Docent Gozdana Miglič, Ph.D HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

Transcription

1 O Docent Gozdana Miglič, Ph.D HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

2 Docent Gozdana Miglič, Ph.D HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION Published DIAL Belgrade (Serbia), Mutapova Str. No. 21 Under the EU funded project, managed by the European Agency for Reconstruction Editor Peter Miklič Recensionists Goran Vukovič, Ph.D Marija Ovsenik, Ph.D Design and Prepress Vojislav Ilić Translator from Slovenian Dejan Vuruna Translator into English Aleksandra Čavoški, Ph.D Proofreading Dejan Vuruna Ljiljana Ostojić Valentina Korać Edition 1000 copies Co-publisher and printing GRAFOLIK Belgrade (Serbia), Vojvode Stepe Str. No. 375 ISBN CIP - Katalogizacija u publikaciji Narodna biblioteka Srbije, Beograd :35.07 MIGLIČ, Gozdana Pronalaženje i izbor kadrova za državnu upravu / Gozdana Miglič; [prevodilac sa slovenačkog Dejan Vuruna, prevodilac na engleski Aleksandra Čavoški]. - Beograd : Dial : Grafolik, 2007 (Beograd : Grafolik). - 79, 81 str. : graf. prikazi, tabele ; 25 cm Nasl. str. prištampanog prevoda: Human Resources Recruitment in State Administration. - Uporedo srp. tekst i engl. prevod. - Podatak o autorima preuzet iz kolofona. - Oba teksta štampana u međusobno obrnutim smerovima. - Tiraž Str. 3 : Predgovor / Peter Miklič. - Napomene i bibliografske reference uz tekst. - Bibliografija: str 79. ISBN a) Državna uprava - Menaxment qudskih resursa COBISS.SR-ID

3 FOREWORD A successful organizational system is founded on its human resources. Employees and the potentials they bring with them, or acquire and develop within an organizational system represent the core concept of any good employer. In this respect, the state administration is not an exception. The modern principles of HR management should be implemented also within the state administration, if we want to make it more efficient and ready to cope with new challenges. We hope that you would find here the right answers to some questions of your interest, such as: how to recruit the right employee for an adequate post. Together with the author of this publication, docent Gozdana Miglič, Ph.D. to whom the great merit is given for the preparation of this book, we surely need to thank to the Human Resource Management Service and, in particular, to its Director, Ms Jasmina Damjanović, for their huge efforts invested in the entire project. This Guidebook is the latest edition in a series of related publications prepared within the Project: Technical assistance for the Preparation and Implementation of Administrative Legislation - Phase 2 Republic of Serbia abbreviated: DIAL, financed by the European Agency for Reconstruction, and implemented by the consortium with Eurecna from Italy as its leading partner. This Project is a continuation of several already completed projects that were also financed by the European Agency for Reconstruction, and they all aimed at improving the administration system and setting-up a new civil service system in the Republic of Serbia. By this publication, together with the Manual for Filling Executorial Vacancies in the State Administration by Prof. Slobodan Ćamilović, Ph.D. and the HR Recruitment in the State Administration by Dobrila Vujić, Ph.D., we have tried to give our contribution to more professional and technically developed HR selection in the state administration. Peter Miklic Editor

4 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1. ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS 1.1. Job analysis and job descriptions 2. HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING Influence of the environment on human resources planning Model of human resources planning Forecasting human resources needs Labour market Internal human resources supply Human resources plans PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES Strategic questions and formulation of the organisational provision of new human resources strategy Activities connected to the provision of new human resources Provision of human resources from the internal sources Provision of human resources from the external environment of the organisation Employment methods Formal employment methods HUMAN RESOURCES SELECTION Purpose, objectives and the advantages of the selection process Relationship between the business strategy and the organisational culture with the strategy of human resources selection Phases in the process of human resources selection SELECTION METHODS Classic trio Importance of good selection methods Selection of human resources managers Selection procedure BIBLIOGRAPHY

5 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION A contemporary modern state administration acts in a complex ever-changing environment that is completely different from a relatively simple, stable and predictable social setting to which the bureaucratic organisations were accustomed to in the past by their routine manners of doing business. Evolution of political and economic systems, new expectations and demands by the public, an increased scope and influence of the public sector, the resulting needs for harmonization, cooperation and centralisation, as well as the request for approximation to the European standards, impose a need for adaptation of the state administration to the new circumstances. Alteration of the legislative framework is not sufficient for the establishment of a modern state. Changes in all areas are necessary in order to shape up the model of a contemporary state. The changes are especially necessary in the field of management, including the human resources management which encompasses, inter alia, the establishment of an efficient system of civil servants and general service employees recruitment. In finding the most adequate forms and manners of modernising the state administration during the last decade, the idea of a new public sector management is emphasised. Its essence entails the idea that it is possible to introduce certain principles and positive experiences from the private sector management in the public administration management, complemented with principles that guarantee a qualitative work of the administration. Both concepts are closely linked to the human resources, especially after the adoption of contemporary methods of human resources management. Human resources management requires activities that are mutually interconnected and complementary and that are, directly or indirectly, related to the aims and business plans of an organisation. Each organisation, including administrative ones, shall be as successful as its human resources are successful and of high quality. Thus, an organisation must thoroughly analyse its existing human resources and plan potential demands for new human resources. If the organisation decides to recruit new staff, it must have formulated procedures for finding potential candidates to fill the vacant positions as well as an efficient selection system for choosing the most suitable candidates. The purpose of this book is to present human resources activities to the reader that provide for suitable candidates for the organisation, starting from the human resources demands and basic procedures of securing (finding and attracting) human resources and their selection. This book also examines the most frequent methods of human resources selection. The book takes into consideration particularities of the state administration environment. At the same time, it also offers the views and practice surveys of the public and private sector and highlights advantages and disadvantages of the presented solutions. O 5

6 1. ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS O 6 Nowadays organisations are becoming more and more dependent on their human resources. The revolutionary transformation, the complex technology and global competition entail the growing vulnerability of the organisation. Thus, those organisations that do not have right personnel at the right place at the right time become endangered. In connection to that, an adequate relationship between the work and abilities of employees represent an economic necessity. Understanding of individual job positions and work performed in those positions is also linked to this issue. A detailed job analysis and job description offers answers to these questions. 1 In the past, the job descriptions were very simple and brief, while contemporary organisations emphasise adaptability and critical thinking. The organisations aim to have staff capable of working in teams, changing job positions easily, understanding how instructions given to them fit in the overall organisational processes, sensing problems arising in the production process, noticing deficiencies and difficulties in the work process, transmitting information and providing solutions to arising problems. In accordance with that, there is a growing demand for highly trained employees who are not only capable of mastering simple and predictable procedures but that are also expected to have skills to understand causal links and to make decisions under different pressures from the surrounding environment, especially the time pressure. The concept of job analysis entails the process of gathering information about the work. Regardless of the method or manner of gathering information, the analysis contains information on tasks that must be performed under a specific job, as well as special circumstances related to a civil servant performing the job. The result of a job analysis is a job description and a job specification. The extent of a job analysis usage is multipurpose. The analysis is irreplaceable in human resources planning where it represents a basis for forecasting the human resources needs of an organisation. Besides, the analysis is used for finding, selecting candidates for the job, assessments and rewards related to work, evaluation of work results, planning human resources development and career development, organisation of employment and working conditions. It is also a foundation for formulation of work and the main source of data in preparation of job descriptions and work duties (Dessler, 1988; Scarpello and Ledvinka, 1988; Singer, 1990, in Svetlik, 1998a: 80) (Table 1.1; Picture 1.1). Table 1.1: Some examples of using a work analysis FINDING AND SELECTION DEVELOPMENT AND GRADING SALARIES AND REMUNERATIONS human resources planning training and skills development determination of pay scales searching through internal labour market explanation of roles supply of human resources planning careers of employees selection performance evaluation allocation equal possibilities for recruitment securing equal payments for equal work securing equal payment for comparable work 1 See Chapter III od the»regulation on Classification of Jobs and Criteria for describing Civil Service Jobs«( The Official Herald of the Republic of Serbia, No. 117/05). HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

7 ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS Figure 1.1: Interconnection of the analyses of individual services, human resources planning, provision of new staff and their selection ANALYSIS OF A JOB POSITION Job description: name of the service work duties and responsibilities links and dependence on other services working conditions Specification of job position: necessary qualifications experience training, skills knowledge abilities special characteristics Human resource planning Needs according to number of civil servants of individual services Finding new HR (recruitment) Identification of candidates and promotional activities for attracting groups of qualified candidates O 7 Selection Tests and interviews as starting points of applying selection criteria 1.1. Job analysis and job descriptions A job analysis is the basis of human resources management which points out what is expected from the employees as well as what knowledge, skills and abilities are required for an efficient work in a specific job position. The job analysis may be described as a process in which the tasks, duties and responsibilities contained in the job position, its relationship with other job positions, the conditions under which the work is performed and personal abilities required for the achievement of satisfactory results are specified. In fact, the job analysis is a technical procedure of specifying tasks and responsibilities of a certain job position and characteristics that an employee must posses to successfully perform the work (Lipičnik and Mežnar, 1998: 400), supplemented with specification of circumstances under which the work is performed (Singer, 1990, in Svetlik, 1998a: 80). Pearn and Kandola (1993, in Bee and Bee, 1995: 72) describe the process of gathering information about a work as a systematic procedure for providing adequate information about work, tasks and roles that are performed or should be performed (Table 1.2).

8 Table 1.2: Questions to which the job analysis provides answers PURPOSE OF A JOB ANALYSIS What are the reasons that justify the existence of a certain job position? What physical and mental activities does a civil servant perform? When is the work performed? Where is the work performed? How does an employee perform his or her work? What qualifications are necessary for performance of work? What are the working conditions like in the place of work (for example, the temperature, light, unpleasant smells or noise)? Which machines or equipment is necessary at the job position? What constitutes successful work? O 8 There are two main approaches to a job analysis: an approach targeted directly at work (or tasks) and an approach targeted at employee (that is his or her knowledge). The first approach deals with the question what what are the tasks, duties and responsibilities of a job position (the content of a job position), while the second approach is targeted at the knowledge required for performance of work (working requirements) namely the question how. The job requirements (skills, knowledge and capabilities) are specified in the job description. In practice, the said approaches raise dilemmas. One refers to the question whether the job description derives from the job analysis which is based on tasks and their structure or on the job analysis which puts an employee in the centre of attention. A job description that is focused on an employee is more adaptable and more adequate for comparison with other tasks, while a description focused on working tasks is better for discovering the developmental needs of employees. The next question is the issue whether to use one multipurpose description or make several separate descriptions that would differentiate according to their purpose (for example, selection, training ). The practice demonstrates that the most adequate method for the requirement of change of work is a multipurpose description which can be easily modified and adjusted to frequent changes (Rynes, 1997a: 265). Regardless of the approach, for an efficient analysis it is necessary to collect information on key points of certain job positions, including: Content of a job position description of duties in the job position ranging from general tasks to sufficiently detailed description of tasks and procedural steps; Requirements of a job position refers to formal qualifications, knowledge, skills and special characteristics that employees must possess in order to fulfil the content of the job position in a certain situation; Attributes of a job position refers to supporting situations related to a certain job position: its purpose in the context of the organisation, scope of data, scope of financial, personnel and material resources managed by the employee, accessibility of work guidelines, possible consequences in case of a mistake, extent of supervision to which the employee is subjected as well as extent of supervision performed by an employee over the work of his or her HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

9 ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS subordinates, working environment, cultural background, mental requirements and working conditions. The job analysis is usually composed of three elements: determination of work duties, job description (task and circumstances) and, so called, job specification that, also, entail an array of knowledge and skills required for acting upon given instructions Determination of working duties The procedures applied in the analysis of activities are basic procedures of each natural analysis. Above all, these are the examination of activities and their description, classification in relation to selected criteria (for example, the importance of duties in daily work, daily, monthly and annual time that an employee requires to fulfil his/her duties, their frequencies and the complexity of fulfilling the duty), as well as definition of their most important aspects. The subject of the study is not only the work in the form in which it is currently being performed but also the job planning, namely the forecast of the most optimal form of a performance. For the analyst, the conceptual and operational guidelines are especially important since the current situation often differs from other possible situations, particularly the solutions that are determined for certain future steps. On the basis of obtained information, the list of most important duties or the job description is prepared Analysis of tasks and circumstances Effectiveness of a job analysis depends on the ability to determine tasks that make certain duties of a particular job and determination of their importance, sequence and complexity. There are already given definitions of a task in the literature. For example, Gane (1972, in Stanley, 1987: 70) defines a task as a defined and independent segment of work which itself entails a useful result, while Lauffer (1982, in Stanley, 1987: 70) defines a task as a smallest component of a job which may be defined. Each job may be generally analysed as divided in tasks and subtasks, that is constructed job components performed by an employee in certain time period by using certain methods, procedures and techniques, regardless of the differences in views (Fisher, Schoenfeldt and Shaw: 1999: 152). McCormick (1979, in Stanley, 1987: 70) defines an analysis of tasks as analytical procedures that are applied in a job description in relation to certain tasks. It provides information on activities performed by an individual and expected work results that are the basis for formulation of training programmes or other activities related to management of human capacities. The information deriving from the job analysis relates to: Performed tasks; Necessary time (time sequence and length) for the employee to complete a certain task; Difficulties related to understanding of tasks; The importance of certain tasks for the work results; Tools and equipment required for the completion of the task; Technical skills and knowledge necessary for the successful performance of tasks; O 9

10 Immediate obstacles; Criteria of work results; The most probable difficulties related to work results. 2 The final result of a task analysis is a job description. O Job Description A job description encompasses a more general description of the purpose, objectives, responsibilities and tasks that make the job content. The description contains the title of the job, its general purpose that summarizes why the job is needed and its significance for the organisation. In addition, the description contains the name of the organisational unit where the job is performed, the name of the person directly responsible for the execution, brief details on other key relations and connections (e.g. with the staff of other units or external subjects); brief description of main resources the civil servant is responsible for (financial, physical, personnel etc.); indications whether the incumbent performs the job autonomously or mainly as a member of a permanent group or he/she is required to switch between different groups for the sake of certain tasks. A job description also contains a detailed list of potential difficulties the incumbent might face as well as indications on the experience needed for the execution of the tasks (the latter is particularly significant for the formulation of training programmes 3 ). (see Svetlik, 1998a: ). An analyst will also pay attention to any other problems, being social or commercial, that might be related to the job. While analysing jobs and/or specific tasks, a question is frequently raised with regard to the extent and elaboration of tasks, skills and knowledge an analysis encompasses. Annet et al (1979, in Harrison, 1991: 150) suggest inclusion of chief tasks only which would provide for a clearer overview of the job components. The first step of a job analysis explains the nature of the job and, on the basis of the tasks and/or technology applied, enumerates the physical activities the incumbent is required to carry out. The said is the starting point for the subsequent phase a job description, which is a specification of tasks, behavioural models, responsibilities, their interrelations and relations deriving the work itself. It provides us fundamental information on the job, relations, overall purpose and main responsibilities and tasks of the civil servant (Armstrong, 1991: ; Rynes, 1997a: ). This step of an analysis is often titled as profiling (Pastuović, 1978: 92) as it includes a detailed analysis of chief job components, and particularly knowledge, skills 2 The information for a task analysis is possible to obtain by observing of the completion of tasks, interviews with employees and their superiors as well as from different working manuals and textbooks for training. The way suggested by Harrison, Pietri and Moore (1983, in Clardy, 1997: 74) is a combination of techniques of the nominal assembly of procedures of key events in a working group composed of approximately 10 employees. Those employees, as part of their professional qualification, establish key tasks of the performed work. The answers are received within the group and subsequently explained through the interview. Following this is the sorting procedure based on the importance of certain tasks and determination of ultimate priority sequence. 3 Job descriptions are very important as the starting point of a traninig needs analysis i.e. establishing demands related to knowledge, skills, abilities and other personal characteristics needed for succesfull performance of the activities that are the subject matter of the job analysis. Data gathering on job components is significant as each component affects the formulation of training programmes and choice of didactical methods and tools differently. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

