbell transmitter)++++ DEAD / CHANGE(battery) IX(doorbell)++ V-O-L-T // IX(phone transmitter) V-O-L-T 9++ CHEAP / PAGER EXPENSIVE(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree / EXPENSIVE Transcriber Note: I see when D and C want to emphasize certain things, the last segment of the sign is held for a longer time. For example see: D: CL: 1 plugs into back of phone or C: EXPENSIVE(emph) 102

108 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: YES++ MASS YOU THREE LIST-OF-THREE THIS(first) PAGER / THIS(second) DOOR++ / THIS(Third) PHONE PLUS CL:CbCb small box ALL-TOGETHER FOUR? C: TWO / IX(D s finger) IX(ceiling) Adverb - Location W-A-L-L WAVE- NO[simultaneous with shaking D s hand side-to-side] C-E-I-L-I-N-G BREAK // C-E-I- L-I-N-G / CL:CC fire alarm IX(up on ceiling) Adverb - Location CL:BB fire alarm mounted on ceiling FIRE ALARM // WAVE PUSH-BUTTON(on D s index, middle, ring, and little fingers)++++ verb - Location / SHOW-YOU // FOUR(emph) PUSH- BUTTON(on D s index,middle, ring, little fingers) verb Location, Loc, Loc, Loc / UMM PUSH-BUTTON(first button)++++verb - Location FIRE / PUSH- BUTTON(second) verb - Location DOOR / PUSH-BUTTON(third) verb - Location / PHONE PUSH-BUTTON(fourth)++ verb - Location WELL(doubtful) NECESSARY WELL E-X-T-R-A D: YOU #OK YOU CL:C fire alarm mounted on CL:B ceiling HAVE C: NO++++ NONE+++ D: NONE!? C: YES TWO(emph)++ BATTERY CL:HH 2 batteries lying side by side // BUT BROKE / BROKE / PAGER ALARM MEAN WAITING-LONG-TIME W-A-[false start] NO-WAIT V-R IX(VR) FORGET FORGET FORGET NEED NEW CL:C fire alarm S-A-F-E D: YOU CL:C fire alarm mounted on CL:B ceiling FINISH(that s all) Adverb Manner/Degree NONE CL:II cord coming down C: NONE++ D: INTERESTING(emph) Adverb Manner/Degree IX(second one/doorbell) DOOR++++ CL:C mounted box on the CL:B flat surface // NONE CORD(from CL:B down the wall ) C: NONE++++ D: PHONE YES++ ONLY PLUG-INTO(phone) Adverb Manner/Degree CONNECT PHONE CL:Ob cord runs from phone over to tty) PLUG-INTO(tty) TTY FINISH(that s all)? Adverb Time. C: YOU[false start] WAVE UMM / PHONE WAVE-NO TOUCH(phone) NONE++ P-H-O-N-E CL:1 cord runs over to the wall jack PLUG-IN-JACK W-A-L-L W-A-L-L CL:1 cord runs down and under then into the wall jack // CL:BB wall CL:C jack mounted on the wall W-A-L-L PLUG-IN-JACK // CL:Ob cord from the wall jack runs over to CL:LL small control box TABLE // SMALL CL:L drawing outline on D s hand signaler box is about this big / PUSH-BUTTON(in the middle of signaler box) ALARM-RING VIBRATION FEEL S-A-F-E STILL Adverb Duration ALIVE BATTERY /// D: PRO1 CURIOUS YOU-[false start]? YOU KNOW PRO1 HAVE TWO HOUSE MATE++++ LIVE IN MY HOUSE C: YES++[shake] 103

109 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: THREE-OF-US / #OK / OK-THEN TWO-OF-THEM DEAF // CAN SEE TWO- OF-THEM // PRO1 DEAF^BLIND MEAN PRO1 SUPPOSE PRO1 BUY V-I-B-R-A C-A-L-L FINISH Adverb Time / SET-UP(in different places) FINISH Adverb Time / PUT-ON-PAGER / SUPPOSE CL 1 person comes up to CL: B door PUSH- DOORBELL++++ WILL TWO-OF-THEM KNOW LIGHT FLASH++++ QUESTION C: NONE++ D: NONE / MEAN MUST BUY TWO SEPARATE[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree (So, you mean I d have to buy two separate systems) C: YES BUY /// YOU NEED WRITE-LIST SEND(to Silent Call) TO S-I-L-E-N-T ASK(multiple) ABOUT MORE++ TWO E-X-T-R-A?? TWO-OR-THREE CONNECTED // YES FOR FLASHER THAT // WELL // CAN ASK-lf(silent call) REQUEST-lf(from silent call) S-I-L-E-N-T C-A-L-L COMPANY IX-lf(Silent Call) /// D: OH-I-SEE+++ PRO1 WANT TO UH PRO1 WANT SET-UP SYSTEM[emph] SET- UP(in different places)+++ FINISH Adverb Time THEN Adverb Time UH ONE FOR FLASH+++ OTHER WHEN ANY PERSON PUSH-DOORBELL Adverbial Time LIGHT FLASH+++ SAME TIME MY PAGER-GOES-OFF+++ Adverbial Time SAME TIME Adverbial Time WANT-wg++++[overlap] C: YES++++++[overlapping with D] ASK-lf(Silent Call) IX-lf(Silent Call) CAN(emph) D: YOU NAME COMAPANY AGAIN Adverb Freq YOU C: S- SILENT C-A-L-L D: IN / WHERE? C: R-O-C-H-E-S-T-E-R #MICH Adverbial Location D: YES THAT WHERE LEADER #DOG PROGRAM IX-front/ctr (Rochester MI) C: YES [overlapping] D: OH-I-SEE+++++[overlapping] C: / PRO1 SLEEP / UMM /// REMEMBER STUCK D: YOU KNOW K-E-I-T-H M-C-G-R-E-G-O-R YOU? C: YES D: KNOW YOU? C: WAVE-NO D: K-E-[hesitates, lowers hand] THINK K-E-I-T-H C: [overlap nodding backchannel] D: -M-C-G-R-E-G-O-R // IX(Keith) MAN[false start] HEARING MAN WHO TRAIN DEAF^BLIND PEOPLE WITH #DOG LEADER #DOGS C: YES+++++ D: YOU FINISH Adverb - Time MEET K-E-I-T-H? C: NO D: IX-rt(Keith) GO GO TO A-A-B-D MEETING GO GO GO 104

