Lecture17 Debt overhang, debt relief and poverty reduction in low-income countries
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1 Master PPD M / 2009 Lecture17 Debt overhang, debt relief and poverty reduction in low-income countries Marc Raffinot. LEDa Université Paris Dauphine
2 Outline of the lecture Some facts, with a focus on Foreign Debt Why default? Debt overhang Impact of debt relief Debt is not what it used to be
3 Foreign Debt (% of GDP) Emerging and developing economies Africa Developing Asia Western Hemisphere Source: IMF
4 Foreign debt in $ billion, current Low Income Lower Middle income, Upper Middle income Total Source: WB, Global Development Finance
5 Emerging countries vs LICs Creditor Amounts Foreign currency Interest rates Duration Net Present Value Crises Emerging Mainly financial markets, banks Large, unstable Yes (original sin), with some exceptions Risk free+spread Variable Short and medium term, short grace period Higher than face value Outflow of capital LICs Public (Mainly Multilateral, Bilateral) Limited, stable Yes Concessional, Fixed Long term, long grace period Lower that face value Arrears, grants
6 Debt Crises: Debt crises : 1930s, 1982 (Mexico, Latin America), 1994 (Mexico), 1997 (Asia, Russia), 2000 (Ecuador, Pakistan) 2001 (Turkey, Argentina without contagion). Problem with sovereign risk lending : overenthusiasm, loss of confidence, credit rationing (Kindleberger 1978) No more crises since 2001 (reserves, macro-management, low spreads)
7
8 MICs crises differ Who is Mexico 82 Mexico 94 Asia 97 Creditor? Banks Banks Markets Official Markets Banks Indebted? State State Banks Firms
9 Non expected crisis (low spread) Expected crisis (high spread) High debt Brazil (1998), Argentina (2001), Equator (1999) Low debt Mexico (1994), Korea (1997), Indonesia (1997), Thailand (1997), Venezuela Turkey ( ), Russia (1998) Source: Cohen & Portes 2003, p and 44-46
10 Since 1982 : Increasing difference in the way Creditors deal with DCs debt MICs (Middle Income Countries) : try to keep access to the international financial market Rescheduling, refinancing (Argentina 56: Paris Club). Debt is repaid at face value Secondary Market: discounted market value, debt buy backs, debt equity swaps, etc. An exception: Brady Plan 1989 LICs (Low Income Countries) : try to get more debt relief Bilateral (Paris Club) Toronto G7 1988: 33% debt relief, Houston (50%), Naples (1994) : 66 %, flow of stock, Eventually : 90 % (Köln 1999), 100 % Multilateral HIPC 1996, Enhanced HIPC 1999 MDRI 2005
11 Outline of the lecture Some facts, with a focus on Foreign Debt Why default? Debt overhang Impact of debt relief Debt is not what it used to be
12 Default: Illiquidity vs Insolvability Illiquidity (cannot repay now but later yes) Creditors: Rescheduling, Refinancing Insolvability (cannot repay now nor later) Creditors: Stop credit,
13 Debt=opportunities and threats Opportunities: leverage effect Threats: Debt may become unsustainable Default results in closing the access to international financial markets And sanctions? The probability of default is linked with the debt ratio, but the debt ratio is not the whole story. Example: Low Income Countries:
14 Source : Kraay et Nehru (2003, p. 38).
15 Sustainability Fundamentals: b/ t = (M - X)/Y + b (r - g) b debt ratio, t time, (M - X): primary deficit (current balance without interests), Y GDP, r interest rate, g growth rate Instability: Shocks on exports, imports (namely oil, food), exchange rate (b), interest rates, growth Volatility of capital flows, credit crunch
16 Empirical research: defaults Kraay & Nehru: Debt service/exports, CPIA rating, Real GDP growth. Research on Early Warning Systems (Berg, A., Borensztein, E., Pattillo, C., Assessing EarlyWarning Systems: how they have worked in practice. IMF WP No. 52). Sovereign defaults are often caused by fiscal pressures generated by large-scale domestic defaults (Arellano & Kocherlakota, 2008, NBER WP 13794)
17 LICs Paradox: Default on concessional debt Default is unlikely because of soft conditions. Moreover: IMF conditionality on concessional borrowing Increasing share of grants Good monitoring, small number of public creditors (mainly BWI) Suspects: Low effectiveness of aid Instability, Vulnerability, Terms of Trade Defensive lending Capital flight
18 Outline of the lecture Some facts, with a focus on Foreign Debt Why default? Debt overhang Impact of debt relief Debt is not what it used to be
19 Burdens 1: debt service Debt service, deficit of the current account, decrease of reserves Traditional approach of sustainability: debt repayment is a problem of resources (example: indicator debt service in the short run / reserves) Traditional approach is not consistent with standard economic approach It may explain the paradox of default with low debt ratios
20 Burden 2: Debt overhang The case for voluntary repudiation Why repay the debt? Gains vs Loses What sanctions? A share of wealth (Y) : λ Repayment if : D (1+r) < λy Credit rationing : D < λy / (1+r) or DM = λy / (1+r) Problem : co-ordination of creditors, free rider
21 Debt overhang (Sachs, Krugman 89) The behaviour of the debtor changes when the debt is more than DM (not likely to be repaid) Before DM : debt service is fixed, the country gains from increasing income After DM : sanctions are imposed, they work as a tax on extra income, so reducing gains.