11 ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS and abilites 4, and positions and relationships. 5 The profiling is closely related to the final phase of a job analysis Description of employees characteristics The third step of a job analysis is the production of a job specification i.e. a list of characteristics the incumbent must possess in order to do the job efficiently. Specification of characteristics is an analysis of motives and abilities, features and other characteristics an employee must have to successfully perform and satisfy personal needs (Svetlik, 1998a: 100). Such a specification is part of the job description, usually in its short form (Brannick and Levine, 1997: 192; Lipičnik and Mežnar, 1998: 67, 363). Whilst the first part of a job analysis is based on an objective description of activities and their key elements, the present phase may be designated as a subjective breaking up of data. That is why a job specification is a psychological analysis. 6 In the selection of employees characteristics the determination of those characteristics that an employee must have to successfully perform his or her tasks is particularly mentioned. In doing this, it is specially mentioned what an employee should or should not do, that is his or her potentials required for the performance of work in relation to the previously established standards (Svetlik, 1998a: 95). The description of employees characteristics requires information on his or her qualifications, experience, intellectual, physical and social qualifications, personal characteristics, interests, physical appearance, etc. that are required or necessary for the successful performance of work (Armstrong, 1991: ; Svetlik, 1998a: 97 98). 7 The description of employees characteristics, harmonised with the job description, explains the types and extent of employees attributes, experiences and potentials that an employee must have before taking a job, combined with those characteristics that he or she shall achieve or develop during the various forms of training (for example, probation or permanent training and development). 8 A precise and consistent identification of characteristics of an employee is the basis for the definition of deficiencies and desired results. Thus, they are the starting point for O 11 4 The English literature denotes employees characteristics that may be acquired as KSA: knowledge skills abilities/attitudes. There is a difference of opinions regarding the last characteristic attitudes since physiologists argue for the use of term attitudes (behaviour, opinions and directions) while the training programme planners prefer the notion of abilities (capability, capacity). 5 During work, it is often important that employees behave a certain way to be polite, to show a level of sensibility to clients, to be adaptable, to participate in groups, to show patience and to be calm in situations where they are exposed to pressure. Behaviour, especially in the field of mutual relationships, but not necessarily with every job may be of key importance for some jobs; thus, it must be taken into consideration in the job analysis. 6 In the English literature the description of employee s characteristics is mostly explained with the term job specification. Bearing in mind that the content of the job description in its entirety refers to a person s characteristics, as opposed to the job characteristics, some authors suggest the use of more appropriate term worker specification, person specification (Rynes, 1997a, 1997b) or personnel specification (Harrison, 1991, 1995; Reid and Barrington, 1996). 7 Harvey (1991, in Rynes, 1997b: 418) makes a difference between job specification based on knowledge and skills and description related to the opinions of individuals and other characteristics. A knowledge (scope of information used directly in the performance of a particular function) and skills (abilities necessary for the performance of learned activity and that can be observed) may be directly connected to working activities, while the relationships, positions and other characteristics (for example, characteristic decisions/actions) are theoretical concepts introduced in order to clarify certain behavioural causes that could be noticed and indirectly connected to the requirements of an individual job. 8 Employees characteristics are divided into basic (characteristics without which it is not possible to successfully perform a work), undesirable (characteristics that individual must not have in performing work) and desirable (characteristics that are not necessary but give to the employee certain advantages over others) (Fox, 1991, in Svetlik, 1998a, 95).

12 the preparation of a detailed list of qualifications. Namely, the description of characteristics overpasses the general description of a job that is to what it refers towards a more specific description, including the criteria and standards for grading an employee (Table 1.3). 9 Table 1.3: Examples of characteristics and attributes required for a high quality work of managers in state administration MANAGEMENT FACTOR IN STATE ADMINISTRATION SERVICES 1. Personality Organisation of work of subordinates, supervision and grading. Training and development of associates. Knowledge and skills of management and human resource management and especially selection, direction and career development. Counselling and negotiation. 2. Use of resources Knowledge of methods of projects/programmes management and planning/estimation of used resources. Planning of computer operations and knowledge in the field of computer data processing. 3. Finance Knowledge of financial procedures relevant for state administration, public procurement and financial disciplines; thus, accountancy techniques, economy, estimation of investments and the analysis of the efficiency investments. 4. Working with figures Ensuring numerical calculations. Inclusion and connection of statistical information. Knowledge of technique described and analytical statistics. 5. External environment - Counselling and negotiation with the representatives of foreign government, etc. Knowledge of foreign languages. 6. Local self-government Counselling and negotiation with the representative of local authorities. Knowledge of the system of local self government, procedures, financial and social studies. 7. Negotiation Counselling and negotiation with the representatives of local authorities, commerce, trade unions, etc. O Parliamentary - Providing advice to ministers, that is to the Government. Writing explanations, reports and answers to parliamentary questions. Knowledge of legislation on parliamentary procedures and laws. 9. General Counselling and negotiation with other managers in a state authority. Working as a member of different boards, committees, etc. Critical approach in writing comments about the written material. Writing explanations, instructions, reports, propositions, working plans, etc. Source: Dulewitz and Keenay, 1979, in Cook, 1996: Usability of the job analysis The analyses of the jobs may be used for different purposes, especially during the selection and human resources management. Those analyses have been used for some time now and human resources management cannot be imagined without them. The analyses of job positions are useful at every level of selection process and similar. We shall mention several examples of the typical use of these analyses: Preparation of selection tests evaluation and verification of the test content. The analyses of jobs enable those who manage the selection process to prepare selection tests with content which emphasises the abilities required for a job position; thus, the content of the test may legally be used without a previous verification and demonstration of validity. Writing of precise and understandable job description. This element facilitates the selection of right candidates and their discovery by recruitment agencies. 9 Personal specifications are often disputable due to the colloquial speech of the manager. The examples of specifications are the following: he or he must be older than 30 and younger than 45, must have experience and be trained in accordance with the management programmes, must be a member of..., must speak languages. Numerous English specifications include general formulations, such as: the candidate must be a role model, highly motivated, energetic, etc. This makes the impression as some employer actually wanted lazy, apathetic and unmotivated employees. The American job description is more focused on knowledge, skills, talent. The ideal type would be to have a job specification by defining the selection tests that will be used with the notice on the aim to be achieved. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

13 ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS Choice of selection tests The adequate analyses of job position determines the required knowledge, skills and capabilities. In this way it enables the choice of appropriate tests. Assistance to the person in charge of the selection interview A person that leads the interview knows precisely the elements of the job position and may draw his or her attention to the evaluation of the required level of knowledge, skills and capabilities, thus decreasing influence of his/her personal bias. Placement The positioning of new employees to new tasks for which they are the most suitable. This minimizes prospects of putting employees to job position they are not qualified for. Professional guidance The job position analysis identifies the job positions that are similar in relation to the performance of work and required characteristics; thus, if someone is interested in job X and it is not possible to offer him or her that job he or she may try working in the job position Y or Z. Transfer of selection tests The job positions can be classified in groups to which a unique selection procedure is applied. If the job positions are similar 1) the selection tests for job position A may be used for the job position B without differences in validity, 2) selection procedures in the organisation C may be used in the organisation D, without difference in validity. 10 Criterion of human resources development The preparation of a thorough analysis of a job position enables distinction to be made between good and bad employees, thus proving the quality of the selection. Training economisation The job position analysis can be used for determination of job positions that have group characteristics, and similar training demand which enables training economisation. Planning succession and promotion The job position analysis can be used in planning promotion. The promotion patterns of employees are determined on the basis of the analysis, and at the same time enables the alternation of those who were promoted or left the organisation (in case of retirement, death). Planning of assessment of qualifications. Job position analysis may be used for the determination of dimensions that will be assessed in grading the individual results Gathering information and selection of methods and techniques for the job analysis There are several methods and techniques for securing information on abilities, knowledge and relations that are entailed in the work and tasks as well as information on standards and working methods. The factors such as time, expenses, scope of the analytical field, availability of resources, target group and their qualifications influence the selection of standards and working tasks. The methods are usually divided into method of collecting information (for example, monitoring, individual and group discussions, questionnaires, agenda, etc) O In USA, due to the legal provisions on equal employment opportunities, the application of selection procedures without a previous verification of potential significant differences between the job positions is not permitted.

14 O 14 and methods of data analysis (for example, the function of work, the analysis of key events, the analysis of job requirements, etc.) (Torrington and Hall, 1987, in Svetlik, 1998a: 83). The job description and job specification are easy to prepare. The analysis of a job is more ambitious, detailed, and more useful in many ways. The methods of the job analysis are different by their complexity, expenses and efficiency; thus, certain methods are very simple, while others require in-depth knowledge of statistics (Leskovar, 2005). Which method is the most suitable shall depend on the type of information which needs to be processed, source of information, ways of collecting the information and ways in which the information is sorted and used. Certain authors (Harrison, 1991; Rummler, 1987) mention the following methods as the most useful and most adequate: job analysis, analysis of key events, job analysis skills, the analysis of basic skills, the analysis of competence and problem targeted analysis. Since majority of the techniques for the description of employees characteristics are similar to methods of job analysis they can be used for the analysis of working results. 11 The methods are divided into two groups: methods of professional grading (for example, observation, interviews with the most successful employees and their superiors) and methods of statistical analysis (establishment of a connection of employees success with certain characteristics (Dessler, 1988, in Svetlik, 1998a: 98). In the last twenty years numerous scheme analyses of job positions emerged. In general, the analyses of job positions are classified in accordance with their inclination to: Job position, Executors of work, and Facts. Techniques focused on the job position point at ways of performing a job for example, installation of cables for measuring pressures, identification of source of noise in the car engine. These are often the check lists supplemented by the executors. Techniques focused on the substance, content are more focused on what an employee must do to successfully perform his or her work for example, attention to details, the use of prescribed material. Techniques focused on the facts describe job positions through the description of required qualifications and their effects: good eye sight, verbal communication, manual skills it determines the physical and intellectual qualifications, thus the biographical factors. Regardless of the orientation of a particular technique, the majority are based on the observation and interviews (Table 1.4). 11 We can add, for example, the skills inventory as the part of the documention on an employee containing information on his or her charcaterisitcs, work achievements, education, training, pormotion, etc (Možina and others., 1994: 1049). HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

15 ESTABLISHING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS Table 1.4: Advantages and weaknesses of certain methods of job analysis METHOD ADVANTAGE WEAKNESS Observation Interview Critical incident technique direct insight into work enables in - depth understanding of working requirements and working conditions provides information on usual and unusual activities, on physical and intellectual work if the rapporteur is a person who performs the work, it is possible to get information on situations and elements that periodically occur the method is directly targeted to a manner of performing a work which secures information on job dynamics. it is possible to observe and measure the behaviour (for example the frequency of a certain occurrence); gathered information are useful for different purposes if it concerns the intellectual work, the observation offers relatively little information employee may be wary about the purpose of the interview and often hold back the information examiners may pose unclear questions the explanation of answers is subjective and depends on the skills of the examiners bearing in mind the aforementioned weaknesses the interview cannot be the only method for collecting information This method requires significant time for registration and data sorting. As the events refer to efficient and inefficient elements of working situations sometimes it is difficult to qualify the regular behaviour which is the main aim of the job analysis. Structured questionnaire This is usually the most rapid and most appreciated method Questionnaires may be filled outside working hours which does not influence work Enables the inclusion of large number of employees who perform same or similar tasks which enables the collection and comparison of numerical information The answers are usually quantified which enables the statistical processing. Formulation and development of quality questionnaires requires time and financial sources. As there is no direct interaction between the supplier of information and the analyst, it is not possible to get further clarification of questions and answers. Lack of direct relation ship between the suppler of information and the analyst may result in lack of motivation for cooperation. O 15

16 2. HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING O 16 A successful organisation needs adequate human resources. They can be provided by a careful planning. Human resources planning is undertaken together with the preparation of the business plan of the organisation and it is focused on the issues such as: how the business strategy is connected to human resources; what external and internal pressures and obstacles the organisation faces (for example, legislative amendments in the field of employment, pensions, the protection of employee s rights). The general position on human resources planning derives from its final objective, namely an efficient use of abilities of employees in accordance with their interests and interests of the organisation. In accordance with this, human resources planning can be defined as activities that, taking into consideration planning of business development, provide trained employees who are capable of meeting the requirements of the organisation and its environment. Thus, human resources planning refers to the supply of personnel, needs or human resources requirements and the satisfaction of those needs. Beside the influx of human resources in the organisation, their flow through the organisation and their departure from the organisation, planning also includes: prediction of human resources requirements direct supply of human resources programme planning which will provide experts with knowledge and abilities necessary for the achievement of the effective management within the organisation. The purpose of planning is provision of a specified number of persons with adequate skills and knowledge who will be at the disposal at some stage in the future (Stone, 1995: 91). In that respect, human resources planning determines what needs to be done in order to provide human resources that are necessary for the organisation to achieve its objectives. Human resources planning cannot be done in an isolated manner. However, it must be linked to the organisational objectives and all other organisational processes of the strategic planning. It is a frequent mistake that managers are focused on the achievement of short-term human resources needs and, at the same time, neglect the long-term organisational plans. This incomprehensive manner of planning is, in fact, restrictive, inefficient and leads to short-term or/and long-term crises that affect the overall success and efficiency of the organisation. During human resources planning, cooperation between the leading employees and human resources services is necessary to secure a pro-active character of human resources management. Responsibility to determine the human resources requirements, attract human resources and familiarise them with the environment are not only the tasks of the human resources service but are the most important responsibilities of the managing employees. Good human resources planning provides not only efficient and more successful use of human resources but also better off employees. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

17 HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING 2.1. Influence of the environment on human resources planning Ensuring the organisational environment is also an element of the overall human resources planning. For human resources planning the following factors are important above all others: the objectives, culture and human resources management within the organisation (Picture 2.1). Picture 2.1: Influence of the environment and the organisational objectives on the human resources planning cultural technological environmental legislative political EVALUATION OF THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES demographic social business economic ORGANISATIONAL ASPIRATIONS ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES STRATEGY O 17 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES What should be achieved? HUMAN RESOURCE MAN- AGEMENT EVALUATION Evaluation of the success in the achievement of objectives HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY How shall objectives be achieved? HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT RESULTS obligations powers cost effectivness adjustability ability ACTIVITIES OF MANAGING THE HUMAN RESOURCE TASKS supply development rewarding motivation provision deductions, notices

18 Trends and problems from the external environment that influence the management of the organisation and its human resources must also be taken into consideration during human resources planning. The legislation with which the employment requirements must comply, the objectives and the activities of the human resources services prescribes the types of requirements for professional activities linked to health and security, equal opportunities as well as other important circumstances (Ovsenik and Marinko, 1997). Similarly, the changes of the demographic structure condition the types of employees and their suitability to work, which in turn influence the equal employment opportunities in the organisation, as well as possible activities and objectives of the organisation related to personnel. Increase in numbers of female employees is, for example, dependent on the circumstances linked to child care, possibility of reducing work hours or part time work, stability of the job position due to maternity leave and parental duties. Human resources planning must reflect the predominant trends from the environment in which the organisation works and all the issues that refer to the human resources management; for example, the legislation referring to health and safety at work or equal employment and job opportunities. Similarly, demographical changes affect the type and availability of workforce and vice versa. O Strategy of human resources management planning The human resources planning covers organisational planning and objectives by which this planning is implemented. Commonly the human resources planning is still understood as labour planning. Anyhow, the concept of strategic human resources planning, which entails an active part of the strategic plans of the organisation, is increasingly prevalent. Prediction of human resources requirements is the basis for provision and inclusion of human resources planning in the plans of the organisation (Picture 2.2). Picture 2.2: The influence of business planning on human resources planning PROCESS OF BUSINESS PLANNING LONG-TERM STRATEGIC PLANNING Organisational vision Influence of external environment Advantages and disadvatages Organisational objectives MEDIUM-TERM OPERATIONAL PLANNING Planned programmes Required resources Organisational strategies Plans for extensions, changes of business ANNUAL BUSINESS AND FINANCIAL PLANS Finances Objectives of the organisational units and individual objectives Plan of job succession and division of work? Monitoring and control of achievement PROCESS OF HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING ANALYSIS OF SITUATION Business requirements Factors of external environment Internal resources PREDICTION OF HUMAN RESOURCE NEEDS Levels and fields of education of employees Organisation and formulation of business Availabiltiy of resources ACTION PLANS Attraction and selection of new staff Employment Reassignment and promotion TRaining and development Salaries and rewarding... HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

19 HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING Attraction of qualified staff which wants to cooperate in drafting of the business plans and strategies dealing with the boost and quality is a constant need of an organisation. These organisations specify their own basis for the supply of personnel. It is characteristic for them to provide human resources with the aim of constant recruitment and motivation of employees. The top mangers do not participate only in the definition of business plans but also in the human resources planning. The results of this cooperation are strategic initiatives in employment, selection, development, planning of individual abilities, determination of abilities of working groups, directing the employees and communication among employees. Despite demonstrated advantages of the harmonised business-development and human resources planning, in many organisations there is not adequate planning of human resources or it is not included in the overall strategic planning Model of human resources planning The first step in the human resources planning is the collection of information. The quality of prediction of human resources depends on the quality of gathered information. Two types of information are required for human resources planning: information from the external and internal environment (Picture 2.3). Picture 2.3: Model of human resources planning A. Information from external environment 1. Commerce economy general or specific organisation of the industry 2. Technology 3. Competition environment 4. Comparing the information about the best 5. Labour market 6. Demographics and social flows 7. Regulations at the state level COLLECTING INFORMATION B. Information from internal environment 1. Strategy 2. Business plans 3. Actual human resource needs 4. Level of fluctuation and mobility O19 II. PREDICTION OF HUMAN RESOURCE NEEDS A. Short-term and long-term B. Group and individual items III. PROGNOSIS OF HUMAN RESOURCE SUPPLY A. Internal sources B. External sources IV. PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF REQUIRED PROGRAMMES A. Increase or decrease human resource needs B. Change of needs for skills and knowledge C. Development of management of plans sequence D. Development of career plans V. FEED BACK INFORMATION OF THE PLANNING PROCESS A. Were the predictions realistic? B. Whether the programmes satisfied the needs?