110 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: YES++ / PRO1 J-A-N-E NAME J-A-N-E-T J-A-N-E-T IX-high/center(Janet) DONATE(to me)+++ WORTH TEN THOUSAND PRO1 NO+++ V-R WILL NOT PAY(me) PRO1++ MONEY NO+++ PRO1 GIVE-UP NO+++ PRO1 GIVE-UP // TEN THOUSAND BUT NEW-YORK BIG FREE // WELL D: NO++ YOU MEAN LEADER #DOG MEAN YOU? C: YES++ NEW-YORK++ FREE / WHY(rh) D: NO++[C drops attention] C: MONEY DONATE-alt hands(to the db)+++ MONEY A-LOT IX-high center(new York) D: NO++ IN #MICH FREE // FREE YES++++++[overlap] C: YES+++[overlap] #MICH YES++++ D: YES++ FREE ONLY Adverbial Manner/Degree YOU PAY-OUT-OF-POCKET FLIGHT FINISH(that s all) Adverbial Manner/Degree C: YES++++[unattended to] D: TO SLEEP FOOD TRAINING PLUS #DO INCLUDE FREE(emph) Adverb Manner/Degree C: YES++++ PRO1 MONEY WELL / PRO1 MONEY WELL[overlapping] D: YOU FINISH #DOG WELL?[overlapping] C: PRO1 NO+++ NOT-YET++ Adverb Time / YOU++? D: PRO1 YES++ WHEN PRO1 RETIRE Adverb Time PRO1 WILL BUY(dog) YES+++ C: BUY P-O-N-Y D: NO++++ HA-HA+++ C: TRAIN++++ P-O-N-Y D: YES BUT DEFECATE+++ IN HOUSE OUTRAGED PRO1 C: TEACH(the pony)++ BETTER Adverbial Manner/Degree C-L-Y-D-E-S-D-A-L-E D: IX-C s hand(what did you sign)? C: C-L-Y-D-E-S-D-A-L-E D: WHO THAT IX-clydesdale? C: BIG!(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree BROWN REMEMBER HORSE+++++ KNOW BIG!(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree D: #OH! OH+++++ C: THAT NAME C-L-Y-D-E-S-D-A-L-E BIG!(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree [overlapppng] WOW Adverbial Manner/Degree D: #HA-HA [overlapping]/ PRO1+++ WILL // YOU KNOW H-A-R-R-Y A- N-D-E-R-S-O-N HAVE NEW++ If this means more than just new it s - Adverbial Manner/Degree GUIDE DOG C: AGAIN Adverb Freq // OLD[overlap] D: WELL FINISH[overlap] C: R-O-C-K-Y? D: OLD / FINISH Adverbial Time RETIRE QUOTE RETIRE[overlap] C: YES [overlap] 105

111 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: BUT H-A-R-R-Y KEEP(Rocky) H-A-R-R-Y / R-O-C-K-Y STAY BUT BECOME YOUR GUIDE NO-MORE Adverbial Duration // THEN[false start] #SO HARRY IX-lf-ctr(Harry) / YOU KNOW ROCKY OLD^11 OLD^ C: DON T-KNOW / GOOD UP-TO-LIMIT 15 Adverbial Duration UP-TO-LIMIT 15 tells to what degree/. BIG! tells to what degree. D: [hesitation] FOR GUIDE-AROUND UP-TO-LIMIT 10 Adverbial Duration C: OH-I-SEE D: AGE^ ?[false start] UM START UM QUOTE OLD[signed slowly] START FORGET FORGET FORGET C: YES D: #SO PHOOEY ENOUGH Adverbial Manner/Degree ADD-ON 11 ENOUGH Adverbial Manner/Degree THEN Adverbial Time GO GET TRAINING GET NEW #DOG // PRO1 FINISH Adverbial Time MEET 3-WEEKS^AGO Adverbial Time // PRO1 PET(dog) (it)lick(my hand) // BIG BIG Adverbial Manner/Degree / THIS- HIGH / STRONG(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree / NICE / TWO BLOOD++ MESH TWO-IN-LIST G-O-L-D G-O-L-D #OR G-O-L-D-E-N O-L[false start] FORGET STARTS-WITH-R GOLD R-SOMETHING C: [touches hand to interrupt] R- D: GOLD G-O-L-D-E-N R-E-T-R-I-E-V-E-R[overlap] C: YES++++[overlap] D: MATCH WITH YELLOW L-A-B YELLOW L-A-B[overlap] C: WOW[overlap] C: NO( head shake ) D: REALLY NICE(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree PRO1 LOOK-AT-dwn lf(dog) // H-A-R-R-Y EXPLAIN+++ HOW^MUCH THAT #DOG HELP IX(Harry) WOW! LONG-LIST / PRO1 LOOK-AT(dog) PRO1 MULL-OVER PRO1 WILL GO TO #MICH AFTER PRO1 RETIRE Adverbial Time PRO1 WILL^GO(to Mich) #DOG BECAUSE PRO1 WILL^MAYBE COMMUTE-BACK-AND-FORTH NEED #DOG TO HELP PRO1 WALK FROM HOME Adverbial Place TO A-A-D-B HOME^OFFICE Adverbial Place HELP++ J-A-M-I-E WITH CALL-BY- TTY(different places)+++ WELL^I-DON T-KNOW // PRO1 THINK NICE Adverbial Manner/Degree PRO1?? #DOG GUIDE-AROUND GO-DOWN-UNDER SUBWAY WELL C: TRAIN TRAIN TRAIN(response) D: THREE THREE-WEEKS FINISH (That s all) Adverbial Manner/Degree / THREE[overlap] C: YES+++++[overlap] D: THREE-WEEKS / THREE THREE-WEEKS Adverbial -TimeTHAT S-ALL Adverbial Manner/Degree C: WHEN RETIRE YOU D: I-DON T-KNOW(emph) 106