22 Debt Overhang: Debt and Investment in a two periods, representative agent framework Investment D M Debt
23 A rationale for debt relief? Debt overhang and Debt Laffer curve Market Value of Debt V M VM V=D D DM D'M Face Value of Debt
24 Estimation of the relation between debt and gowth (Pattillo C., Poirson H., Ricci L. [2002]. "External Debt and Growth". IMF Working Paper WP/02/69. Avril).
25 An elusive relation between debt and growth Empirical research is inconclusive Few specific research papers about HIPCs And a problem with theory? Investment, wealth and substitution
26 Outline of the lecture Some facts, with a focus on Foreign Debt Why default? Debt overhang Impact of debt relief HIPC and MDRI DSF Debt is not what it used to be
27 From LICs to HIPCs Multilateral Debt couldn t be rescheduled (seniority) HIPC : Highly Indebted Poor Countries (end 1996); Enhanced (end 1999) Aim : debt sustainability Threshold : NPV of Debt / Exports of G&S < 150 % Bilateral and Multilateral (and private) Debt Relief Conditionality : Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)
28 HIPC Initiative About 45 eligible countries Some poor countries are not «enough» indebted (Haiti, Kenya..) What to do with the (public) money freed by debt relief? Special account, earmarked expenditure for basic health, primary education Too specific (and maybe too much money), very low disbursements Today: poverty reducing expenditures
29 From HIPC to MDRI Multilateral Debt Relief Intiative (G8, Gleneagles, 2005) Cancellation of IMF, WB, AfDB when Completion point of HIPC Intiative is reached (22 countries end August 07) A break with HIPC rationale: if not a problem of debt overhang, what else?
30 Problems with LICs debt Is there a case for total debt cancellation (Jubilee 2000)? Problem of fairness Problem of access to financial markets Problem of further debt sustainability No more loans to LICs? Only grants? Problem of management Development or assistance?
31 Debt relief and Poverty reduction An increase in poverty reducing expenditure? In some cases, debt relief does not provide any additional resources If the country did not formerly repay If the other aid flows are shrinking when debt relief is granted A problem of incentive: Debt relief amounts to providing resources to (previously) bad managed countries. An incentive to default in the future?
32 The impact is difficult to assess Does debt relief result in an increase of resources? In fresh money? Not detrimental to tax collection (Cassimon & Van Campenhout AFD WP, 63, 2008) A positive impact on pro-poor public expenditures (but sometimes weapons!) Mixed impact on investment, growth Mixed impact on poverty And a negative impact on governance?
33 Governance and institutions Source: Idlemouden, 2009
34 Outline of the lecture Some facts, with a focus on Foreign Debt Why default? Debt overhang Impact of debt relief HIPC and MDRI DSF Debt is not what it used to be
35 Main Features of the DSF Debt cancellations but new possibilities: Access the international financial markets (Ghana 2007)? Emerging Donors (BRICs) How to avoid excess borrowing? IMF-IDA debt sustainability framework (DSF)
36 IMF-IDA debt sustainability framework (DSF) Forward-looking analysis 20 year projection period reflects long maturity of LIC debt Based on net present value (NPV) because concessionality is important in LIC financing Baseline scenario (reforms), but also historical trends Standardization (Two alternative scenarios and six bounds tests ) and Comprehensive stress-testing
37 IMF-IDA debt sustainability framework (DSF) (cont d) Debt-burden thresholds defined according to quality of policies and institutions, as measured by the Bank s CPIA The historical average scenario and scenario of less favorable new financing are designed as permanent modifications to baseline. The stress tests analyze temporary shocks to four key macro-economic variables; a combination of these four tests; and a onetime 30% depreciation. Different Thresholds:
38 Indicative Debt Burden Thresholds Strength of Policies and Institutions Ratio: CPIA <CPIA<3.75 CPIA 3.75 (poor) (medium) (strong) Debt Service to Exports Debt Service to Revenue NPV Debt to GDP NPV Debt to Exports NPV Debt to Revenue
39
40 And External Public Debt :
41 DSF: Critics Domestic debt Difficult to use in negotiations: black box Does not take into account the policy response (may result in excessive adjustment) (Wyplosz 2005) Information, Baseline scenario debatable, volatility, heterogeneity among groups (Djoufelkit & Raffinot 2008)
42 Outline of the lecture Some facts, with a focus on Foreign Debt Why default? Debt overhang Impact of debt relief Debt is not what it used to be
43 The end of the original sin? External and domestic Debt of developing countries as a share of GDP : Source : Panizza 2008, p. 8
44 Macro debt management: issues External debt: Exchange rate risk, volatility Domestic debt: Macro impact on income (and repartition of income) Crowding out of private investment? Domestic Financial markets Deepening? A risk of inflation (Seigniorage)? Foreign currency is needed!
45 References Djoufelkit H & Raffinot M. (2008), Viabilité de la dette des pays à faible revenu dans une perspective de réendettement postallégements de dette, Document de Travail n 75 (2008) téléchargeable sur Idlemouden, Kh. 2009, Annulations de la dette extérieure et croissance. Une application au cas des "pays pauvres très endettés" (PPTE), Ph.D. Thesis, Université Paris Dauphine. Panizza U. (2008), Domestic and External Public Debt in Developing Countries, Discussion Paper n 128, UNCTAD, Genève. Reinhart C. et Rogoff K. (2008), The forgoten History of Domestic Debt, Working Paper 13946, NBER, Cambrige, Mass. Wyplosz Ch. (2005) Debt Sustainability Assessment: The IMF Approach and Alternatives, HEI Working Paper No: 03/2007, Genève.
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