20 O 20 The information from the external environment includes information on current conditions and planned changes in the field of commerce, specific sectors, contemporary technologies and competition. Each of these factors may influence business plans and human resources needs that is human resources adjustment. The external comparative information on the success of others may also be useful in human resources planning. On the basis of information we may conclude whether other organisations perform the same work with less staff; if so, such information would motivate us to establish more efficient production processes, namely methods of organisation of work. Experts dealing with the human resources planning must pay attention to indicators describing the state of affairs of the labour market, such as: the information on the employment rate, abilities, age structure, and gender structure. Planners must be very careful when it concerns state and local regulations, such as pension requirements and relevant taxes that all indirectly influence the efficiency of employees at certain levels. Regular systematic changes of the environment help the organisation to predict what will happen and to be prepared to predicted influences of the external environment. The internal environment is the next important source of information. It includes short-term and long-term plans and strategies. Usually, plans include and determine the influences and changes that will affect employment, such as the changes of organisational structures, expansions, changes or annulment of field of work, the prediction of the crisis in the market. A decision on increasing competitiveness by reducing the prices shall also reflect on human resources tasks. The information on the actual number of staff in an organisation is also necessary; such as the number of employees, review of job structure and their location, the professional qualifications of the human resources and the prognoses on possible retirements from the authority in the near future. When the planners collect necessary information on the internal and external environment they can prepare the prediction of human resources needs. The prediction should at least contain the number of required human resources for each job position for the period of one year. On the basis of this, the prediction on human resources needs may be done. Besides, the plans must establish which external human resources must be trained and enable them to be promoted as well as prediction on human resources that shall be found at the labour market. The last phase in human resources planning is the planning of the programmes according to which the human resources shall be provided. These programmes most often determine the modalities for human resources recruitment, training programmes of employees and cessation of early retirement, the change of directions in careers within the organisation. It is always necessary to respect the efforts and experience acquired in human resources procedures. If it is established that predictions and planning were not precise enough they will be modified and supplemented in the coming period Who is planning? The human resources planning is often initiated and performed through the human resources units. The information on human resources needs is collected within the actual organisational units and that is why the mangers of the units are included in the human resources processes. The top management is also included in the strategic human resources planning, often with the cooperation of external experts. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

21 HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING For whom is planned? The human resources planning may be performed in several ways depending on the level for which the planning is done. One of the possibilities is the planning for the aggregate level for certain tasks or group tasks. This planning is characteristic for tasks that require diverse abilities or for tasks at the level of the medium management. It is wise to plan positions that are problematic, that require highly specialised experts or positions that constantly require more staff. It is expected that an organisation shall not separately plan human resources that can be rapidly recruited as the needs arise, for example, the administrators. The systems of human resources planning based on the key job positions are also developed. Significance of those job positions lies in the fact that each job is important for the performance of the work, while other positions have an auxiliary role and they are not crucial for the future work and overall business success. A research shows that, contrary to what is expected, top managerial positions are not always the key positions but this is the case with, for example, job positions of accountancy experts. In addition to the aforementioned, large organisations still plan human resources at the individual level too. For certain services, especially for the top management, the organisation requires persons with specific characteristics and knowledge who will take over the job from certain employees when the time comes. The planning of this process generally pertains to one to three jobs in the organisation. The special programmes of additional training and timely acquisition of experience is planned for persons who are supposed to take over the aforementioned positions once they are fully trained What is planned? The detailed plans are generally prepared once a year. The supplements or adjustments are done on the basis of new information collected throughout the year or when needed. If the business of the organisation unexpectedly decline, the employment plans shall change. Occurring human resources problems or new strategic initiatives immediately cause problem of future planning. The planning process may be directed to different areas. For example, the organisations at the rudimental level of human resources development include their planning activities for the short-term with a special accent on the supply of new staff or the reduction of human resources needs. The organisations that are more experienced concerning the human resources planning, when facing complex needs, may draft medium-term plans for two or three years ahead. There is a human resources planning for more than three years ahead, for example, the plan for succession of the top positions is always a long-term plan Forecasting human resources needs The organisation must be capable of predicting its future human resources needs that is possible to satisfy. Three types of predictions are necessary for answering these issues: O 21

22 Prediction of needs, that is human resources needs; Prediction upon the satisfaction of needs for external resources; Prediction upon satisfaction of needs for internal resources (Picture 2.4). Picture 2.4: Human resources planning HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING HUMAN RESOURCE NEEDS HUMAN RESOURCE SUPPLY O 22 HUMAN RESOURCE REQUESTS number education qualifications working results experience HUMAN RESOURCE RECORDS number education qualifications working results experience POSSIBILITIES NONE NO FURTHER STEPS IN CASE OF SURPLUS Cessation of attracting and recruting new staff Reduction of temporarily employed persons Early retirement Reduction of number of employees or job cutting IN CASE OF SHORTAGE Over-time work Additional fixed-term employment Cessation of retirement New human resource supply Accelerated training and development HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

23 HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING Manners and methods of predicting the human resources needs A prediction is an attempt to forecast changes in human resources needs. Although certain prediction techniques have been developed (some of them will be presented further in the text), it is necessary to emphasise that human resources predication is not scientifically exact. Moreover, the use of prediction methods and techniques of human resources needs inevitably varies. However, we can underline two prevailing methods quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative method of human resources needs forecasting relies on statistical and mathematical data. It is frequently used by the theoreticians and experts for human resources planning in big organisations. The quantitative method processes employees as numerical figures and groups concerning gender, age, education, skills, qualifications, salaries (pay scales), the evaluation of the work performance and other possible forms of classification. It is targeted at prediction of human resources shortages and surpluses with the aim of balancing them with the organisational goals. The qualitative method of human resources planning is used for the future expert planning and it is targeted at the evaluation of work results and the possibility of promotion and career development. On the basis of gathered information from the external and internal sources in the environment, the human resources planners make plans on human resources needs. How many and what types of employees will be required for the achievement of the future plans of the organisation? Different methods for the determination of human resources needs lead to different presumptions. The majority of presumptions start from the fact that previous trends will not change and they will continue in the future. Thus, it is estimated that the level of productivity would be constant or always increasing in order to have an increased number of produced units determined in the business plans of the organisation. The human resources planning is performed on these bases, which rationally describe what will happen. However, one should emphasise that it is possible that those presumptions are not correct with very changeable jobs. Concerning the manner of human resources prediction, methods are divided in the two categories: Qualitative manner: the method of estimation (for example, planning from the bottom to the top 12 or vice versa 13, delfi techniques). 12 The prediction from the bottom to the top by units is the simplest assessment method. Each department or organisational unit estimates its own future needs for human resources. It would be ideal if the principals had prepared the guidance and information that they combined with their own views on the future needs in advance. Then, the data from all units are summed up and the result represents the needs of the entire organisation. The planners should carefully review individual demands before consolidating data for the entire organisation in order to notice natural tendencies on the side of the principals to maximise their figures. A method of planning by spreadsheets was developed during the eighties of the last century. The method provided the line managers with the accurate data on the actual number of the staff, the types of jobs subjected to their oversight, as well as posed queries on necessary changes of individual workloads and productivity and human resources requests in the next five years. The estimations were then reviewed by the immediately higher management level and furnished to a human resources planning group for consolidation and calculation of the organisation s demands. 13 The prediction from the top to the bottom is a judgement performed by experienced experts. Those experts meet and analyse the directions of the contemporary developments, business plans, state of affairs in commerce and other factors that influence the human resource needs at the different levels of the organisation. The experts may, on the basis of specified future needs, make special examples of the most probable and the least probable scenarios as well as to forecast the possibility of recession and losses in the market. After the comparison of these scenarios the experts may estimate whether the human resource needs could give positive or negative predictions. O 23

24 Quantitative manner: mathematically based methods (determination of relations between different levels of productivity or comparison of current and future employment, multiplication regression). The majority of organisations in practice use a combination of both methods. For example, the experts may determine certain variables and then use them in drafting equations. It is possible to consolidate the results of the mathematical methods with less measurable data in the final subjective prediction Labour market The labour market is the space where organisations find adequate human resources or they modify them in accordance with their needs. The labour market is an important factor which must be taken into consideration in the human resources planning. There is a distinction between the internal and the external labour market. The latter includes local, regional, state and international labour markets, while the internal refers to the staff available within the organisation Internal human resources supply O 24 In forecasting human resources needs it is necessary to determine how the organisation will secure the required employees. The internal human resources supply or the internal labour market includes all already employed persons. Those employees could satisfy needs by retaining their job positions or if they are promoted or reassigned to the other job positions within the organisation. The internal supply is constantly changing as the new personnel are employed, certain employees give notice, other retire, die or get fired. In this way the qualifications and knowledge of employees are constantly changing The manner of determining (predicting) the internal human resources supply The most adequate manner of determining (predicting) the internal human resources supply is the analysis of influx and departure of employees, specification of qualifications of employees and the analyses of taking over the jobs The specification of qualifications The most adequate method for the internal human resources supply is the skills inventory. The skills inventory is a data base a manually run or computer based system for the modification and recording the work experience, qualifications and special qualifications of employees which makes the definition of qualified persons for certain positions or duties possible. The information usually included in the inventory is the following: Personal data age, sex; qualifications education, work experience, training; HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

25 HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING special qualifications membership in professional associations, special achievements; salary the salary amount, the date of the salary increase, various rewarding, previous employment; individual abilities results of different testing, information on health. (Table 2.1). Table 2.1: The form for the specification of qualifications FORM FOR THE SPECIFICATION OF QUALIFICATIONS Name and surname of the employee Number of the employee PERFORMS TASKS Job/unit: Job description: Activities: accountancy tax calculation - supervision/analyses Date Number of the organisational unit WORKING EXPERIENCE According to years (from - to) Description of tasks: ; leader, calculation of taxes and contributions EDUCATION SPECIAL EDUCATION MEMBERSHIP Level Title Year: Education/course: year: Organisation/association: 1. Diploma, business secretary, CERTIFICATES LANGUAGE SKILLS SPECIAL QUALIFICATIONS Title Date.: 1. seminar on accountancy, 1985 Language: Signature of the employee Date Level of fluency: 1. Spanish - fluent 2. English - certificate accountancy auditing 1. Management theory, PREFERED LOCATION Beograd Human resource unit Date Association of Auditors HOBY Ham radio enthusiast O 25 The information on employees that planners of employment need is written down by using the standardised terminology which enables data processing and the comparison of received results. The information from the skills inventory may be used for the estimation of immediate needs for different types of human resources that may be recruited with special skills (knowledge of foreign languages, development tasks, etc.), human resources which want to work in particular job positions or with the need for a concrete training programme. The data processing enables the employer to determine which employee has greater level of probability to be promoted in the organisation. The skills inventory of employees or the data base on employees is a very useful instrument in the process of internal employment. This system must be very precisely administrated and it needs to be constantly updated. The renewal of the inventory is the most critical element. The questionnaire is the best method for gathering initial information. Each year, the employees receive questionnaires with the idea of updating human resources records. Certain additions may be done automatically such as the entry to official training programmes within the organisation.

26 This skills inventory of employees may have a disadvantage reflected in the fact that, due to the form of entered data or the data processing programmes, certain data that the organisation requires are not processed The analysis of job succession The most sophisticated instrument for the prognosis of possible internal reassignments and staff supply, which takes into consideration the dynamic of calculation, is called the analysis of job succession. This method is of primary importance for the technical, specialist and managerial staff. The matrix of changes enables the determination of how the human resources needs shall be satisfied by reassignment from lower hierarchical levels. These reassignments shape the additional needs and lead to the reassignment from the lowest job positions. The sources of data are the skills inventory of employees that are presented in the visual form which shows vacant job positions. O The selection of prediction method All prediction methods of human resources needs are not appropriate for each organisation or situation. Thus, those who deal with human resources planning in practice may use and choose methods appropriate to the specific organisation or to the answering of certain questions. We present certain factors that influence the selection of methods and techniques of human resources forecasting: Stability and safety. They are not secured if method applied relate more to the data from the past than to the information related to the changes of the environment in unpredictable manners. In this situation one is oriented with the assistance of the conscientious thinking. The use of different groups of presumptions and estimations is very appropriate. Usability of data. What are the precision and the complexity of data from the past in relation to number of employees, qualifications and their fluctuations? If the data are not authentic statistical data then can not be used. Number of employees. Certain statistical methods techniques, such as the Markov analysis, are the most precise when there is a grater number of employees. For smaller number of employees the methods of free estimation is more adequate. Usability of resources. How much time, information resources and expert work is necessary for the preparation of a prognosis? Time aspect. The methods of grading on the basis of thinking, that is experience, are adequate for the determination and deciding on long-term direction of development the statistical methods are the most precise in relation to the prognosis for short time periods. Validity and management. Will the top employees accept the planning process and respect the forecast? Sometimes the simpler methods are more authentic since they allow the inclusion of the influence of the top management to certain extent for example, in the technologically highly developed organisations the sophisticated modelling is accepted. It often happens that the management requires a more demanding method but practitioners prefer simpler methods that are sufficiently accurate. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

27 HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING Concerning the types and forms of methods selected for the prognosis of human resources needs, their practical values are demonstrated by the manner in which their results are used. A careful examination of the internal human resources supply and reports on reassignment permit planners to prepare for different situations. For example, the planners may determine that in a certain group within the service a greater number of civil servants shall retire. This is a warning that it is necessary to establish a wider programme of training in order to prepare replacements in these authorities. It is wiser to give precedence to the internal fluctuation of employees instead of new recruitment and in this manner predict the consequences; for example, the lack of work experience on the side of those who will be promoted and those who will replace them Human resources plans The basic human resources plans refer to: the planning of new recruitment, planning shortages and surplus, thus planning taking over of jobs. In general, those plans are supplemented by the development and improvement plans, career plans and others (plans for labour relations). The plans must be flexible and most often short-term since in the case of rapid changes it is difficult to make long-term prognoses. Beside the analysis of the results of required and actual employment situation the organisational strategy of human resources management should be taken into consideration during the plan drafting. O 27

28 3. PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES O 28 Provision of human resources is the principal activity of the human resources management. If an organisation wants to survive and develop it must constantly attract candidates who are trained and educated to successfully assist in the achievement of the organisational aims. Effective recruitment entails the discovery of potential candidates from the internal and the external environment of the organisation, attraction of their attention and the selection of the best candidates. Provision of human resources starts by determining the organisational demands, and ends by reception of the applications for the vacant job positions. Human resources supply is a two way process the organisation disperses the information to the potential candidates and they respond by informing the organisation about their intentions and requirements they meet. The human resources provision is an actual encounter of organisational and individual needs that has two main intentions: to assist the organisation in securing adequate human resources and, simultaneously, to assist the individuals to verify if they are meeting the job requirements, if they are interested in the job position at all, and if they want to join the organisation that offers the job (Picture 3.1). The manner of providing the human resources is determined by human resources planning and the position of the organisation towards the human resources in general. In order to have a successful supply all the tasks, namely job positions and appointed positions in the organisation, must be clearly determined. That is why it is important to make an analysis of the tasks of the most typical and most frequent job positions. The job analysis determines the job description which includes the main tasks responsibilities, supervision procedure, work conditions, tools and working means and the employees characteristics (qualifications skills, knowledge, personal attributes, etc) Strategic questions and formulation of the organisational provision of new human resources strategy The manner in which an organisation secures new human resources may be compared with the organisational strategy and values, as well as other important factors, such as the internal labour market and the capacity of the organisation to, by the salary level or in some other way, motivate the new candidates to join the organisation. We shall consider different factors that may be important in attracting new human resources, the manner in which the supply may be based on the philosophy of the organisation, as well as its values, and the employment policy including critical examples of the external and internal employment and how innovative human resources management contributes to the establishment of competitive advantages in emergence of interests of job seekers. (Picture 3.1) Objectives of human resources provision A good employment programme must satisfy several, often contradictory, objectives. The greatest attention is often focused on the attraction of as many candidates as HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