112 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: NEXT-YEAR(emph) Adverbial Time D: NO++ REALLY Adverbial Manner/Degree PRO1 CAN(emp?) BECOME E-L-I-G- I-B-L-E NEXT-YEAR BUT PRO1 NOT READY // MAYBE FOUR MORE YEAR FOUR / YEAR / FOUR C: WELL UM D: BECAUSE PRO1 DON T WANT TO RETIRE #TOO Adverbial Manner/Degree EARLY[emph] Adverbial Manner/Degree YOUNG #OR #TOO Adverbial Manner/Degree OLD WELL-DOUBT NOW Adverbial Time PRO [checks for clarification] C: YES++[unattended]++++[attended] 59[affirms understanding]++ D: PRO1 PREDICT PRO1 RETIRE 6[hold] 3 #or 6-4 C: FUTURE!(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree WOW Adverbial Manner/Degree // PRO1 D: WELL 3 / 4 C: PRO D: YES++++ KNOW^THAT YOU #SEPT C: YES D: WELL C: BORN (slower) Adverbial Time D: YES++++ // YOU / YOU NO-MATTER / YOU DON T-WANT #DOG / YOU DON T-WANT #DOG C: PRO1 STILL Adverbial Time MULL-OVER BECAUSE Adverbial Purpose PRO1[overlap] D: WHY[overlap] C: ALONE WANT ACCOMPANY-EVERYWHERE [overlap] D: YES [overlap] C: #DOG MULL-OVER D: PRO1 THINK #DOG WILL HELP YOU SOCIALIZE PLAY[continuous] / YOU KNOW^THAT PRO1 HAVE TWO #DOG IN MY HOUSE Adverbial Location PRO1 HAVE TWO[hold] [checks for understanding] C: TWO(held long) [signaling understanding] D: WIFE POSS-lf(wife) M-O-N-I-C-A S C: OH-I-SEE D: IX-lf(Monica) LIVE IN MY HOUSE Adverbial Place C: OH-I-SEE STILL Adverb Time D: YES++++ BUT NOT TWO-OF-US TOGETHER NO+++++ TWO-OF-US BECOME GOOD FRIENDS FINISH(that s all)[osc] Adverb Manner/Degree // NO-MATTER[overlap] C: YES+++++(unattended to) 107

113 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: IX-lf(Monica) HAVE TWO #DOGS // HAVE MINE ENJOY SIT READ READ- BRAILLE[interative?] #DOG? CL:V-bent dog comes and sits on my lap POSS HEAD CL:S head draped over my leg PRO1 PET(dog)++++? PLAY WITH Adverb Manner/Degree DOG PRO1 GET THROW #BALL CL:CC ball THROW(lf) IX(path out from me) #DOG CL:Vbent animal running along path CL:C>O mouth closes to grab ball, pick it up and return to me PRO1 GET THROW(rt) IX(path far out in front of me) Adverb Place #DOG IX(path out around) PICK-UP / IX(path back to me) PLAY[iterative] IX(dog) REALLY Adverb Manner/Degree ENJOY #DOG REALLY Adverb Manner/Degree CAN KEEP YOU KEEP YOU AND[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree GOOD FOR YOU Adverb Purpose C: CHATTING COMMUNICATION YES++ IMPORTANT COMMUNICATION / YES++++ D: YOU PRO1 UNDERSTAND THAT YOUR #APT ALLOW YOU TO HAVE ROOMMATE [overlap] C: [tapping yes] #IF #DOG WORK++ LANDLORD LAW WILL [?I don t have a good gloss for this sign] MUST ALLOW(emph) verb /// NONE JUST Adverbial Manner/Degree PET NO++ ONLY Adverbial Manner/Degree WORK #DOG ALLOWED // BECAUSE LAW(emp) A-D-A WOW++++ DM D: YES PRO1 PRO1 [false start] / PRO1 THINK YOU+++ CAN T HAVE ROOMMATE+++++ IN YOUR #APT RIGHT Adverbial Place C: YES D: CAN[emph] YOU CAN? C: #IF CATHOLIC PRO1 CAN(emph) // DISCUSS-BACK-FORTH CAN(emph) /// WE LL-SEE WELL [overlap] D: YOU NEED YOU ONE ROOMMATE YOU NEED++ C: (taps yes ) YES++++ // HELP-ME++ [false start]deaf / HEARING / WHATEVER NOT BLIND WAVE-NO++++ // PROBLEM BETTER Adverbial Manner/Degree PRO DRIVE / SEE DRIVE / BETTER Adverbial Manner/Degree D: YES+++++ HOW-MANY ROOM YOUR #APT C: PRO1++ REALLY Adverbial Manner/Degree BED[ROOM] TWO(hold long) / PRO1^HAVE TWO-INTO-ONE // CHANGE S-H-O-P / S-H-O-P PRO1 MAKE CHAIR++ // S-T-O-O-L-S WEAVING SELL++ ENJOY PRO1 WELL(dm) /// START NEAR-FUTURE Adverbial Time START BUSINESS BUT NEED MOVE-TO BIG(emph) Adverbial Manner/Degree // DON T-KNOW WHO-KNOWS DON T- KNOW / MULL-OVER / DON T-KNOW++ Adverb Frequency D: YES HOW YOU YOU++ #IF YOU ROOMMATE MOVE-front(your house)[hold] // MEAN YOU CLOSE[hold] S-H-O-P MOVE(shop from there to other place) ALLOW OTHER ROOMMATE MOVE(where shop is) #OK? C: MAYBE HAVE-TO BUT NEED WORK WEAVING WELL(dm) //[checks for feedback] HAVE? MONEY+++ INCREASE+++++ [checks for feedback] D: YES

114 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: LIKE(emph) PRO1 // GOOD MONEY CHAIR WORTH WOW++++ Adverbial Manner/Degree D: YES YOU MAKE LIVING SELL++ SO-FAR Adverbial Duration C: WAVE / NOT-YET Adverb Time START NOT-YET Adverb Time / NOW++ Adverb Time PRO1 START / IX(store in NC)++ SEND E-M-A-I-L PRO1 WAIT FOR E-M-A-I-L SEND(to store in NC) TO V-A-S-S #NORTH-CAROLINA IX(Vass) Adverbial Place FAMOUS BIG STORE / WEAVING / PRO1 #WWW EXPLAIN WITH K-E-N-T IX(Kent) WHAT #WWW EXPLAIN // LIKE LIKE LIKE Adverbial Frequency PUT-IN-LIST PRO1 SEND(to Kent) // BRING-TO-ME / PRO1 MAKE+++ MAKE(different ones) FAMOUS V-A-S-S FAR!(emph) Adverb Manner/Degree NEAR #SOUTH-CAROLINA #SOUTH-CAROLINA Adverbial Place D: YOU YOU [false start] WEAVE++ NOT-YET Adverb Time START WEAVE++ ALL-ALONG Adverb Duration C: UP-TIL-NOW Adverb Time (Duration) NONE++++ WHY(rh) PRO1 LOOK- FOR++ MY FAVORITE BALTIMORE RITENOFF PRO1 BUY(from Ritenoff)+++++ COME(to me) GO-THERE(Ritenoff) TIME PRO1 SEND-TO(Ritenoff) CALL- TO(Ritenoff) /// SAY O-W-N-E-R QUIT / SELL OTHER NEW O-W-N-E-R LOOK-AT WEAVING / THROW-OUT DON T-KNOW HOW IX(new owner) THROW-OUT / NONE EMPTY // PRO1 DISAPPOINTED GIVE-UP WOOD BUY++++ IX(Baltimore) Adverb Place D: NOW Adverb Time WHERE YOU MEAN MEAN LOOK-FOR OTHER PLACE? C: THAT NAME V-A-S-S #NC[interrupts] D: V-WHAT? [asks for clarification] C: V-A-S-S #N[interrupted] D: IN #NC Adverbial Place C: #NC YES+++ / NAME FAMOUS B-A-S-K-E-T W-A-R-E-H-O-U-S-E C: PRO1 CHAIR[multiple]+++++ WOMAN O-W-N NAME S-U-Z-A-N-N-E M-O-O- R-E IX(Suzanne) // PRO1[interrupted] D: YOU PRO1 CURIOUS WHAT KIND YOU HAVE WEAVE / LIKE CHAIR SECOND-IN-LIST TABLE WELL? C: DIFFERENT++ YES++++ CHAIR IX[multiple] DIFFERENT+++ YES+++ C: PRO1 HAVE HIGH S-T-O-O-L-S PUT(on stools) WEAVING / WAIT TIL SIGN-NAME-K[false start] [COMPUTER BRAILLE ARRIVE](cond) Adverbial Duration START ORDER(from NC) GET CL:Cb strips of caning C-A-N-I-N-G-S GET++++(from NC) WEAVING[multiple] /// PRO1 (Larry)BRING(to me) WITH L-A- R-R-Y Adverbial Place // YOU DON T-KNOW IX(Larry) CONTINUE[interrupted] L- [interrupted] D: WHO++ 109

115 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: LARRY / YOU DON T-KNOW / FROM #PA+ Adverbial Place / LIVE NEAR PRO1 Adverbial Place NOW Adverbial Time MOVE-AWAY THAT IX(Larry) HELP(me) STORY GET PAINT TELL PRO1 PAINT PRETTY C-H-E-R-R-Y IX(Larry) IX(pointed to that one) / #OK / PRO1 BRING(home) /? CL:B dip brush in stain CL:B paint surface WATER WONDER / CL:B dip brush in stain CL:B paint surface / SMELL(stain) WONDER PHOOEY-ON-IT CL:C put lid on can CL:S pounded the lid down / IX-lf(Kent) CALL-ON #KENT COME-OVER(to the shop) SAY NO++ IX-dwn(paint) FOR? #STAIN RUB #OFF / PAINT FULL L-A- R-R-Y DUMB[emph] L-A-R-R-Y NOT THINK L-A-R-R-Y[overlap] D: [overlap]#ha-ha // #HA-HA-HA C: WANT PAINT? PRO1 DONATE(to you) D: NO++++ PRO1 START SMALL BUSINESS++++ PRO1 HAVE SETUP SMALL CALLED INTERNET I-N-T-E-R-N-E-T BUSINESS+++++ NOW+++?? Adverb Time [false start] SIGN WITH ONE COMPANY NAME QUOTE Q-U-I-X-T-A-R[held for feedback] C: YES[shake]++++ D: IX(Quixtar) HAVE? FINISH Adverb Time BUY A FRANCHISE FROM THAT COMPANY Adverbial Place #SO THAT Adverbial Purpose PRO1 CAN RUN POSS1 BUISNESS SELL(different things) DIFFERENT THINGS LIKE WELL LIKE S-E-A-R-S PRO1 CAN SELL #REF MICROWAVE C: ADVERTISE WELL? D: YES PRO1 PRO1 NOW PRO1 IX(the business) KNOW IX(the business?)+ NEW++++ Adverb Manner/Degree BUSINESS GOOD[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree EXPANDING[quickly] Adverb Manner/Degree // PRO1++++ SIGN TO BUY F-R-A-N-C-H-I-S-E #SO PRO1 USE POSS #WWW[hold for feedback] Adverbial Purpose C: YES[shake]++++ D: TO SELL ADVERTISE[false start?] ORDER ORDER ORDER ORDER THEN Adverb Time PRO1 SIGN++ WITH POSS ASSISTANT PRO1 TRY TEACH(assistants)++ HOW TO RUN+++ BUSINESS+++ DO-THINGS NOW Adverb Time PRO1 GIVE TRAINING LEARN(various things) PRO1 REALLY Adverb Manner/Degree ENJOY PRO1 JOIN THAT BUSINESS WORLD ] 3- MONTHS-AGO[hold] Adverbial Time // 3 MONTHS[hold] ] Adverbial Time C: YES[shake]++++ D: PRO1 LEARN FROM MY FRIEND Adverbial Purpose IX(friend) EXPLAIN / PRO1 LOOK-AT(idea) FASCINATED PRO1 DECIDE JOIN #SO PRO1 BUY(business) F-R-A-N-C-H-I-S-E[hold] C: YES++ D: THEN Adverb Time NOW Adverb Time SAME[false start] PRO1 SATISFIED THAT SMALL BUSINESS NOW+++++ Adverb Time // PRO1 MAYBE EXPLAIN YOU LATER Adverb Time WELL 110

116 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes C: GOOD[emp] Adverb Manner/Degree YES++++ TAKE-CARE BUSINESS ENJOY / LOOKING-AROUND-BORED WELL D: YES [overlap] C: YES++[overlap] D: YOU YOU++ THINK YOU WILL YOU STAY IN W-H-E-A-T-O-N? Adverbial Place C: YES+++[unattended]++++ / MONEY FINE-wg Adverb Manner/Degree GET- GOVERNMENT-INCOME PAY NONE WELL D: PAY NONE[emph/hold]? Adverb Manner/Degree ALL-ALONG Adverb Duration YOU C: PAY NONE[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree ELECTRIC WATER ALL-THOSE-IN- LIST Adverb Purpose NONE[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree D: #ALL Adverb Manner/Degree FREE / #ALL[overlap] Adverb Duration C: YES++[overlap] ALL[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree FREE YES D: YOU BETTER STAY C: YES+++++ MULL-OVER POSSIBLE CLOSE-TO STORE Adverbial Place GOOD M-A-L-L IX-lf / YOU KNOW WHERE MY M-A-L-L IX-lf D: NAME++ C: C-[false start] WOODS? P-L-A-Z-A M-A-L-L WOODS? W-H-E-A-T-O-N / PRO1++++ MY++++ #APT CL:1 road near the apt /[overlap] D: YES C: A-M-H-E-R-N CL:1 road near the apt NEXT-TO-BEYOND(Amhern) Adverbial Place IX-? M-A-L-L IX+++ D: YES YOU LIVE IX ALONE+++ C: WAVE-NO COMMUNITY PRO1 HAVE TWO[hold] / GIRL++ / HELP++ #SSP // EVERY-TWO-WEEKS-BEGINNING-AND-AND-OF-MONTH+++ Adverbial Frequency / GIRL FROM BALTIMORE Adverbial Place // COME(to my house) TAKE(out) STORE++? DOCTOR TO PRO1 #MA #MA M-E-T-R-O A-C-C-E-S- S[hold] D: YES++++ C: FINE-wg Adverb Manner/Degree PRO1 LIKE #MA D: YES++[overlap] C: (metro)provide(to me)[overlap] [interrupted] D: YOU CHARGED[unattended] YOU START USE #MA ALL-ALONG Adverb Duration NOW Adverb Time C: ALL-ALONG Adverb Duration GOOD[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree D: HOW THERE-AND-BACK? C: K-E-N-T[overlap] D: WELL[overlap] C: DROP-OFF / PRO1 HOME #MA / TIME 1:30 Adverb Time #OR 2:00 TIME Adverb Time IX(Kent) B-I-S-R-T-A NO-WAIT-SEC B-I-S-T-R-N WAVE-NO B-I- S-T-R-N 111