29 PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES Picture 3.1: Model of human resources planning with the focus on the provision of human resources ORGANISATIONÊS STRATEGY Human resource planning Number and type of vacant job positions Objectives and advantages of attracting HR Attract as many job seekers as possible Attract highly qualified job seekers Attract job seekers that accept the offer Satisfy the HR need as soon as possible Fill the vacant job positions with minimal costs Find people who will stay in the organisation Establish a positive atmosphere and mutual relations among employees Philosophy of new human resource provision Internal and extranal sources Fill the vacancies or hire people interested in career Directing or differences Labour approach to a candidate Ethics in providing new HR Possibility of new HR provision and relationship until the employment planning timely performance of job tasks methods sources O 29 possible. However, the increased number of candidates raises the employment costs. Attraction of interested persons should secure a greater number of qualified persons who are ready to get involved and accept the job offer. At the same time, it is necessary to determine a task which entails the transformation of candidates, after their employment, into capable employees who will stay in the organisation for a longer period. Improving the positive image of the organisation in public is an additional task and aim of providing new human resources. If the employment activities are well performed even the rejected candidates may contribute to the positive image of the organisation. All prescribed objectives and tasks must be achieved in the shortest time period with minimal expenses. Reaching the balance between the aforementioned variables and the potentially contrary objectives is possible to achieve with the assistance of the general strategy of the organisation and by respecting its objectives. Priority of tasks and objectives in the organisation may be determined on the basis of the predominant philosophy, namely the relationship towards the human resources provision Philosophy of human resources provision The philosophy as a science on wisdom and decisions linked thereto also reflected in the field of employment, above all through the ethical perception on the proce-

30 O 30 dural implementation and channelled mutual cooperation between those included in the employment process. The ethical perception on employment is based, primarily, on harmonisation of the mutual interest of the candidates and employers. Their mutual trust is dependent on adequate, clear and fair criteria of giving precedence to certain candidates in cases when there are several candidates interested in the same job. During the overall procedure it is necessary to respect confidentiality of the personal data and reduce possible hurting of feelings which might occur. This approach is materially valued in the light of a polite and respectful management of the organisation, thus predictable towards those who are included in its activities. The decision on whether the human resources are provided through the promotion system within the organisation itself or they are hired from the external environment for filling positions at all levels is the key initial point of philosophy of procedures for the new human resources provision. Certain organisations put great efforts in the development; shaping and socialisation of the top management within the organisation from the bottom to the top, while other prefer hiring potential talents for management from the external labour market. Another approach in the human resources provision depends on the purpose of the employment whether an organisation seeks people with already developed qualifications required for the managerial positions or it tries to get a certain type of talented candidates who may represent the future management structure interested. A short-term focus may be good for a quick satisfaction of needs but in that way the long-term perspective is ignored; this long-term perspective does not tolerate deviations from the request of constant searching for right candidates only that will be able to offer a long-term contribution and stimulate improvements of the business. The third direction of the philosophy of human resources provision includes predominant decisiveness of supply of different levels of employees and in that case the employment practice (external and internal) actively encourages the cooperation between all types of people. The fourth direction of the philosophy of the human resources provision treats job candidates as clients. Organisations that apply the market orientation show significant respect to their clients, and use time and money to decide which clients that is candidates they want for the job. Thus they give special importance to their employment practice and policy which may vary depending on the different segments of the labour market. The fifth direction of the employment philosophy ignores the ethical principles in the sense of their transparency and fair character of the employment Activities connected to the provision of new human resources An efficient support to the provision of new human resources is another responsibility of the manager of the human resources service. This support includes: Determination and classification of long-term and short-term human resources needs; Constant and careful monitoring of changes in the labour market; HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

31 PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES Development of adequate materials on human resources needs for advertisements (marketing activities) in attracting new employees; Keeping records of adequate interested persons and their qualifications from different sources; Monitoring human resources utilization and evaluation of the effectiveness of efforts for the provision of personnel. Securing new personnel is a form of competition whereby the organisations compete in searching and attracting attention and subsequent employment of qualified human resources. Presented conditions of the job offers, according to which the candidates make their choice, are an indicator of competitiveness of human resources operations of the organisation seeking new employees. Importance of the employment process also influences the general perception of the employment agency and its capacity to attract the attention of qualified persons. Two requirements are often present promotion of the organisation and the presentation of offered tasks in the most adequate way. Thus, the person in charge of employment must prevent the use of incorrect and imprecise data which may provoke the mutual dissatisfaction and refusal (Table 3.1). Table 3.1: Consequences of different manners of job presentation UNREALISTIC APPROACH REALISTIC APPROACH Initial expectations in relation to job are excessive Job usually looks very attractive Initial job expectations are realistic A job may be attractive or unattractive depending on oneês needs O 31 High percentage of job acceptance Certain people accept the job, others refuse Working experiences do not fulfil the expectations Dissatisfaction and the estimation that the job does not fulfil the employeesê needs Small number of employees remain in the job position, notices and change of jobs are frequent Working experiences overall match with the expectations Pleasure, the job fulfils the employeesê needs Most of employees remain in their job positions, pleasant working atmosphere, small fluctuation of employees 3.3. Provision of human resources from the internal sources If there is a need for human resources, reassignments within the organisation will be the primary source. Large organisations have an employment policy which entails the internal reassignment and promotion. Certain studies demonstrated that 76% of organisations employ the majority of supervisory and management personnel through internal promotion. This information is not generally confirmed. Although everything shows that internal employment is less expensive, it raises morale and reduces the need for further training. However, the organisations also turn to external employment in order to engage fresh, new talents. Regardless of this, the internal

32 O 32 employment offers great advantages due to detailed knowledge on employees which enables better prediction of the extent of successful employment than the estimation made on the basis of information available in case of an external influx of candidates. The decision-making on whether the human resources needs will be satisfied from the internal or external sources is one of the first tasks in human resources planning. Sometimes it is not necessary to make this decision since employment at the initial entry is, by rule, done from external sources. On the other hand, for the job positions that involve the formulation of the organisation s policies it is usually firstly verified if the employment is possible from within the organisation. Most organisations use a combination of internal and external sources the promotion of employees within the organisation which falls within the internal employment and it is only possible when there is a sufficient number of existing employees. Employment from the outside is relevant when the organisation is growing quickly and has a need for new types of qualified employees. Both types of sources have advantages and disadvantages (Picture 3.2): Advantages of the internal human resources provision - Internal employment is used when it is necessary to have, in a specific job position, a person whose abilities are already known. Monitoring of an employee in a current job position enables reduction of the risk of wrong assessment of his or her abilities for the new job. From the comparative point of view, this makes the estimation of a candidate more reliable in comparison to the external candidates or relying on instruments such as recommendations or subjective reports from initial interviews. The internal promotion of employees also motivates other employees. Trained and ambitious employees reluctantly leave the organisation but willingly join the activities leading to promotion. The internal employment reduces the training needs and time needed for socialisation within the working group since the employees already know the organisation and its structure, procedures, culture, etc. In case of internal employment, the employment process is shorter and less expensive than external employment. At times when the reduction of the number of employees is inevitable, internal employment increases the security of jobs of the employees. Disadvantages of internal employment In a fast-growing organisation, the internal human resources supply is often limited and may lead to certain individuals getting promoted, although they are not well prepared or they are not let to fully master the job in order to perform it in a quality manner. At the same time, there are problems with filling positions that are left vacant as the result of the promotion of their previous holders. Chain reactions provoked by a promotion are also possible. For example, 195 initial requests for employees may reach 545 requests for filling the vacant job positions if internal employment is fully relied on. The weakness of internal employment may also reflect in the complex organisational procedures. It may come to bureaucratic nightmares due to required forms, waiting time for promotion, specification of required conditions and needs for getting consent of the candidates superior and others. The rejected candidates may be unsatisfied which might require the management to intervene. Particular weakness of the internal employment of the top management emerges if that becomes a permanent practice as it can may decrease adaptability of the organisation to HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

33 PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES constant changes of the environment since all managers are brought up at home. Finally, the achievement of the action objectives is possible only with aggressive external employment. Picture 3.2: Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of the internal and external human resources provision PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES INTERNAL SOURCES Advantages: the organisation is better acquainted with the candidatesê advantages and disadvantages candidates already know the organisation morale and motivation of employees is raised the organisation gets a return on its investments by training and developing its HR the organisation may design the policy of succession and promotion the organisation has a need to recruit human resources from external sources only at the initial levels of employment Disadvantages: employees get promoted, reach required qualifications in a shorter period of time a battle for promotion between the employees may reflect on the morale of employees internal reassignment suffocates creativity and innovation a system may be bureaucratised the quality programmes of human resource training and development are required Despites noticed flaws, in practice, whenever possible the organisations mainly satisfy their human resources needs from the internal sources Internal employment for job positions at the lower levels Smaller organisations have their own IT systems for searching for the employees suitable for promotion. When there is a vacant position, the human resources specialists in charge of provisions of human resources scan lists of proposed candidates or interview the managers of the internal organisational units who propose appropriately qualified employees. Frequent weaknesses of that system are the following: Adequate candidates are often omitted; There is nepotism; Qualified candidates are kept in the organisational units, while less qualified ones are proposed for promotion. A more systematic method uses the table of qualifications of all adequate candidates. In that case the human resources service looks through the list of employees and determines possible candidates. Subsequently, the multiple level decision-making procedures follow in which it is decided on the candidates who are most suitable for the job position. Multiple levels of an internal employment are presented in the following scheme (Picture 3.3). The most adequate way of internal employment is the internal competition which entails informing on and the offer of vacant job positions. Candidates apply if they estimate that the offer is acceptable. The human resources services inform the employees about the opening of the job positions through bulletin boards (intranet) or advertisements in the organisation s magazine. The information on the offer of the new job positions contains the job description, location, salary and required qualifications and the call to the employees to apply. The initiator of employment, often the manager of the organisational unit in which there is a vacant position, and the representative of the human resources service assess the candidates and perform the first selection. The rejected candidate is sent a notice which must persuade him or her that recruitment was transparent. The con- O 33

34 tent of the information must enable the rejected candidates to understand the reasons of refusal and also to give them the information on how they can improve their chances for the successful application at the next competition. Picture 3.3: An example of the multi-level process of internal employment PROPOSAL FOR EMPLOYMENT FROM THE INTERNAL SOURCES HR UNIT EXAMINES THE CANDIDATES' DATA Unsatisfactory candidates Satisfactory candidates An interview is not possible PERMISSION FOR INTERVIEW The interview is performed A candidate is not accepted Human resource units prepare the employment proposal A candidate is accepted The report of the HR unit A candidate quits HR unit discusses possibilities together with the candidate HR unit documents the employment of the new candidate A candidate accepts O 34 An interview about the new job position HR unit enter candidatesê data in HR records Reports and records of the HR unit Ruling on the appointment of a candidate to the new job position Refused candidates Human resource records Human resource units Accepted candidates In organisations where there are trade unions, the bases of the competition and informing on the vacant job positions are harmonised with the collective bargaining contract. The following two positions are most frequent. The first position determines that the employing authority must choose the most experienced candidate (according to the year of experience) which satisfies the requested qualitative conditions. The second position emphasises that it is necessary to employ the most qualified candidate. If two or more candidates are equally qualified the one with more work experience is employed, usually the older one. In smaller organisations the most capable criteria is always the most important while others are taken into consideration after the first one Employment in particularly demanding positions The process of information and job offering is very rarely used when there is a search for candidates for highly specialised expert work or managing duties by the method of internal employment. In such cases the organisation, by rule, does not use this method of employ- HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

35 PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES ment for the top management positions but tries to find the most suitable candidates for those positions by forming special selection panels composed of senior managers whose task is to verify the fulfilment of required conditions and to choose the most suitable candidate Provision of human resources from the external environment of the organisation Different methods are used for attracting the attention of external candidates. The most preferred ones are the following: advertisement and the use of data of an employment agency, an employment adviser, and professional organisations as well as the browsing of already employed in the organisation. Unless otherwise is prescribed by the legislation, the manager of the human resources unit decides on the manner that will be applied. The decision shall depend on which method is the most successful in the determination of the targeted group at the labour market. When the unemployment rate is very high, the interest and the demands of the applicants is higher and of a better quality than in cases of limited labour market. In practice, when it concerns the full time employment the human resources units apply several different methods simultaneously with the aim of acquiring a smaller number of candidates who will be best qualified Advantages and disadvantages of external employment The external employment may introduce new ideas and views in the organisation and, at the same time, it is possible to achieve potential savings in the expensive training of personnel. If the new employees are already experienced staff the scope of training may be reduced or their knowledge used for the instant takeover of concrete responsibilities. Besides, there are areas of work within the organisation where the new external approach is welcomed, especially at the level of the higher management. So that, someone from the external environment who is not closely affiliated with the employees and existing projects, is reasonable objective and does not have prejudices, can significantly contribute to changes and formulating a new vision of the organisation. One of the weaknesses of the external employment is the expenses since the external labour market is much broader and this hinders the achievement of determined tasks unlike the internal employment. Thus, the search for new employees takes a much longer time and is more expensive. In recruiting persons from outside we employ a candidate for whom we may subsequently see that he or she does not have abilities he or she presented in the selection process. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind that extensive external employment de-motivates the existing personnel who has less possibility to be promoted within the organisation. O Employment methods The methods of external employment are usually divided into informal and formal methods of employment. In comparison to the formal methods, the informal methods usually cover the smaller part of the labour market. The informal methods

36 entail reemployment of former employees or former students with whom cooperation during the studies was established, the employment of those that are recommended by the employees or those who applied earlier for the job. The formal method is used to get in touch with a greater number of persons that were not previously affiliated with the organisation. The recommendations of employees, known as the communication word of mouth are also efficient, fast and cheap. The employees who recommend their friends or acquaintances demonstrate their own credibility by recommending people who are qualified, motivated and work under their guidance once they are employed. Certain organisations often stimulate their employees by giving rewards upon recommendation of good candidates. Rewards usually relate to the experience of both, recommending and recommended staff members. A significant weakness of this method is that it might reduce the possibility of achieving expected business objectives. If personnel of the organisation are too old, then the recommendation for the employment will mainly refer to older acquaintances of the employees. The solution for the organisation is to combine those informal methods with the formal ones in order to achieve a diversified structure of employees. The word of mouth method is also not appropriate in a case of an overall growth of the business since, by rule, it does not guarantee an expeditious achievement of the required human resources quality. O Formal employment methods Formal methods for employment from the external environment of the organisation do not include candidates who are in touch with the organisation. These methods entail the advertisement in journals, use of employment agencies and frequently a direct search for potential candidates in schools and universities (Table 3.2). Table 3.2: Frequency of employment methods in USA Recommendations of employees Clerk Production Sales Technical expert Management Advertisement in magazines Radio and TV advertisement Advertisement through prospects brochures and leaflets Agencies/employment services Employment agency Recruitment Agencies for (free paid by the employer) 44 (31) 11 (5) 63 (49) 71 (48) High schools/universities Professional associations Searching for candidates for a job position Trade union (65) Source: Co ok, 1996: 14. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

37 PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES The job advertisement increases the candidate s interest that, after collecting the required documents, sends the job application. On the basis of recommendations the candidates are divided into two categories those who have satisfactory references and those who are eliminated from the employment procedure. Candidates included in the list of remaining candidates are called for the interview which serves for the filling of vacant job position. There are differences among organisations depending on the labour provisions but the main objective is always the same: to attract more people for a job position and subsequently select candidates in different selection phases until the required number of possible candidates is reached. The job advertisement in a newspaper is the most common formal method of advertisement. The aim of the advertisement is to reach as many candidates as possible and to make them interested in a job in the organisation. The additions to the advertisement broaden the potential job auditorium. 14 It is established that among those who seek additional clarifications in relation to the advertisement only 10 to 20% of readers are actual job seekers, while 70 to 75% are happily employed but are stimulated to think about the offers in the labour market. Well created and shaped advertisements may also motivate them to change their jobs. The remaining attention attracted by the advertisement belongs to parties and business partners of the organisations and other interested persons. It is not unimportant that these advertisements attract attention of those already employed in the organisation. Studies demonstrate that if an organisation stops with its regular human resources campaigning there may be fear among the employees and rumours about lay-offs. Thus, a well designed advertisement raises confidence of the employees in the organisation. The main demand of the employment process is the achievement of an appropriate response of candidates who satisfy the minimal conditions for the offered job. A good advertisement may inform candidates about the information needed for the preparation of the job application. Securing an adequate response of qualified candidates must be based on the advertisement that contains sufficient information about the job, qualifications, location and salary. This will prevent the job applications of unqualified and uninterested individuals. At the same time, the qualified candidates must be attracted by creating a good image of the organisation by emphasising the advantages of certain service. In order to achieve these objectives, the advertisement must not misrepresent the job and encourage unrealistic expectations of candidates but is it advisable to describe in detail the real advantages of the offered service. 15 O The majority of organisations are advertised at the local and national levels. Job applicants are informed about the job description, salary, employment requirements and organisation. Large organisations still use the employment methods from the time of full employment and lack of staff; thus in advertisement they present everything in a rosy light since they fear an inadequate number of responses. For this purpose (especially in the civil service) some other methods are used such as realistic films with the preliminary job description, brochures, job tours to show candidates the job position (during the tours job positions are presented as well as the most desirable characteristic that a candidate for that job position should have fast response, supervision, routine). Well written text of the advertisement and job description will prevent an inappropriate candidate from applying. 15 A hidden advertisement is also one of the forms of advertisement in which the organisation the employer - is not revealed; only the job is identified. The potential candidates send their application to a postal address. This type of advertisement is more appropriate for commercial organisations and is used by those entities that do not want their competitors to learn that the organisation is preparing for the expansion of production or when the organisation does not want its personnel to know about the planned personnel changes or when the reputation of an employer is weak for any reason. The hidden advertisement has a very low rate of response and they are only used when there is a very good reason for that.

38 Candidates are by large chosen on the basis of the recommendation of employees which is again cheaper. Besides, what makes this type of employment cheaper is the fact that candidates identified by persons already employed stay longer in the organisation since they are better informed about the work and actual job position. It must be very careful with this type of employment since it carries the danger of manipulation and informal staff management. Negative selection may be the result of the massive employment of this type. Working by the internet is quickly spreading as a very modern method. It is a good way for finding qualified candidates that possess good IT and technical skills. This is the cheapest way of providing candidates from all over the world. More and more organisations are persuaded that this is the best way for finding candidates. Besides, the Internet is not useful only for job seekers but also for the organisations looking for candidates since it permits the mutual exchange of information. O Successfulness of employment and differing quality of human resources When a greater number of different sources and methods of employment is applied it would be wise that the human resources unit assesses each of them separately. In this way it is established whether certain methods are better than others or their efficiency is the result of different circumstances. The most appropriate criterion of evaluation of sources and employment methods is the level of overall expenses of employment, the price per each newly employed person, applied number of procedures, estimation of the number of reused candidates and the estimation of the job performance and the abilities of newly employed persons. A research on the quality of different employment sources offers very interesting conclusions. Certain experts argue that the best employment is through the internal sources and by informal employment methods, for example, through the databases and contacts that enable reliability in regard to the estimation of candidates abilities. It derives that only the least wanted jobs and least desired candidates for a job are left to formal methods such as advertisement in newspapers or the mediation of an employment agency. Those arguments may be confirmed by studies that support the idea on informal methods. Their result shows that the best candidates are found through the internal human resources of the organisation. Certain studies indicate that candidates recommended by employees are employed for a second time (if they were already at some stage in the company) and also stay longer in a company than those candidates who are found through employment agencies or advertisement (Cook, 1996: ). On the basis of differences in quality of human resources methods, it is possible to, during the employment process, take into account two facts that are confirmed by studies. The first fact relies on the research which argues that candidates are attracted through informal processes of employment, especially through the employment of old employees or through recommendations of the organisation employees. These circumstances enable the employer and candidate to openly negotiate job conditions and salaries since this is already a well-known fact for the candidate. This enables a longer period of remaining in the job position after the recruitment. Another fact entails that those methods concern the different types of persons in relation to HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

39 PROVISION OF NEW HUMAN RESOURCES their abilities, motivations and experiences. Namely, the advertisement in newspapers is at the disposal of everyone. However, not all candidates have the possibility and ability to get acquainted with the employer and estimate the reality of his or her offer, that is their expectations. Besides, studies show that more experienced and qualified job applicants more willingly use informal connections that offer most information on the organisation and job, while younger candidates with less experience used magazines and seek assistance of employment agencies. It is recommended that each organisation examine by itself the quality of ways of providing human resources for each individual job position since the adequacy of methods and procedures depends on very specific circumstances. On the basis of their findings, the organisation shall decide if it will apply certain employment sources only periodically or it will not use them at all. O 39

40 4. HUMAN RESOURCES SELECTION The engagement and the preservation of the key personnel of the organisation is one of the problems of the contemporary corporate entities. Social, political and commercial changes, the adoption of the new technologies, the reorganisation, the adoption of new legislation, the pressure to raise the quality of doing business are indicators that an organisation cannot afford a weak selection of human resources. The success and the efficiency of the organisation depend on the quality of human resources which focuses on the necessity of determination of the organisational strategy of human resources selection Purpose, objectives and the advantages of the selection process O 40 The selection process is the actual grading of candidates in regard to the offered job position which follows after the phase of human resources planning and catching their attention. The purpose of the selection is to identify and select those candidates who will be employed. It is expected that the selected candidates shall have better qualifications than the rejected ones. Thus, the manner and method of selection must be chosen and applied in an adequate way to guarantee the valid grades of all candidates. The process of employment and selection are the most traditional and most static organisational processes due to the fact that they have not changed for many decades. The established needs, personal interviews and the examination of recommendations were and still are the universal instruments in most organisations. The interview, as the selection instrument, is also very common. The aforementioned methods are dominant selection methods both in the public and private sector, economy and the tertiary sector despite the understanding of their inadequacy and weak diagnostic values. Organisations must make an effort to improve the employment process and procedures related to promotion on the basis of quality, fairness and the respect of the adequate factors that determine the needs of the special job positions. A great number of factors influence the subjective factor. An ad hoc selection is usually connected to an increase in costs and a weak selection is induced through the raising of qualification training needs, great fluctuation of labour, leaves, dissatisfaction with the job position and weakly performed job tasks. The selection of human resources is a process of measuring, decision-making and evaluation (Picture 4.1) whose aim is the attraction of those individuals that will satisfactorily perform the task of the job position for the needs of the organisation. Picture 4.1: Process of measurement, decision-making and evaluation in HR selection MESUREMENT Performance of verified and valid tests DECISION-MAKING The use of combined information on persons who will be employed EVALUATION Determination if the decision on employment will influence the increase of business efficiency and the success of the organisation HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

41 HUMAN RESOURCES SELECTION For the establishment of a precise and just selection system, the organisation must use comparative and valid assessment of the candidate s characteristics. A good selection system may include a combination of information on attributes of a candidate and rational manner of decision-making on the employment or rejection of candidates. This system makes encouraging impact on the overall efficiency of the organisation Relationship between the business strategy and the organisational culture with the strategy of human resources selection An organisation which wants to achieve full objectivity of employment may decide to adjust the selection process to the business strategy of the organisation. The determination of selection objectives is the basis of a good organisational strategy. The management of the organisation must consider the required factors that should be included in the development of the selection strategy. The following should be emphasised: Request for equal opportunities for example: the positions of the organisation in regard to employment, women, minorities, homosexuals, and other groups (disabled, etc.) Quality of people - for example: whether the organisation really wants and tries to employ the best graduates coming from the best domestic and foreign schools and universities? Human resources for example: Whether the organisation accepts only internal promotion or uses a combination of internal promotion and employment from external sources or it solely relies on employment from external sources? The role of the organisational units / services and employment experts for example: Who decides about employment in the organisation? What is the role of the human resources unit in providing the new human resources and their selection? Application of the selection techniques - for example: Are the psychological tests used? Is there a grading centre which also undertakes selection? Do the candidates undergo a medical test and possible additional psychological tests? Counsellors - for example: Whether the employment agencies, external counsellors for the employment were hired in the employment process? If yes, what were their tasks? Taking the opinion of the employees into account - for example: Whether the opinions and recommendations of the trade unions in relation to employment are observed in the organisation? Real situation of the organisation for example: Whether the organisation performs selection in accordance with its needs or the status of the organisation? Legislation What are the limitations and requests prescribed by the employment legislation? O 41

42 It is important for the management of the organisation to confirm the selection process. The selection is mostly based on a systematic collection of information due to which the whole process must be designed to enable the transfer of a greater amount of information on employment which would increase the probability of choosing the right person for the actual job position Phases in the process of human resources selection O 42 The selection process differs significantly from organisation to organisation. The size of the organisation, its activity, the geographical location, the conditions in the labour market and the type of ownership (public / private; commercial / non-commercial) influence the type, the schedule and the number of phases in the selection process. The most frequent steps in the selection process are the following: 1. reception of candidates 2. introductory interview 3. gathering of basic data 4. tests 5. interviews 6. examination of candidate s history 7. previous selection by human resources unit 8. final choice by the manager 9. medical test 10. reporting to job Reception of candidates It is important that candidates get a good impression of the organisation since it is very difficult to change that impression in a later stage. An Improper conduct or the lack of interest by the representative of the organisation in the time of reception may discourage good candidates and shape negative opinions of the organisation, including its products and services Introductory interview Initial assessment, that is the interview, may be used for the rapid test of oral skills, qualifications, interest in the particular job. The pre-screening interview is a typical means targeted at the very specific needs of the job position. The interview may prove to be a crucial and more efficient means than all other steps in the selection process. A negative feeling during the interview, which includes an inadequate communication with the candidate, is not possible to change later on Gathering the basic data Basic data is the main source of information on the employment that is used in the subsequent phases of selection. They are also a tool for detecting unqualified candidates such as in cases when the job position requires special qualifications and candidates do to have them (in such a case there will not be any need to continue the HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

43 HUMAN RESOURCES SELECTION selection process). The personal data and CVs are the best indicators although they are often used in a very subjective manner Weighed basic data Although they were created to minimize subjectivity of the interviewers, it still happens that the interviewers inconspicuously put more weight on the facts they deem more important. Thus, a small number of organisations use the weighing of basic data. The development of weighed gathered basic data includes the determination of relationship between the form of the data and the required criteria of ability for a job position, such as: productivity, performance of tasks, special work experience, and other data that affect the raise of a grade. It is assumed that the candidates with the highest number of weighed points are the best candidates. The effect of the weighed data is a good reference for future results in the job position. Although certain weighed data may have a good indicative value for a certain job position, that might not be the case for another job position (Table 4.1). Table 4.1: An example of the cumulative list of basic data on job candidates Used data: Surname: CUMULATIVE LIST OF BASIC DATA constant temporary periodically randomly Name: Address Street: Place: Postal code: Telephone number Fax number Educational qualifications: (please enter: expert, technical and third level qualifications or / and abilities acquired by special training) O 43 Previous employment: (please enter: previous employment, title of the job positions and dates (from to) Recommendations: (please enter at least three reference names and their telephone numbers) Other information: (please enter any other information which you consider that may support your application) Warning: the medical examination may be required in certain phases of the selection procedure the interviewer will inform the candidate about this. Although the weighed data are developed on the basis of correlation of statistical connections between the data and abilities for the performance of job, they may contravene the principle of equal possibilities for all. The provision of data such as the age, nationality, race, sex, religion is contrary to the national and most foreign employment legislation (with the occasional exceptions in terms of nationality). These data must be eliminated from the weighed data Form of data in accordance with the request of equal opportunities for all The results in connection with the equal possibilities of employment indicate that the data and questionnaires for interviews on a job are of a discriminatory nature in relation to certain groups of candidates since they require data and impose questions

44 that are not in connection with the job requirements. Accordingly, there are certain prohibitions on using traditional questions on the following matters (Table 4.2): Marital status The ban refers to civil status, family planning and other circumstances that may not be asked and that cannot be the subject matter of a research. It is allowed to ask if the candidate is ready to move or travel, to work on weekends or to work overtime and under what conditions; Trade unions, organisations, political parties It is not allowed to ask questions on the membership to clubs and organisation except for the professional organisations and if those questions are connected to the job positions a candidate applies for; Photographs Photographs are not recommended except if the job position includes posing, dance, etc. The photographs should be used only for identification and upon previous warning on the manner of their use; Physical characteristics It is not allowed to ask questions concerning certain physical characteristics of a candidate, except if this is directly essential for work; Relatives Candidates must not be asked questions on relatives, their names... The names and address of contact persons in case of emergency may be taken upon the completion of the selection. O 44 Table 4.2: Provisions of the Labour Law which prohibit discrimination Labour Relations Act (Official Journal of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 42/2002) in its Article 6 explicitly prohibits discrimination that is: (1) An employer must not put a job applicant or an employee (during employment or in relation to the termination of employment) in an unequal position on the grounds of sex, race, colour, age, health condition or disability, religious, political and other belief, membership to a trade union, national or trade union origin, family status, property status, sexual orientation or any other circumstances. (2) Men and women must be guaranteed equal opportunities in relation to employment, promotion, and training, granting leaves, employment relations and termination of employment contract. (3) Both direct and indirect discrimination is forbidden on the grounds of sex, race, age, health condition, disability, religious and other beliefs, sexual orientation and national origin. Indirect discrimination exists if there are seemingly neutral provisions, but criteria and practice entail that persons of certain sex, race, age, health condition or with disability, religious or other belief, sexual orientation or national origin are in a worse position, except if those provisions, criteria and practice are objectively justified, of corresponding nature and needed. (5) In case of a violation of the discrimination clause the employer shall be financially liable to the candidate in accordance with the general principles of civil law. A candidate is not directly asked about committed criminal offences, although it is usually stated in the job requirements that candidates convicted of a criminal HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

45 HUMAN RESOURCES SELECTION offence committed with the intention, in the official capacity, and to an unconditional imprisonment (length depends on the national legislation) are not eligible. Those prosecuted for a criminal offence committed with intention are also not eligible. At the end of the selection procedure the chosen candidate must submit adequate evidence in relation to this. A candidate is not directly asked questions about: Possible psychological difficulties The interviewer may only ask about psychological problems if they are connected to the performance of a job and if those difficulties would prevent a candidate from performing his or her tasks or they may endanger the safety of a candidate s colleagues, business partners and parties. Medical data The interviewer must point at the fact that the acquisition of the job is conditioned by a successfully completed medical test which must be carried out in accordance with the expected activities. If there is a professional need for it, the medical test must be completed following the performed selection procedure. Height and weight Questions of this nature may be posed only if this is directly linked to the requirements of the offered jobs. If the organisation decides to collect basic data on candidates by questionnaires it must pay special attention to their formulation due to a potential risk for discrimination and, in connection with that, possible litigations against the organisation. O 45

46 5. SELECTION METHODS 5.1. Classic trio Most organisations select candidates in three ways by examination of the forms submitted by the applicant, by examining candidates references and by interview (Table 5.1 and 5.2.) Table 5.1: Use of selection methods for six professional groups PROFESSIONAL GROUP (%) testing METHODS Managers in commerce Civil servants Administration Sales Persons Unqualified employees in industry General test of intelligence General ability tests General personality test Grading of the external evaluation centre interviews O 46 Telephone conversation with a candidate Simple conversation face to face Several consecutive interviews face to face Interview on the basis of list of questions Several consecutive interviews with the assistance of the list of questions consultants Consultant performs an initial interview Consultant performs final brief list Consultant does external testing Note: Data collected in Australian private sector organisations in 1994 Source: Stone, 1995: Job applications An analysis of forms containing the information on job applicants undertaken in Great Britain in 1998 (Fisher, Schoenfeldt, Shaw, 1999: 342), demonstrated that data such as the name and surname, date of birth, reasons for leaving the previous employment are common for all forms. Half of the total number of the forms contained questions on the candidate s age and only 4 percent contained a classic bureaucratic question on the maiden name. It is surprising that certain types of the forms contained questions about hobbies and activities in the leisure time. Bearing in mind that 40 percent of employers tended to prevent nepotism, their forms contained questions on candidates relatives who were already employed in the same company. Two HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