117 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: YES+++ C: IX(Kent?) MEET ME EAT++ C: YOU PRO1 IX(Kent) EAT++ MEET[overlap] D: YES+++[unattended] C: YOU? #OK D: HAVE MEETING? 11 [to] 1:10 PRO1 APPOINTMENT AT 1:10 Adverb Time TO PRO1 EXPECT TWO-OF-US(appointment) Adverb Time FINISH Adverb Time THEN TWO-OF-US(you and I) EAT IX WELL // ANYWAY YOU++ YOUR[hesitation] /// FORGOT // YOUR #APT BASEMENT RIGHT? C: NONE+++++ BIG[emph]? FLOOR[big]? FLOOR BIG[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree D: YES++ / HOW^MANY ROOMS YOUR #APT? C: LIVING-ROOM BIG[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree CL:5 large area on the left COMPUTER CL:Cb desk with computer spans length of wall on left CL:5 area in center CL:Vb sofa is left of center?? CL:Vb chair one here close right of center, one here further right of center IX(further than the chair) #TV #TV BACK Adverb Place #WALL(on right) FOOD TABLE BACK-THERE(rt) Adverb Place IX(up ahead of table KITCHEN DOWN-HALLWAY(on right) Adverb Place / IX(up far right) Adverb Place BED[ROOM] IX(path snakes) Adverb Place [interrupted] #TV[unattended] D: YES+++[shake] CLEAN(all around)+++ YOURSELF[overlap] C: YES++++[unattended overlap] D: #ALL(whole apt) Adverb Manner/Degree YOU // [overlap] C: YES BATHROOM TWO / BATHROOM TWO / BATH TWO[hold] D: OH-I-SEE+++ C: BATH TWO D: YES+++ C: IX-to left / IX-up and to right MY PRIVATE IXthumb-right / IX-to left Adverb Location GENERAL IX-lf D: YES++ / YOU HAVE #TV RIGHT #TV #TV #TV[overlap] C: YES++++[overlap] D: FOR? SOME FRIEND COME(to your house) TO INTERPRET WELL-HOW YOU C: YES // COMPANY VISIT LIKE W-SIGN-NAME++ KNOW W-SIGN-NAME++ HUSBAND #JOHN WATCH++ #TV W-SIGN-NAME++ CL:Vb sit DeafBlind style CHAT++ FOUR-HOURS Adverb Duration #JOHN WATCH++ #TV // SOMETIMES Adverb Frequency (I)VISIT(them) #JOHN WATCH(his TV) PRO CHAT(with W) WELL / UNDERSTAND+++ D: YES++++ / YOU YOU STILL Adverb Duration WATCH SOME Adverb Manner/Degree COME(to your house) INTERPRET FOOTBALL GAME / BASKETBALL GAME YOU C: BEHIND![emph] Adverb Manner/Degree PRO1 BEHIND![emph] Adverb Manner/Degree / NONE COMPUTER WELL! / BEH [interrupted] 112

118 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: WANT PRO1 INFORM-YOU+++ C: IX(Jim) J-I-M MEASURE TOLD-ME PRESS-KEY A-L-T C-T-L I / COME-UP- ON-SCREEN FINISH Adverb Time STAY-THERE? ROCKING R-O-C-K-E-R- S ROCKING THEN IX-up right U-S-A-T-O-D-A-Y N-E-W-S D: OH-I-SEE++ C: YOU #WWW PRO1 NOT-HAVE-TO NOT-NECESSARY PRO1 WONDER? D: YES YES PRO1+++ STILL[emph] Adverb Duration READ++ #WWW AWESOME Adverb Manner/Degree LOVE-IT WOW Adverb Manner/Degree PRO1 READ-THROUGH-A-LOT-OF-THINGS Verb [dm gesture] YESTERDAY Adverb Time M-I-A-M-I DEFEAT CHICAGO BEARS / WELL/OR PAST SUNDAY Adverb Time GREEN-B-A-Y BEAT M-I-N-N // UMM NOW Adverb Time FIRST-PLACE ONE-AND-THREE // NEXT-BELOW PHILADELPHIA IX 25 / KNOW^THAT TWO/ 8+++ DIFFERENT++ N-F-C HAVE 4 GROUPS(under AFC) OTHER A [interrupted] C: [taps to interrupt]++++ YES++ KNOW^THAT FINISH++ Adverb Time D: YOU KNOW? C: YES+++ NOT-KNOW / KNOW++ GROUP SEPARATE++ NEW++ YES++ BUT [interrupted] D: BUT WHO FIRST-PLACE / DON T-KNOW YOU? C: FIRST-PLACE DON T-KNOW D: YOU WANT PRO1 SPELL-OFF(to you) C: YES++++ / D: M C: GREEN-B-A-Y D: START WITH N-F-C C: YES+++ D: CL:1,4 four competing for first place FIRST-OF-FOUR PHILADELPHIA / SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW-YORK G[IANTS] / THIRD-OF-FOUR D-A-L-L-A-S / FOURTH-OF FOUR WASHINGTON C: YES++ D: FIRST-OF-FOUR PHILADELPHIA 10-AND-3 / NEW-YORK SECOND-OF-FOUR 7-AND-6 / THAT[dm] / D-A-L-L-A-S AND WASHINGTON CL: thumb down/ lost 5-AND-8[held] 5-AND-8 / C: SAME 5-AND-8 5-AND-8 D: YES D-A-L-L-AS[overlap] C: 5-AND AND-8++ [overlap] D: AND WASHINGTON SAME[overlap] C: SAME[overlap] PHOOEY [finger snap gesture darn it ] D: WELL C: HEAVY-COMPETITION[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree BIG-LEAD Adverb Manner/Degree WELL THANKSGIVING[overlap] 113