47 SELECTION METHODS thirds of the forms contained questions about education, while 26 percent required information on membership to professional bodies. Table 5.2: Popularity of selection tools in USA according to different types of jobs PROCENTAGE OF ORGANISATIONS Number of organisations Any service category Civil servants production, service activity Technical experts Sales Persons Managers and supervisors (245) (245) (221) (237) (96) (243) share % % % % % % Job ability test (work samples) Medical examination Test of mental abilities Test of knowledge of tasks of a job position Test on drug use Personality test Evaluation centre test Test of psychological abilities Ability test for writing different types of written submissions O 47 other Source: Fis her, Scho en feldt, Shaw, 1999: 342. The forms with previously prescribed types and forms of information on candidates may be converted into weighed forms by comparing received information and the data from the past, all with the aim of forecasting the future success in the job, reducing prospects for the frequent workforce fluctuation, and securing a fair selection of candidates. The weighed forms are cheap, efficient and difficult to forge Writing a brief summary The preparation of a brief review of information from the job applications is especially welcomed when there are many candidates. However, this measure can take a lot of time as there could be many applications to process. As of the 1990s, in most organisations those responsible for recruitment are facing a greater number of applications they have to process. There is still a question what data should be included in the resume and why. British experts analysed the manners of personnel officers using the information from job applications (Fisher, Schoenfeldt, Shaw, 1999: 342) and concluded that, in British transport organisations, decisions on candidates were reached on the basis of 9 parameters: grade in maths, knowledge of maths and computer skills, experience in the field of transport, work experience in relation to comput-

48 er programming, knowledge of management or attendance of courses on transport management. Candidates who wrote detailed applications had more chance to pass to the next selection phase, as well as those candidates who (from the aspect of the form) personalised the application or used uncommon expressions. Recruiting officers often act subjectively when preparing the summaries on the candidates. Therefore, this fact should be taken into consideration and it is not recommended to use such summaries as the prevailing selection method. 16 O Recommendations Cook (1996) states that two thirds of British organisations always require the submission of recommendations. In the British public sector (higher education, health sector and public services) the submission of references is always required. On the contrary, in the private sector, namely commercial sector, in most cases the references are not required when a job is offered. When references are required it should be understood as an additional security check of the candidate s successful performance with the previous employer and whether he or she was fired for theft. British references are usually in the form of a letter that does not follow a pre-determined model. Very few British employers are interested in the evaluation of the previous work and do not expect recommendations in certain structured forms unlike employers in USA that use standardised letter of recommendations. At the same time, in USA, especially in the public sector (for example, police), certain employers do not limit themselves to checking the recommendations of references indicated in the job applications only but check the candidates history, background of his or her family and the overall behaviour Interviews A recruitment interview is the most widespread selection technique. It may be relatively weakly structured without any guidance or extremely structured or adjusted to a certain model. In that sense we differ: Classic interview, Structured interview, and Panel interview. The structure of an interview is created by applying previously specified guidelines, which enables the interviewer to obtain required information on a candidate in a systematic way. A research shows that a structured interview provides more precise results than an unstructured interview. However, it is also established that the evaluators who con- 16 In USA, the classification of forms is done in accordance with the manual titled Assessment of abilities and experiences, which defines the level of qualifications and experience of a candidate in relation to the possible arbitrary judgments in the selection of candidates. In England, the Commission for equal opportunities recommends the review of job applications by at least two persons. In USA, the Commission for Equal Employment Opportunities published the Manual on the content of the job application for job seekers which contains a wide range of potentially objective forms of questions for job applicants, as well as samples of inappropriate content which may create an unpleasant feeling related to the protection of equal opportunities for all, such as an unacceptable content which is not connected to a job position. These questions include topics such as: the family status, children, child care, hair and eye colour, sexual orientation, military service and capability for military service, age, availability during the weekends and vacations (which may deter members of certain religious groups), height, weight and certificates on prison sentences served. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

49 SELECTION METHODS duct the interview usually prefer less structured interviews since it enables greater discretionary power (Ovsenik, 1995). The main recommendation in relation to the application of certain interview methods entails that all questions must be in connection to the offered job. Prominent recruitment experts are of the opinion that is safer and more just to conduct structured interviews or pre-formulated interviews where the same and standard questions are posed to each candidate Importance of good selection methods What makes for good, useable selection methods? The characteristics of good selection methods are their reliability and production of consistent grading of a candidate; validity channelling of good candidates and discouraging weak ones; they are efficient as to the expenses employers obtains expected results at a minimal price. Reliable criteria give consistent results. The psychological criteria are often very useful and their consistency is mainly guaranteed. The subjective criterion, such as the job interview is not fully reliable and, in the worst case, it cannot provide any information. Reliability is often measured on the basis of correlation between two types of criteria. If two evaluators grade 50 candidates, the correlation of their group grades expresses the reliability of grades, evaluators and their judgments. If there are discrepancies among the evaluators as to the grades one of them did not meet the task. The comparison of grades assigned by different evaluators in different circumstances provides for the internal reliability of grades (Ulrich and Tumbo, 1965, in Cook, 1996). The evaluators conducting an interview often mutually agree on the standard ideal types of what makes a good candidate. This guarantees their mutual concord although, during an actual evaluation, discrepancies are still possible. For example, it is a common ideal type of an efficient employee which should be socially skilful, able to assist others, to be dominant, orderly, persistent, and aggressive, and wants to be promoted (Jackson and others, 1982, in Cook, 1996). Dedrick and Dobbins (1991, id.) report on the idea which pertains to older workers that supposedly find employment with more difficulties; they are less motivated, less productive and creative. If the evaluators collectively agree on what they really want it may happen again that supposedly the same stereotype is differently applied in relation to some sub element. Thus, it is possible that certain evaluators believe that frequent change of jobs is a good sign (constant seeking of new challenges); while others will think that this is a sign of inconsistency and unreliability of a candidate Validity of data obtained in the interview A dilemma about the value of the data from the interview dates from an early Hollingworth s study (1922, in Cook, 1996). In the study, the results of 57 interviews of sales assistants conducted by 12 chief sales persons were analysed. There were significant differences in their opinions. Numerous dilemmas about the validity of interviews occurred which initiated numerous studies on their validity and rationality. The research of interviews was additionally intensified in Already in the early days, there were conclusions that interviews were not the best way to select productive employees and eliminate unproductive ones. O 49

50 O Qualities that may be assessed by interview It is possible to assess the intelligence of a candidate in detail by interview. However, if we want to be able to say that everything was done correctly, we need to use the intelligence tests during the interview since the said tests are more reliable, accurate and more objective. Intelligence tests are cheap and quick so we can test all candidates simultaneously. Anyhow, most labour legislations discourage the use of these tests since they hinder the materialisation of the principle of equal employment opportunities. Therefore, an employer that wants to measure the intelligence may, by interview, get a close assessment of one s intelligence. There is also a question whether there is anything that can be measured by interview that cannot be measured by any other means (Cook, 1996). A research showed that these are social skills the ability of good communication and leaving a good impression. Thus, the interviews conducted by the commission and not only individuals reach a greater level of reliability. An interview is usually used for the evaluation of those that are defined as organisationally desirable. Often this is only a coded jargon for the justification of previous assessments and expresses weaknesses of the evaluator. The expression desirable cannot be compared to hard data such as the average grade, but may be compared to, for example, the impression or appearance, which suggests presence of irrational factors (Cook, 1996). A candidate s motivation for the job is another question to which an answer is attempted to be found during an interview. Opinions on the suitability of an interview for that purpose are very divided, especially if the assessment of the candidate s social skills is to be done during the interview. Social skills and motivations are not related. Therefore, the candidate s behaviour during the interview cannot be a reliable indicator of his/her motivation. The evaluator assesses candidate s social skills during the interview more easily than motivation since it is known that social skills are visible in the conversation. The evaluator shall assess candidates social skills better if they smile more, use body language and speak more. It is the fact that during a conversation, motivation of candidates may be noticed as motivated candidates are more formally dressed and during the interview he or she leans more backwards. As evaluators are not often skilful enough to recognise these signs and to base their grades on them they find those candidates who smile, make gestures and speak more as motivated a behaviour that does not have much in common with the motivation which is the cause of an inaccurate estimation of motivation. However, motivation may be assessed in the interview but not on the basis of behaviour but actual questions and candidates answers. An evaluation of motivation based on behaviour and appearance is, therefore, practically impossible Real and ideal interviews There are numerous plans for conducting interviews and different types of interviews entail different appearances, namely purposes In Great Britain, the Council for training in technical professions recommend the plan of the interview for internship in six points: general personal questions, questions on education, technical that is engineering questions, questions about motivation, information in relation to procurement, and questions by candidates. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

51 SELECTION METHODS Anstey (1977, in Cook, 1996) enumerated detailed advice on conducting interviews by the commission. The maximum number of the commission members is three, including the president. A broader composition is not feasible and disturbs the work since a larger panel might entail voting Interview and practice Traditional interviews, particularly the types that are used in Great Britain have a very limited validity; thus, there have been talks of replacing the interviews with more appropriate methods. Yet, candidates usually expect to be invited to an interview and they are disappointed when they are not. Hakel (1982, in Cook, 1996) states: most people believe in the process, whereby an interview is a possibility to show one in the best light, where one will get a chance to meet the employer face to face and tell him/her a full story. Interviews give an impression of a fair game, especially if they are long and detailed; most organisational bylaws require holding of an interview with at least five candidates even when they know beforehand which candidate they want. In that sense, the interview is still part of the organisational practice although there are numerous questions related thereto. How long is an interview? What does the interviewer speak about? If the literature on the validity of interviews is not of good quality and usable, what is actually described by interviews? What is the opinion of candidates about interviews and evaluators? Neither the theoreticians nor practitioners do agree on what is the most important topic of an interview. The interviewer treats different topics with different candidates and the choice of topics depends on the circumstances related to the job for which the candidates applies, as well as on the skills of the person conducting the interview. Usually candidates expect that their interlocutors shall speak more about the job, while evaluators expect candidates to speak more about themselves and motives for applying and working with the employer. 18 Information on what is done at the interview is worrying. Many studies confirmed that the interviewers speak more than candidates, which is undesirable since the evaluators should collect the information and not reveal it. Some analyses of the essence of the interview state that an evaluator decides how long the interview will last, although the candidate determines the number of posed questions (it is certain that the length of the interview depends on the length of the responses). Candidates that are more talkative have more chance to be chosen (Cook, 1996), and the study did not offer an answer to the question if this was the result of the fact that candidates spoke more themselves or they were instigated to do so by the interlocutor Non-verbal communication in the interview Various researches showed that successful candidates look more in their interlocutors eyes, smile more, communicate more with gestures, nod and, in general, look more pleasant and full of enthusiasm. This does not mean that the smile and appearance are the cause of candidate s success; maybe the candidate smiles more because he or she thinks that the interview is going well. A research on interviews (Anderson, Shackleton, O Interviewers often pose mere factual-biographic questions that are too broad and whose answers are already known as having been written down in the application documents. Interviewers also gladly guide the candidates which is also wrong.

52 1990, in Cook, 1996) demonstrated that candidates who make an eye contact are in general positively accepted and assessed as interesting, more relaxed and stronger, etc, therefore fitter to be accepted. Rasmussen (1984, in Cook, 1996) reported that the effects of a non-verbal behaviour depend on what a candidate says. If he or she gives information related to the job more non-verbal behaviour will bring him or her better results in the interview. On the contrary, a surplus of non-verbal communication in giving information not related to the job shall not contribute to the increment of the grade Development of interviews In order to improve the quality of the interview, firstly, a careful choice of persons of a certain profile to conduct the interviews is necessary. Then those persons must be trained. For the quality of interview, it is important that the evaluator conducting the interview knows what questions are essential, namely which answers he or she must obtain. The aspect which is often neglected is the ability of an active and efficient listening. The interviewer must empathise with the candidate yet at the same time must monitor the candidate s non-verbal expressions. Nevertheless, the real success of the interview depends on the ability of using obtained information. O 52 Selection of the interviewer Decisions of the different evaluators conducting the interview vary in relation to details such as differing abilities, skills and experience of certain managers. A detailed assessment of people is not a widespread ability; if some candidates are good in general assessment this does not mean that they are also good during a verbal communication. There is no general ability of qualitative assessment of other people or a simple way of proper assessment. Tests of social intelligence and range of capacities for social empathy did not prove to be useful. A written trace after an assessment is so far the only realistic criteria for the assessment of a good evaluator. Trained evaluators conducting the interviews There is a great number of training programmes on how to conduct interviews whereby the attention of evaluators is drawn to the general cause of prejudices and impreciseness and where they train to adopt the really effective ways of applying evaluation methods. This training influences the later validity of given grades. The participants may improve there observation skills as well as to change ways and style of asking questions. However, an additional research (Cook, 1996) indicates that brief training programmes on conducting interviews are not of great assistance; thus Orpen (1985, id.) discovered that interviewers who are trained on the traditional techniques of conducting the interview still reach the validity close to 0 as for the forecasting the future results of prospective candidates. Campion and Campion (1987, id.) report that training on conducting the interviews teaches interviewers about questions that are right as well as about adequate answers, but do not change the manner of complete evaluation of interviews. Tell the interviewers what to ask first The interviewers may estimate social skills and motivation of candidates but they do not have to forecast the candidate s future behaviour in the actual job position. Thus, it is recommended that those who do know the requirements related to the HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

53 SELECTION METHODS individual job should supply the interviewer with the list of essential elements that must be considered or observed during an interview. Consequently, the interview starts with a good job description and that is why structured interviews are always a better way to start. Listening to candidates Effective listening is considered (Cook, 1996) one of the essential characteristics of a good interviewer. Effective listening requires the interviewer to stays alert: No one can write as much as candidate can say. Sometimes they forget that they have to promote equal opportunities for all, and not only when his or her arguments sound nice and are well presented. Persons who remember appearances of others, their speech and body language are, by rule, better in forecasting how the candidates will work in the future. Effective use of information None knows how many facts a typical interviewer collects during a typical interview, but the number is usually within two figures. Janz (1982, in Cook, 1996) wrote that, on average, 17 questions are asked during a 30-minute interview. People are very poor in interpreting inconsistent information, ignore them and deviate the truth if he or she does not agree with the general impression. Tullar, Mullins and Caldwell (1979, id.) also established that some interviewers reject candidates due to lack of direct visual contact while another interviewer would claim that the candidate was maintaining an eye contact. Therefore, the interviewer must note down as much information about the candidate as possible to give priority to the most important facts before making the decision. Classic interview We may obtain responses to certain types of questions by classical interview (several examples are given in the Table 5.3). A person conducting the interview (and this is often one person) must ask questions carefully and pose them in a certain order which seems to be the most suitable in the particular case. It is not necessary to ask a candidate all the questions given in the table but it is sufficient to choose those that are relevant and important for the performance of a certain task. Table 5.3: Possible questions during a classical interview 1. What suites you the best at your current job? 2. What suites you the least at your current? 3. What are your objectives in relation to your career? 4. What is your greatest strength? 5. What is your greatest weakness? 6. With what type of superiors do you cooperate the best? 7. What is most important for you in the job? 8. What were your favourite courses in the school, university? 9. In which additional activities did you participate in school that is in the university? 10. How did you decide to do this type of work? 11. What is the best strength of your current superior? 12. Why did you leave your previous organisation? 13. Do you prefer to work alone or in a group? 14. What do you do in your free time? Source: Tre ven, 1998: 189. O 53

54 Structured interviews The structured interview represents the greatest progress in the field of interviews. It was developed in the 1980s. The structured system of an interview entails a detailed processing of each part of an interview. The activity of conducting an interview is structured with grade tables and checklists, etc. A structured interview begins by a detailed job analysis which guarantees that the grades and questions are connected with it. The system of structured interviews essentially diminishes the traditional autonomy of the interviewer. Several different types of structured interviews are used in practice (Cook, 1996). The most typical ones are the following: Situational interview, Behaviour description interview; Comprehensively structured interview. O 54 Situational interview The situational interview (known also as the interview of positions) (Latham and colleagues, 1980, in Cook, 1996) were developed by the critical incident technique, especially from the example of efficient and inefficient behaviours: The employee devoted himself or herself to his or her family. He or she is married for just 18 months and he or she uses all possible excuses to stay home, such as friends child fell ill, wife cut herself with the knife for cutting bread. He did not come to work and he did not inform anyone about it. The critical incident technique may be formulated as a question: Your wife and two children are ill and they are in bed with the flu. You do not have any friends or relatives to take care of them. Your shift begins in three hours. What would you do in this situation? The supervisors in the organisation, that described the situation, agree that it is possible to differentiate answers of good, average and unsatisfactory employees: POSSIBLE ANSWERS I would stay at home wife and children are in the first place I would call my superior and explain him or her the situation Regardless of the fact that they are sick I would go to work GRADE Unsatisfactory employee Average employee Good employee During the interview the questions are put to the candidates and they give their answers. The grades are given on the basis of comparison of the candidate s answer with the previously established possible answers. The situational interview is very reliable and forecasts well the future grades for the general efficiency in the job. The proponents of this type of interview insist that this instrument is very fair since it deals with a specific knowledge necessary for the verification of the direct acceptability of the candidates. An example of questions in the structured interview for the position of a secondary school teacher: HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

55 SELECTION METHODS 1. What would you do if your student had difficulties with the understanding of the bases of your course and was always lagging behind? 2. What would you do if some of your students started to whisper, laugh or in any other way disturb the class during the lecture? Source: Tre ven, 1998: 190. Behaviour description interview This type of interviews begins (Janz, 1982, in Cook, 1996) by the analysis of the critical events related to the job. The interviewers from the casual behaviour description interviews have considerably active role in comparison to the interviewers from situational interviews since they are trained to channel responses when candidates try to avoid a question or do not provide straight answers but talk about something else. Causal behaviour description interviews have a retrospective character which is reflected in the fact that they are focused on the indicative behaviours of candidates that happened in his or her past. One more example of questions during the behaviour description interview of the secondary school teacher: 1. You speak about the example of your students and difficulties they had with the understanding of the course and the fact that they were lagging behind others. Can you describe for me how did you solve this problem and what was the result? 2. Tell me something about the cases of students who, by making noise or any other form of inappropriate behaviour, disturb your lectures. How did you react in that case? Source: Tre ven, 1998: 190. A behaviour description interview always achieves greater validity than conventional interviews. O 55 Comprehensively structured interviews Comprehensively structured interviews (Campion, Pursell and Brown, 1988, in Cook, 1996) process four fields: knowledge required in the job position, requirements and expectations of employees and the analysis of hypothetical work situations. Knowledge required in the job position is covered by questions such as: since you assembled the machine, clean it; why didn t you clean all the parts? A simulation of a job position entails questions such as many operations require the use of a forklift truck. We kindly ask you to read out aloud the (ninety words) instruction for the forklift truck. The requirements of employees are assessed by asking questions such as certain job positions require climbing the ladders to the height which corresponds to a five-story building. Describe your feelings in relation to this type of tasks? The fourth field uses both techniques of interviews as those used in the case of the situational interview Value of a structured interview The proponents of the methods of structured interviews usually report on their great value but that is often obtained from very modest samples. The evaluation of the value of interviews demonstrates that structured interviews achieve better results than conventional ones. A study (Wiesner and Cronskhaw, 1988, in Cook, 1996) confirmed that the best results were achieved by the structured interview based on the formal analysis of the job position.

56 A very structured situational interview erases differences between interviews and traditional pencil and paper tests. Overall structured interviews are highly correlated with the test of abilities (multiple correlation is 0,75) and actually enable the testing of mental abilities (Campion, Pursell and Brown, 1988, in Cook, 1996). On the other hand, structured behaviour tests demonstrate the mental abilities of a candidate to a lesser extent or not at all Decision-making of the interviewer A leader of the interview shall listen to the candidate carefully and make a decision on the basis of the information received. A research has shown numerous reasons why interviewers do not act in this manner in practice. Interviewers actually pass judgements before the actual interview Even before the interview the interviewer has information on candidates from their CVs and job applications. An additional study in relation to the aforementioned data and the creation of initial impact did not determine what information is the most relevant to the purpose of the selection of candidates. Certain researches suggest that the attention should be given to the examination of qualifications, history of individuals and experiences (Graves and Powell, 1988, in Cook, 1996). O 56 The interviewers make decisions too quickly Certain researches indicate that interviewers make decisions in 4-5 minutes of a planned 15-minute interview (Buckley and Eder, 1988). On average, the interviewer accepts or rejects candidates in the first 9 minutes, while the rest of the interview is only a cover up. It is astonishing that interviewers who did not see the candidates job application need the same amount of time as those interviewers who examined the applications, and the same time if they know the candidates background. This means that factual information does not have a significant influence on the decision of the interviewer. First impression on a candidate forms an opinion of the interviewer The evaluation of the job applications and the conduct of a candidate are decisive for the final grade for 85 to 88 percent of candidates (Cook, 1996). It is often heard that a timely piece of advice and smart clothes could be helpful to a candidate. E.g. female and male interviewers react similarly to the perfumes used. Female candidates for managerial positions leave the best impression if they are dressed in a conventional manner but not too formally. However, all other factors, being positive or negative, are proved to have little impact due to capricious character of the interviewer. In general, the interviewers decide upon first impressions, although they do not want to admit this and claim that the advantage is given to the last impression. Therefore, a structured system of interviews is more recommendable since it helps in overcoming the first impression and to a great extent reduces the influence of the subjective factor. The interviewer looks for reasons to reject a candidate Springbett (1958, in Cook, 1996) identified another weakness of the assessment due to which 90 percent of candidates are rejected. This is the reaction to nega- HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

57 SELECTION METHODS tive information even when the information is meaningless and there is no significant influence on the quality of candidate s immediate or expected behaviour. A bad news changes the grade more radically than a good one. The interviewer usually pays little attention to good sides of a candidate and too much attention to candidate s weaknesses. Thus, the reasoning for rejection of a candidate should be reviewed at multiple instances particularly if there are numerous candidates. The interviewer has a certain theory Andrews (1922, in Cook, 1996) described an interviewer who found a sales man who had previously dealt with computer sales and who proved to be unsatisfactory in his new job. The interviewer never again employed a person who previously sold computers since he concluded that people who sell computers are bad sales persons. A candidate who previously sold computers is a bad sales man. Obviously the employer from Andrew s example used twisted logic since the salesman of computers must also be good at his or her job in order to be able to sell those machines; thus this event was a mere coincidence Mistakes and deviations of interviews Advocates of interviews give arguments that a good interviewer notices samples of information already during the preparation of the methods and techniques which will be used in the interview and thus notices possible mistakes and deviations. A research rejects the beliefs of interviewers that the personal conversation is so complete and its role so decisive that it cannot be replaced by any other method. In reality, the situation is different. The research showed that: 1. People never work better than the system; 2. People do not use all information which they seek and obtain. The more an interviewer likes the candidate the more likely he or she will offer the candidate a job. This appeal may be related to the expressed competence essential for the job but it may also be based on completely irrational bases. Dominance of stereotypes Interviewers are often led by stereotypes, which can cause a certain neglect of candidates in the selection procedure. Cecil, Paul and Olins (1973, in Cook, 1996) made a list of characteristics that are desirable with male and female candidates in administrative services. An ideal male candidate can quickly modify his opinion, he is persuasive, resistant to pressure, highly motivated and aggressive while the female candidate has a nice voice, good office management skills, expresses herself very well, dresses nicely and has a university degree. Physical attraction The research confirms that people communicate well with attractive persons and that a good appearance brings a wide spectre of social advantages. Certain evaluators strongly favour physical attractiveness a good appearance entails two types of advantages on a scale of 12 points. The result of physical attraction is taken into consideration regardless of sex, has a strong influence also when a O 57

58 male evaluates other men and when a man evaluates a woman. Certain individuals explain that the effect of a survivor indicates that more attractive persons are more acceptable for activity within an organisation. Although a research confirms the impact of physical attraction, actually its influence is not that significant What is not allowed during the interview Despite the frequent use of interviews and experience, there may be a violation of legislation guaranteeing equal opportunities, as well as legislation on the prohibition of discrimination. The employers may avoid numerous mistakes as long as the interviews are conducted on the safe terrain. Thus, questions that are not clearly connected to the job are best to be avoided. The interviews are in line with the legislation if they are based on a good job description, if the interviewers are well chosen and trained, if the employment commission is engaged and not individual evaluators. When it is necessary to discuss certain characteristics and their influence in relation to the competitiveness for the job, it should be done in a neutral manner, identically and with the same approach to each candidate. O Shaping of successful interview The success of an interview shall depend of its implementation. The following four areas are very important: Knowledge of the job position; Knowledge of special advantages, experiences, skills and qualifications related to the job position; Knowledge of real indicators; Anticipation of an adequate content of the interview. Knowledge of a job position An employee in charge of recruitment must have an in-depth knowledge of the job requirements and only on that basis cay he or she select a good candidate. A job description may be in the form of a list of tasks and responsibilities with the description of determined connections. In this manner the following may be achieved: the required abilities for the work in the job position are defined; the mood and the atmosphere in the organisation are analysed together with the influence this may have on the job position and, finally, special characteristics of the job position. A research has demonstrated that this information basis increases the value of the questionnaire prepared for the interview when it is used as an addition to the interview and a reference instrument for the evaluation of candidate s responses. Moreover, the interviewers who give more complete information about the job position create a better basis for decision-making on the selection at a higher level and facilitate the making of right conclusions. Knowledge of personal advantages, experiences, skills and qualifications The knowledge of personal advantages, experiences, skills and qualifications must be connected to the job position. They have to be presented in a way to enable a decision on whether the candidate is well prepared for a successful work. The deter- HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

59 SELECTION METHODS mination of necessary requests may lead to exclusion of numerous good candidates and create grounds for accusations of discrimination. The conclusions entail 4 to 5 essential elements of ability that are undoubtedly relevant for a job position. If candidates have been graded according to general standards, it is of vital importance that, before the interview, the interviewers discuss the critical selection factors with the heads of the organisational units included in the selection process. The interviewer must know what he or she wants before the beginning of the interview. He or she must know what kind of results he or she expects and, on that basis, to make a decision on the characteristics and abilities of a future employee. Provision of real indicators An employer must decide on the information and responses he or she wants to obtain. The interview does not only entail asking questions from the questionnaire but its purpose is the exchange of information which enables the verification of the adequacy of a candidate. It should be remembered that the interview is intended with the anticipation of the future results in the job position, which depends on the mutual relationship between the motivation and qualifications. The preparation for an interview is of essential importance and includes the preparation of adequate questions and establishment of a candidate s background. The directions of the interview will finally form one s opinion on the ability and motivation of the employee. If the interviewer has a clearer idea of the aim of the interview he or she will find out the candidate s abilities more clearly (Table 5.4). O 59

60 Table5.4: Starting points for a recruitment interview NAME AND SURNAME: PROPOSAL FOR THE CONDUCT OF THE INTERVIEW Job position: Date: How do you imagine the job position? How do you understand official duties? (Whether the candidate correctly understands his or her responsibilities?) Evaluate advantages and potentials of the job (by their importance) (Are the candidateês expectations real?) What are your qualifications for the job? (Whether a candidate will perform his or her task in a responsible manner?) What are your expectations regarding the How quickly may you begin to work? salary? PREVIOUS EMPLOYMENT: Do you have a job? LIST OF PREVIOUS EMPLOYMENT (If not) For how long have you been unemployed? What do you do? Organisation: from: to: Job position Where was he or she employed? What do you do now? How did he or she get a job? Initial employment: Additional tasks: O 60 (Did the candidate demonstrate personal confidence, consistency of interest, are certain skills and abilities required for the job?) Last superior: (How did the candidate progress? The indicator of high motivation?) Job at the end (industrial indicators, acceptance of responsibility, leadership, view of himself or herself,) Name: Frequency of contacts with the superior: (How much supervision is required?) Delegated competences (What was the structure of the candidateês unit?) Did you have difficulties with the supervision? Without supervision If yes, how did you overcome them? (Is candidate an autocratic person, a relaxed team player or is he or she trough?) Adaptibility to other Very good Changeable Not very good Why? superiors (Indicator of candidateês loyalty, animosity, etc..) Characteristics of the service: Least satisfaction: (Was a candidate satisfied with the job? Did he or she have good communication with other colleagues? Did he criticise the work? Graded as inappropriate?) Why is he or she leaving the job? Why this time? (Does he or she have appropriate and realistic reasons? Is he or she avoiding difficulties?) Does he or she have additional work? Activities between that and previous job: Unemployment (Are financial needs indicated? Lack of loyalty?) (Is he supporting himself? Does she or he want a solid constant employment?) PREVIOUS EMPLOYERS: Date: from to Type of job: Where were you employed? Last location: How was he or she accepted? Initial job: Additional duties: (self-confidence) (stability of interest) (additional skills, readiness to work, motivation) HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

61 SELECTION METHODS Planning an adequate content of the interview The interview is essential for both, candidate and for the superiors, and should be conducted at a special level without any interruption. The communication should not trigger negative feelings at the side of the candidate, such as the felling that she or she is not important enough to be treated politely and professionally. A research showed that the relationship between the interviewer and the candidate significantly influences whether a candidate will accept or reject the job offer. The same reaction of candidates (negative reaction) was in cases when the interviewer was incapable and unprepared. The most important recommendations for conducting a successful interview are the following: 1. Examination of collected data The interviewer who conducts an interview should examine the previous employment of candidates without naming the employers; he or she must pay attention to questions for which there are no answers or the answers are partial, candidate s balancing in presentation, inconsistencies, signs of warning such as frequent changes of jobs; he or she must analyse reasons for leaving previous employments, periods of unemployment between two jobs, unusual number of jobs in organisations that went bankrupt, leaves, state of affairs that need to be examined or questions asked about them. The interviewer has a possibility to examine collected information by using the technique of comparative tables. It is necessary to make a list of significant dimensions of job positions and write them down at the left side of the page. In the right column the interviewer enters the summary of sorted data that represent the relevant information about each candidate. In this manner a clear comparison is made which saves time and paves the way for a realistic decision on the abilities of a candidate. 2. Avoiding passing of a premature decision - Most people already in advance have their opinion on different issues formed. In order to objectively assess candidates, it is important that prejudices do not influence the final choice. Otherwise, the interviewer risks losing a good candidate and creates an opportunity for possible accusation of discrimination. The interviewers must know their own weaknesses, beware of the risk of passing premature decisions, and know how to avoid it when it happens. It is known that the characteristics of an individual and his or her ways of thinking are based on his or her own experiences and it is difficult to have a precise insight into that. 3. Avoiding quick decisions A research shows that interviewers pass decisions on a candidate in the first few minutes of an interview and that in the later phase of the interview they only listen and review the information that supports the initial impression. Certain studies state that, in practice, certain stereotypes of men and women are still followed when job applicants are judged on. It is determined that women are considered to be harder working than men with the same qualifications when it concerns a typical female job position. More objective information at his or her disposal allows for the interviewer to reduce a possibility of passing a decision grounded on stereotypes. O 61

62 O In decision-making on candidates the interviewer must pay attention to the objectivity of grades that appear An assessment of a candidate may be done only after all required information is gathered. In this way hasty decisions and grades are not made. In order to fully eliminate this problem, it is recommended to undertake several interviews before assingning the final grade. Interviews may last longer and serve for obtaining information that will solve dilemmas; a fruitful range of impressions on candidates and his or her references (verification) is obtained; if a candidate agrees to the testing of behaviour and the determination of candidate s life circumstances is done as well as of his or her past; a candidate may have interviews with several different evaluators. 5. Relaxing the candidate If a candidate is relaxed the communication will be much better and with no tension. Conversation about neutral matters and facts is intended to break ice and ease the conduct of the interview. An interviewer who seems formal and arrogant shall not obtain right answers and facts. For a good interviewer it is necessary to be able to create an atmosphere for conversation, as well as be able to carefully examine the facts and have the ability to assign objective grades. 6. Observing the body language - An interviewer must observe non-verbal signs such as facial expression, anxiety, gestures, and everything else that may indicate what a candidate really thinks but does not express. The observation of body language is a skill of observing of what others think. Since it derives from the subconscious it is a good indicator for the estimation of feelings as well as carefully stated words. 7. Stimulating candidates to speak An interviewer shall not find out anything about the candidate from his/her own speaking, but if a candidate speaks more (of course, on issues that are the source of information) it is possible to make more conclusions about the candidate. Rather than asking questions to which a candidate gives a yes/no answer, it is better to have an interviewer who will stimulate the candidate to speak more by asking open questions such as Tell me about your results in the previous employment or What is your most important contribution in the service? or How did it happen?, What did you do? that should facilitate imparting of more substantial information. This requires having an interviewer who is a careful and systematic listener. Numerous evaluators feel uneasy if there is a period of silence and do not know what to ask. In such cases the interviewer may help himself of herself or the candidate by catch words such as really or I understand that efficiently help the candidate to keep speaking. A conversation may be ruined when the interviewer completely hijacks the conversation by telling his or her favourite anecdotes. A job interview is not a social event, but a business meeting with special objectives. 8. Preservation of supervision over the interview - An interviewer must be constantly reminded about special circumstances of an interview. Only that guarantees that a candidate speaks about appropriate issues. In order to avoid a wrong selection, it is necessary to gather facts essential for the employment HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