119 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: [dm gesture yeah that s them ] YOU WASHINGTON D-A-L-L-A-S STINK PHOOEY(on Dallas) PHILADELPHIA LEAD STRONG[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree PHILADELPHIA WOW![emph]++ Adverb Manner/Degree //10-AND-3 GOOD Adverb Manner/Degree PASSING / RUSHING / DEFENSE / INCLUDE WOW++ Adverb Manner/Degree BUT name?? THROWN-OUT FOR THREE TWO-OR-THREE TWO-OR-THREE [Transcription note: could not see this sign on video] KNOW M-C-N-A-B-B C: YES[shake]+++ D: THAT WHO SPRAIN IX(leg) A-N-K-L-E SPRAIN / [dm gesture so that s that] FOUR-IN-COMPETITION [dm gesture now as for the other ] NORTH CALLED N-F-C NORTH FIRST-OF-FOUR G[REEN]-B-A-Y 10-AND-3 / SECOND-OF-FOUR CHICAGO 3-AND-10? / THIRD-OF-FOUR DETROIT 3-AND-10 / C: WOW?[shake]+++ D: FOURTH-OF-FOUR #MINN 3-AND-10 // REALLY Adverb Manner/Degree DOWNHILL DIVISION-BETWEEN-FIRST-AND-SECOND-OF-OF-FOUR // FIRST- OF-FOUR 10-AND-3 NEXT-ONE-DOWN 3 BACKWARDS 3-AND-10 / 3-AND- 10(third place team)3-and-10(fourth place team) C: WOW[shake]+++ D: BAD Adverb Manner/DegreeWELL // MOVING-ONTO N-F-C SOUTH++ IX(South Division) FOUR-IN-COMPETITION FIRST-OF-FOUR #T[ampa]B[ay] SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW-ORLEANS / THIRD-OF-FOUR ATLANTA FOURTH- FOURTH-OF-FOUR C-A-R-O-L-I-N-A # C // FIRST-OF-FOUR #T[ampa]B[ay] HUGE-IMPROVEMENT[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree 10-AND-3 / 10-AND- 3[overlap] C: YES[shake] / D: SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW-ORLEANS 9-AND-4 NEW-ORLEANS 9-AND-4 FOURTH-OF-FOUR ATLANTA 8-4-AND-1/ D: 8-4-AND-1 TIE? THINK ONE TIE YES++++ FOURTH-OF-FOUR #C[AROLINA] / WAIT // [hand drops] 5-AND-8 C: YES[shake]+++ D: UMM #T[AMPA]-B[AY] IMPROVE[emp] Adverb Manner/Degree BETTER DEFENSE WHOLE #T[AMPA]-B[AY] BETTER IX(TB) // KNOW^THAT NOW Adverb Time IX(GB) GREEN-B-A-Y(spaceX) #T[AMPA]-B[AY](spaceY) PHILADELPHIA(spaceZ) SAME(zxy) 10-AND-3 [dm gesture ok now over here ] WEST+++ FIRST-OF-FOUR++ #S[an]-F[rancisco]++ 9-AND-4 / SECOND-OF-FOUR THIRD-OF-FOUR S-T-A-L-L DOWN-HILL 5-AND-8 / THIRD-OF-FOUR++++ ARIZONA 5-AND-8 FOURTH-OF-FOUR SEATTLE S-E-A-T-T-L-E 4-AND-9 C: WOW[overlap] D: SEATTLE FINISH NOW MEAN PHILADELPHIA FIRST-PLACE #GBAY #SF REMEMBER YOU C: YES++++[shake] D: #OK [dm gesture: that s that now let s go over here ] A-F-C EAST FOUR-IN-COMPETITION FIRST-AND-SECOND- OF-FOUR ENGLAND NEW ENGLAND M-I-A-M-I LEAD 8-AND-5[held] C: YES[shake] D: 8-5 // MOVING-DOWN(to third of four) NEW-YORK G[false start] J-E-T-S 7-AND-6 / FOURTH-OF-FOUR BUFFALO 6-AND-7 C: YES[shake] 114

120 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: FIRST-AND-SECOND-OF-FOUR NEW ENGLAND M-I-A-M-I TIE 8-AND-5 #OK // [gesture moving over here ] N-[false start?]a-f-c North FIRST-OF-FOUR SECOND-OF-FOUR PITTSBURGH / THIRD-OF-FOUR CLEVELAND BALTIMORE SECOND-AND-THIRD-OF-FOUR++ TIE CLEVELAND AND BALTIMORE TIE C: B-R-O-W-N-S? D: IX-[false start] YES // THIRD-OF-FOUR LAST #CINN STINK WOW!+++ Adverb Manner/Degree / PITTSBURGH 7[repeats hold] 7-AND-5 S [teelers] C: YES++ D: SECOND-AND-THIRD-OF-FOUR BALTIMORE AND CLEVELAND TIE 7-AND-6 / FOURTH-OF-FOUR #MINN FOURTH-OF-FOUR 0?-AND12 C: WOW+++ D: WELL C: #CINN TREND-DOWN-UP-DOWN-AND-UP-DRAMATICALLY D: NO++ #CINN LOUSY??If it describes the team it s an adj. If it describes how they play it s an adv. ALL-ALONG Adverb Duration // DON T-KNOW WELL[overlap] C: YES+++++[overlap] D: MOVING-ON-TO-low A-F-C SOUTH FOUR-OF-FOUR FIRST-OF-FOUR++ FIRST-AND-SECOND-OF-FOUR // TWO TIE I?? T-E-N-N? 8-AND-5 8-AND-5 THIRD-OF-FOUR J? J? 5-AND-8 / FOURTH-OF-FOUR HOUSTON++++ NEW++ TEAM YOU KNOW HOUSTON+++[overlap] C: YES[shake] D: 4-AND-9 / NOT-BAD IX(Houston?) MOVING-ON-TO-rt A-F-C WEST+++ FIRST-PLACE OAKLAND++++ C: WHAT-ARE-YOU-SIGNING?[touches D s signing hand for clarification] D: OAKLAND++++[simultaneously] [feels C s hand signing the same, makes adjustment by extending pinky on C s hand] C: OAKLAND++++[simultaneously] D: MEAN O-A-K-L-A-N-D[overlap] C: OH-I-SEE++++ D: SAY SIGN OAKLAND+++ PRO1 FOLLOW DEAF PEOPLE FROM OAKLAND[overlap] Adverb Location C: OH-I-SEE++++ / OAKLAND++ D: SIGN OAKLAND++++ / WELL ANYWAY??? FIRST-PLACE OAKLAND 9- AND-4 NEXT-ONE-IN-LIST SECOND-AND-THIRD-OF-FOUR D-E-N-V-E- R AND #SC NO-WAIT WRONG ME / 9-AND-4 NEXT-ONE-IN-LIST #SD #SD 8- AND-5 C: YES++[shake]++ D: NEXT-ONE-IN-LIST-THIRD-OF-FOUR D-E-N-V-E-R 7-AND-6[held] C:YES[shake]++ D: FOURTH-OF-FOUR #KC #KC #KC 7-AND-6 C:YES[shake]

121 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D:?. TWO EAST NEW^ENGLAND #MINN FIRST-PLACE 8-AND-5 // IX(REFERENCE?) PITTSBURGH CLOSE+++(to others in division?) Adverb Location // MOVING-DOWN I? AND D-E-N-V-E-R TIE MOVING-(to the West Div.) OAKLAND WELL? YOU C: YES+++ PRO1 CURIOUS V-U-V[false start] NO-WAIT C-A-C-C BASKETBALL PRO1 DON T-KNOW A-C-C BASKETBALL D: YES+++ YESTERDAY [hesitation] Adverb Time YESTERDAY Adverb Time PRO1 SEE[unique form]? C: YES[shake]++++ D: FIRST ARIZONA 7-AND-0 C: WOW[shake]++ D: SECOND-PLACE A-L-A-B-A-M-A C: YES[shake]++ D: THIRD-PLACE D-U-K-E C: YES[shake]++++ D: YOU KNOW D-U-K-E? C: YES[shake]++++ D: 7-[hesitates] THINK 7-AND-0 7-AND-0 D-U-K-E STILL Adverb Duration GOOD[emph] FAR-AHEAD(against team a) Adverb Manner/Degree FAR- AHEAD(against team b) Adverb Manner/Degree D: FAR-AHEAD(against team c) Adverb Manner/Degree FAR-AHEAD(against team d) Adverb Manner/Degree CREAMING-OPPONENT++ GOOD[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree IX- [interrupted] C: LAST-YEAR Adverb Time CHAMPION I-N-D-I-A-N-A RIGHT? D: WAVE-NO #MD[overlap] C: WHAT-DID-YOU-SIGN D: #MD #MD C: #MD D: #MD #MD / BEAT #IND C: YES++++ FORGOT AWFUL Either adj or adv depending what it modifies (the team or their playing WOW! D: YOU FORGOT YOU[overlap] C: #MD[overlap] / #MD #MD THAT++ WON #MD / THINK SAME #IND[overlap] D: YES++++ / NO+++ / #MD CATCH-UP #IND FOR CHAMPION GAME IX C: YES[shake]+++++ D: #MD BEAT #IND C: YES[shake]++ D: SPAN-OF-TIME FUNNY THAT ONE-WEEK-AGO Adverb Time #IND CRUSHED #MD ONE-WEEK-AGO Adverb Time C: YES[shake]++++ D: FUNNY WELL / #MD TRAVEL-DOWN-FAR Adverb Place C: WOW[shake]

122 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: PRO1 THINK #MD #MD IS MORE++ Adverb Manner/Degree PRO1 IX PRO1 PREDICT YESTERDAY Adverb Time FIRST ARIZONA++ OUTSTANDING[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree WOW!+++ Adverb Manner/Degree // PRO1 PREDICT ARIZONA WILL GET N-C-A-A CHAMPION INFORM(you) // [punch on the leg] // YES+++ C: MEAN ARIZONA A-R-I-Z-O-N-A? D: YES C: NEW[emph] Adverb Manner/Degree WOW!++++ Adverb Manner/Degree D: YES+++++ SAME STRONG Adverb Manner/Degree LAST-YEAR Adverb Time 2-YEARS-AGO Adverb Time 3-YEARS-AGO Adverb Time ARIZONA STRONG STRONG STRONG Adverb Manner/Degree ALL-ALONG Adverb Duration YES++ GOOD C-O-A-C-H [held] C: YES++++ D: NAME++ L U K E C-O-L-S-O-N ONE #OF GOOD MOST C-O-A-C-H-E-S IN U-S-A Adverb Place INFORM(you) GOOD IX(Colson) NO-MATTER FIRST ARIZONA SECOND #ALA ALABAMA THIRD D-U-K-E? C: YES[shake]++ D: FOURTH+++ UMM PRO1 FORGOT FOUR WELL CAN T REMEMBER // REMEMBER++ FOUR / FIFTH UMM REMEMBER++ NOTRE-DAME+++ HOT![emph] Adverb Manner/Degree DEFEAT(a,b,c) THREE GOOD TEAM LAST- WEEK Adverb Time NOTRE-DAME DEFEAT #MD / DEFEAT UMM [Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] SUNDAY WEEK-END Adverb Time THAT TIME Adverb Time [Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] WAS NUMBER TWO NOTRE-DAME BEAT(them) C: WOW+++ D: NOTRE-DAME MOVE-UP-THROUGH-RANKS MOVE-UP-THROUGH-RANKS- TO NUMBER Adverbial Location // PRO1 REMEMBER [Transcription Note: cannot see the sign from the video] THIRD D-U-K-E / MOVE- FURTHER-DOWN #IND / C: YES[shake]+ D: #IND // MOVE-FURTHER-DOWN / 10++ NOTRE-DAME / MOVE-FURTHER- DOWN MY+++ FAVORITE+++ M-A-R-Q-U-E-T-T-E[overlap] C: YES[shake]++++ D: NUMBER C: YES[shake]++ D: MOVE-FURTHER-DOWN #MD #MD NUMBER WELL C: #UVA #UVA? D: NO NONE C: DOWNHILL D: NOT ON TOP 25 Adverb Location NOT ON 25 Adverb Location NOT-YET Adverb Time C: READ #UVA #VA T-E-C-H FOOTBALL WEAK 117

123 Appendix D Transcription of Conversation Session Transcription of Full conversation Between Subject C and Subject D 50 Minutes D: YES++ UMM WIN #VA TECH CRUSH #UVA RIGHT? TWO-WEEKS-AGO Adverb Time C: YES++ D: YES+++ C: WELL D: HOLD-ON-A-SEC BUT #UVA GOOD YEAR IX(UVA) WAIT FOR NEW HEAD C-O-A-C-H / YOU KNOW THAT / YOU KNOW #UVA HAVE NEW HEAD COACH? C: YES++ / DON T-KNOW OLD NAME W-A-L-S-H[overlap] D: RETIRED[overlap] C: LONG-TIME-AGO Adverb Time YES++++++[overlap] D: FINISH C: YES++++ D: THEN Adverb Time / YOU MAN NAME+++ STRANGE LAST NAME++ A-S- [false start] UMM FUNNY NAME #AL S-T-U-P-P-O-H S-T-O-H THINK IX(coach) LONG-AGO PLAY FOR #UVA UNDER W-A-L-S-H LONG-AGO IX(coach) LONG- AGO AROUND 1980 Adverb Time AROUND [false start] IX(coach) LEFT / PLAY FOOTBALL / LATER Adverb Time BECOME HEAD C-O-A-C-H #NY JETS #BUT FOUND-OUT IX(Walsh) W-A-L-S-H RETIRED IX(Stroh) A-S-T-R-O-H S-T-R-O- H WELL-WHATEVER VOLUNTEER BACK START BUILDING THEN Adverb Time #UVA IX LOOK GOOD YES++ Adverb Manner/Degree C: NEXT-YEAR[unattended] Adverb Time NEXT-YEAR Adverb Time Adverb Frequency D: WHAT OTHER S-P-O-R-T-S YOU KNOW? C: UMM UMM B-I-G E[AST] D: [taps leg for clarification] C: B-I-G E[AST] U-V[false start] #UT #UVA-TECH B-I-G E[AST] D: HEY IX DON T-KNOW / IX[term Big E] NAME WELL? C: B-[false start] NAME W-E-L-S-H MEAN B-I-G E[AST] FIRST SECOND D: HOLD-ON B-I-G EAST[emph] YES [overlap] C: YES++++++[overlap] D: BASKETBALL #OR FOOTBALL WHICH YOU? C: BOTH [taps for attention] / TIME RUN-OUT [checks watch] 12:10 12:10 D: IX[thumb] YES

124 Appendix E Consent Form E. Appendix E Consent Form Union Institute & University 440 E. McMillan Street Cincinnati, Ohio / TDD / Fax DOCTORAL PROGRAM INFORMED CONSENT FORM RESEARCH WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS Date: Study Of: Tactile Sign Language Linguistic Aspect of Adverbial Morphemes. Dear Research Participant: I am conducting a study of linguistics aspect of Tactile Sign Language as part of my Ph.D. program in Communication at the Doctoral Program of Union Institute & University. Your participation in this research project will increase our understanding of the cultural aspects of linguistics in Tactile American Sign Language and will help in the future by making a contribution to the Deaf-Blind and interpreting communities. During this research study, you will be observed. Your involvement will require about ninety minutes of your time. After the research is completed, I will forward to you by mail a summary of my findings and implications. I am not aware of any risks involved in participation of this project. In fact, it should be an enjoyable experience for you. You will be identified by number and not by name. All responses will be confidential, and your name will not be used in any report regarding this research. You are free to decline to participate or to withdraw at any time. 119

125 Appendix E Consent Form If you have any questions about this study, please contact me at ( ). Please leave a message if I am not immediately available. Thank you. Sincerely, Steven D. Collins I, ), consent to participate in the (participant- name) study of Tactile Sign Language, conducted by Steven D. Collins I understand that I may refuse to participate or withdraw from this study at any time. I understand that all responses will be confidential. I understand that I may direct questions about this project to Steven D. Collins. Participant s Name and Signature Date 120

126 Appendix E Consent Form Union Institute & University 440 E. McMillan Street Cincinnati, Ohio / TDD / Fax DOCTORAL PROGRAM INFORMED CONSENT FORM RESEARCH WITH HUMAN SUBJECTS Consent Form Steven D. Collins and Union Institute and University I hereby give permission for the videotapes or digital media and written information obtained during this interview to be used for research purposes. I understand that I can withdraw from participation at any time with no penalty. I understand that this information may be included in research publications and presentations and that the videotapes or digital media may be shown during presentations about the project. In addition, selected segments of the videotapes/digital media will be used in the preparation of comprehensive videotapes or digital media about the project, or training materials that will be based on research findings. I understand that neither I nor anyone I mention during this interview will be identified by name in any publication or presentation. (name print) (signature) (date) 121

127 Appendix F Informant Background Information F. Appendix F Informant Background Information Informant Background Information Name: Address: City: State: Zip: Phone No. : (area code) Education information 1. When you were in elementary school, were you at: a. Deaf Institute b. Hearing school i. With interpreter ii. Without interpreter c. Mainstream program i. With interpreter ii. Without interpreter iii. Only with special group d. None e. Other: 2. When you were in elementary school, which communication did you use: a. Oral b. Contact Sign (PSE) c. Sign English d. ASL e. Other: 122

128 Appendix F Informant Background Information 3. When you were in middle school, were you at: a. Deaf Institute b. Hearing school i. With interpreter ii. Without interpreter c. Mainstream program i. With interpreter ii. Without interpreter iii. Only with special group d. None e. Other: 4. When you were in High School, were you at: a. Deaf Institute b. Hearing school i. With interpreter ii. Without interpreter c. Mainstream program i. With interpreter ii. Without interpreter iii. Only with special group d. None e. Other: 5. Were you attend any college? Yes/No a. If yes, Which degree do you get? i. Associate of Art ii. Bachelor of Art iii. Bachelor of Science iv. Masters of Art v. Doctorate 6. If you were graduate from a college, What major were you in? a. Personal Information 7. When you were born, which category were you identify? a. Deaf b. Hard of hearing c. Hearing 123

129 Appendix F Informant Background Information 8. If you born hearing, what age did you lose your hearing? a. 0 5 b c d e f g h i j. 60-over 9. What vision do you have when you born? a. Sighted b. Visual impairment c. Blind d. Unknown 10. If you were born sighted, what age did you identify that you have visual problem? a. 0 5 b c d e f g h i j. 60-over 11. How do you find out you have visual problem? a. By doctor b. By friend c. By family members 12. What kind of visual problem do you have? a. Ushers Syndrome i. Type: b. Optical Atrophy c. Other: 124

130 Appendix F Informant Background Information 13. Do you feel you are part of Deaf community? a. Yes b. No 14. Do you feel you are reject by Deaf Community because of DeafBlind? a. Yes b. No 15. Are you culturally part of DeafBlind community? a. Yes b. No 16. Do you consider yourself a culturally deafblind person? a. Yes b. No Family History 17. Do you have Deaf or DeafBlind relatives? a. Yes b. No 18. Does your family sign? a. Yes b. No 19. Does your family accept your visual problem? a. Yes b. No 20. How long does your family accept you, if any? a. Years: Communication 21. At what age do you learn sign? a. Age: 22. At what age do you start to use tactile? a. Age: 23. How often do you use tactile currently? a. At all the time b. Sometimes c. Night Only 125

131 Appendix F Informant Background Information 24. How often do you communicate with another deafblind people who depend on tactile? a. Daily b. Once in a while c. Night only 126