63 SELECTION METHODS and not to waste time on information that is not needed. Improvidence of persons in charge of human resources procedures may cause legal consequences or lead to the engagement of an inadequate candidate. 9. Explanation of a job position The interviewer must clarify and explain to a candidate all key job requirements and the place of performance of work, as well as other facts. The explanation of work must be done without exaggeration on the service itself or organisation in order not to cause further disappointments. Candidates need detailed information about the job, organisation and employment requirements in order to make their own decision. A selection is a two-way process whereby the interviewer and the candidate are in an unusual situation of the simultaneous purchase and sale. The interviewer buys the candidate and sells the job position while the candidate buys the job and the status and sells his or her abilities. Both sides must take this fact into consideration and make a decision. 10. End of the interview The interview should be amicably ended. If it is clear that a candidate is not a suitable person that fact must be tactfully explained to him or her. If a candidate entered the second round he or she shall be informed of that. If the interviewer cannot give such information to the candidate, he or she must say to the candidate when to expect the feedback. It is claimed that the employment is a window of the organisation. During recruitment the candidate becomes acquainted with the organisation and receives information about it which can affect its image later on. 11. Minutes of the interview - One of the most common mistakes in conducting interviews is that interviewers do not record the results of the interview while impressions are still fresh. The accuracy is higher and the details are more numerous if the information and impressions are recorded during the interview or immediately after it. Control tables and evaluation forms assist greatly in the performance of this difficult task. At the end, a precise documentation is the basis for a fair decision which ensures that recorded activities may prevent potential claims about the discrimination of a candidate. 12. Verification of candidate s references This is the most critical phase. The interviewer must wait for the end of the interview and he or she cannot offer a job to a candidate before the candidates references are checked. The biggest mistake is to contact one source only who can confirm or turn down the candidate s reference. The interviewer must have cross examined the employees subordinates and the candidate s clients and compare the answers. The research of indicators enables a better evaluation of a candidate when the references are well fitted with the candidate s deeds. A real problem in the validation of the recommendations is unwillingness of the sources to confirm his or her recommendation, namely to give a sincere opinion and grade. The opinions by family friends and relatives are excluded which is justified. It is also necessary to verify the candidate s academic and professional qualifications (Table 5.5). Mistakes in verifying factual information may result in disappointment and uneasiness. The facts on candidates must be known and verified. The interviewer must think about the strategic nature of what he or she wants or can do. O 63

64 Table 5.5: Reasons for additional verification of recommendations CERTAIN REASONS FOR A TELEPHONE CALL 1. If there is a possibility of forging the diplomas verification must resolve any doubt. 2. It is always necessary to verify the diploma on which the acquired title is not written down especially if it is the diploma of a well known school. 3. When there is a doubt of exaggeration, the programme and the names of professors must be verified. Graduates will speak decisively while others will try to change the subject. 4. Words such as more than or the best indicate exaggeration. In this case a special attention should be paid. 5. If alleged responsibilities of a candidate in the previous job are the consequence of an alleged reorganisation, new appointment, maybe this indicates that then candidate was asked to look for a new job. 6. For important prizes verification is always required the real winner will willingly submit the prize. 7. If a candidate says that he or she is employed in a family company or in some inactive organisation, maybe he or she is hiding the unemployment status. Require a precise chronology. 8. Experts say that interruption in employment may be a significant sign. By verification it is necessary to clear out doubts in the candidatesê statements. It would be wrong not to do this. O Evaluation of the interview The expert in charge of employment must determine if all required information is collected; the objectivity of the conversation must be achieved; the conversation and its techniques must be evaluated; there must be a value which differentiates the selected candidates from those who are rejected. During the evaluation, the fact of a candidate quitting an earlier employment must be taken into consideration. His/her grades from the selection process should be compared with the grades obtained during the previous engagement (Vukovič and Miglič, 2006: ) Basis on the classic trio For a very long time, physiologists know that the classical trio (job applications, recommendations of a candidate, and interviews) are not equally effective in the selection of candidates. A research proved that opinions of people on others are very unreliable. Thus, the physiologists and heads of human resources units started to abandon the classical trio and look for more reliable methods. Among other possibilities, they have opted for the following three instruments: Psychological test; Group exercises; Tests of job tasks (observation centres, work samples). Combinations of the aforementioned tools with the classical trio are not uncommon while more demanding and comprehensive evaluations of bigger groups of candidates are left to evaluation centres Testing A test is a systematic and structured series of stimulations which enables points to be assigned to candidates responses and/or their entry into a scale. By doing so it is possible to quantify to what extent a person achieved a required level. Regardless of the form of the position the tested person expresses a certain degree of agreement or giving preference, which demonstrated how much the tested person knows about a certain topic. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

65 SELECTION METHODS A test is a standardized procedure by which we provoke certain activity and then we measure and evaluate the results of that activity; thus we can compare the individual results with the results achieved by other persons in an identical situation. In addition to tests, behavioural scales, work samples, interviews, different reviews of thinking, etc. are also used for direct and/or indirect evaluations. If candidates show weaknesses connected with the job requirements, that may lead to their elimination or subjecting to additional tests or to an in-depth conversation. The choice between tests and interviews depends on the policies of the organisation, types of jobs offered, expenses and the qualifications of a candidate. The main purpose of a test is to define the personal characteristics of the candidates as accurately as possible. Tests are often used for establishing the abilities of human resources to carry out certain tasks and are used in the context of professional orientations, professional selections and deliberations on promotions and placing of human resources. If tests are used in the selection of job applicants it should not be forgotten that, regardless of the utilization of expert selection methods, certain employees will still perform their work successfully; there will be more of such employees in case of easier job and vice versa. It must not be neglected that by tests we determine just several factors indicating the future success of an employee in performing his/her job. The following factors influence success: the practical qualifications of an employee, adequate previous experience, motivation for work, etc. This, as well as many other factors, leads many experts to argue about the application of tests: some fully negate them while others glorify them and impose their use even when they are not necessary. The main purpose of a testing is securing objectivity or, to be more precise, reducing the subjective factor in making a decision on a selection. Certain types of selection tests include: a. Verification of skills (acquired) and abilities of an individual to successfully perform certain specific tasks (for example, employment tests); b. Insight into the intellectual abilities and special characteristics of an individual that are necessary for an appropriate acting at work (different psychological tests, for example, the intelligence tests, special questionnaires ). Employment tests are used when it is necessary to verify candidates skills to perform tasks in the job position. It is possible to verify the skill of driving vehicles, stenography and typing, computer skills, etc. Employment tests are, because of their content, in particular the skill testing necessary in the actual job position, a tool which enables an accurate and objective estimation whether required abilities exist or not. Psychological tests are less valid and have a different role when measuring knowledge interest, abilities, intelligence and the character of a candidate. This confirms the opinion of the human resources managers out of which only 15% believes that some forms of psychological tests are an essential part of a selection process Types of tests According to the way of solving test questions, tests are divided into: written tests, tests for oral problem solving, O 65

66 tests where a task must be completed by using a certain machine or device, material, etc. O 66 Written tests are applied most frequently. Their advantage is the fact that they are cheap; they do not require significant time or large material means. Under certain conditions they can be done orally, e.g. when candidates are illiterate and it is important that they all solve posed problems or if, due to the lack of time and material means, it is not possible to prepare written problems. In such cases the answer are provided verbally. Oral tests entail the oral answers of candidates. These tests resemble a conversation where all the questions, being open and/or closed ones, are formulated in advance and posed in a certain order. By monitoring a candidate who received the task, working tests enable us to establish how successfully the candidate carries out an actual task. This procedure secures certain information on candidates; it assists the personnel officer in the recruitment, promotion, evaluation of results, evaluation of training activities, etc. There are numerous tests that can be used as an additional criterion in the selection of candidates, although they are not always fully reliable. It should be noted that some of them may be used only with the assistance of experts, for example, psychologists. The following group of tests are most frequently used for the purpose of human resources management: test of knowledge; ability test (simulation tests); personality test and test of temper; Intelligence and personality tests Test of knowledge The level of knowledge, skills and work habits that a tested person possesses is determined by the test of knowledge. These tests do not serve for establishing the general abilities of candidates (there are specific, so called ability tests for that purpose) but serve as indicators of results of a specific training and learning. We can also call them the tests of success. During these tests, a candidate, in a controlled situation, carries out work tasks that he or she would have to perform during the regular work. For example, a candidate for an orchestra plays his/her instrument whilst candidates for drivers of forklift trucks drive the vehicles in the storages. Bearing in mind what is determined by these tests the material or functional aspect of the education, we can divide them into: Knowledge in a narrow sense, and The abilities for the application of knowledge. With the tests of knowledge in the narrow sense we determine only facts (for example, the tests of language skills, stenography and typing skills), while with the ability tests for the application of knowledge we determine the skills and habits in the application of theoretical knowledge (for example, solving a practical problem or execution of an actual task). HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

67 SELECTION METHODS Tests of knowledge can be in the form of: Standard oral questions; Written questions in the form of a test; In the form of a work sample and an actual work task. By oral test we check abilities for execution of certain tasks, usually during the conversation about the employment. This type of tests has the advantage in comparison to written ones since they permit adjusting of the questions to the candidate if he or she does not understand them at once. The written tests of knowledge are somehow more general than oral ones since they are used for greater groups of similar jobs and work tasks; they are standardised and permit answering in different manners (confirmation that some statement is correct or not, a choice of the correct answer among several offered answers, numerical responses). The work samples are used as tests in the previous verification of working abilities of a candidate for the performance of a certain job or tasks. Most often, these tests pertain to performance of certain actions on the machine which candidate should use at his or her future employment under similar circumstances but, this time, in an educational centre of the organisation. See Chapter Tests of knowledge are taken into consideration in the following cases: Verification of knowledge and abilities of a candidate with the aim of employment, if he or she already has experience in similar tasks; Vertical reassignment of human resources in the organisation with the aim of determining the possibility of an employee to successfully execute complex tasks in comparison to the current incumbents; Drafting of the introduction-to-job training programme for the newly employed staff (planning and programming of their training); Additional training of employees assigned to other jobs and work tasks (vertical and horizontal mobility of human resources in an organisation) etc. (Miglič and Vukovič, 2006: ) Ability test and test of talents With the ability test, which is also called a simulation test, we want to measure characteristics that fall within the primary conditions for the performance of certain jobs and tasks. These tests must provide information on capacities of an individual to master specific skills and knowledge after a completed training for carrying out certain tasks. Specific abilities required for the performance of certain tasks are determined by these tests. For example, mechanics, civil servants, linguists, musicians, manual skills, reaction time, coordination of eyes and hands. In relation to the occurrences for which the tests are undertaken, we may divide them into: Sensor tests; Mental tests; Tests of mechanical abilities; and Tests of motor skills. O67

68 O 68 By sensor tests we determine different functional characteristics of the sensory system. The eyesight tests are the most important tests within this group; by eye sight test we determine the sharpness and sensibility of eye sight, the observation of configuration and differentiation of colours, different sensitivity for light and dark colours, postulate eye characteristics and the eye sight scope. A special sensitivity is required for the performance of numerous tasks; thus numerous, specially designed appliances are used for the verification of the working abilities of candidates. Hearing is also essential for the performance of numerous tasks; thus we have to test the absolute hearing sensibility to different frequencies, tone of noise, etc. By mental tests we examine different intellectual functions. 19 The examination of intellectual functions depends on conditions for the performance of certain jobs and working tasks, namely certain job requirements. The general mental ability test usually contains a compilation of information verbal, numerical and abstract questions. The following tests fall within the main types of those tests: Examination of perceptive factor (abilities of quick and precise positioning, namely the observation of smaller differences between forms); For the examination of spatial factors (ability of imaging and presentation of the order, namely the relationship between the sizes and object in two or three spatial dimensions); for examination of numerical factors (abilities of quick and precise performance of numerical operations); for examination of verbal factor; examination of speech factor; intelligence. Intelligence tests were among the first tests that were used for professional orientation and selection of candidates. They are shaped for measuring the candidate s IQ by applying the techniques with the stimulus of conscious in order to detect sub-conscious reactions. They are also used to determine how a person will manage in new situations. Although views on the tests are divided the tests have been frequently applied. The opponents of its application in the human resources management emphasise that tests were developed by psychiatrists and that they are more suitable to determine mental health than for the selection of candidates. Its proponents emphasise that these tests, if they are carefully used, may be applied for the examination of use of numbers, words and abstract notions. These tests are indicators of candidates abilities to learn fast, which may be necessary for tasks requiring conceptual thinking and problem solving. With the tests of mechanical abilities we want to determine the level of ability to understand the mechanical principles and to solve technical and practical problems given to a candidate. These abilities are required for jobs and tasks executed on cer- 19 Alfred Binet compiled the first test of the general mental ability for testing children (1904, in Cook, 1996). On that basis the Committee of American Psychologists made a first mental ability test for adults, which was used for recruitment in the US Army. From 1917 when the USA joined the First World War, 1,7 million recruits were tested. The civil use of the test Army Alfa was later permitted under the name of the National Intelligence Test and applied to people in six months. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

69 SELECTION METHODS tain machines, instruments and part of complex appliances where success is dependent on the understanding of their functioning. The success on this test does not depend only on the mechanical factors but the general intelligence, spatial and perceptive factors, and psychomotor abilities as well. They fall under the type of written tests and require the composition, namely the drafting of different objects. With the test of motor skills we determine the functioning of certain body parts: fingers, legs, eye sight coordination, reactions, calmness of hands, etc. By using these tests we cannot determine the skill in general but we measure certain skills, namely motor control, on which it depends how successful a candidate will be in the performance of the job. Ability tests and tests of talents are used for determination and forecasting the abilities for a certain job and additional training. The use of these tests is recommended when candidates do not have enough experience or have insufficient or no experience, and the test are to be used in relation to e.g. selection for professional training or internship. A research shows that ability tests correspond to all services. By determining the ability for a group of tasks, under which the individual service fall, it is possible to forecast the future result in the performance of work activities (Miglič and Vukovič, 2006: ) Personality and temper tests Personality and temper tests are described as criteria for the main aspects of a candidate s personality such as the extent of introvert and extrovert personality, emotional stability and motivation. It is most difficult to grade these tests for the purpose of selecting candidates since the system of personal characteristics is changeable, which makes the relationship of required abilities and personality often unclear. Furthermore, that relationship does not exist. Besides, the candidates respond easily in those tests which results in their limited validity; thus, it is difficult to justify their use in the selection of candidates for a job. Sometimes, these types of tests infringe on the private sphere of the tested persons. The tests for the examination of mental, sensory and psychomotor functions that reveal the personality structure of a candidate fall under the personality tests in a broader sense. In a narrow sense, this type of tests encompasses those meant for determination of characteristics of personality which are demonstrated through the behavioural modalities, main personal self-esteem, the main characteristics of activity, interest and motives. All personality tests and tests of temper are divided into: Analytic, and Synthetic. The analytical tests are the following: sequence of grades, questionnaires and, so called, objective tests. The questionnaires may be focused on one personal characteristic only (single phase questionnaires) or to the determination of several different personal characteristics (so called, multi-phase questionnaires). Through objective personality tests, the candidates are put in certain hypothetical but realistic situations; on the basis of their reactions we conclude how the examined characteristics are developed. O 69

70 The synthetic tests are intended for getting acquainted with the basic overall use of methods of CVs, projective techniques and psychological research in the form of conversation. Certain questions that are usually included in the personality tests are listed in table 5.6. Table 5.6: Characteristic elements of personality tests 1. I want to be successful in each activity I do. 2. I have many friends. 3. Sometimes I lose my temper when I m criticised. 4. I prefer team over individual work. 5. For me it seems more essential to perform one thing in a detailed manner that to superficially complete several tasks. O Preparation for the use of tests Different rules should be taken into consideration for an efficient use of tests: Tests should be evaluated together with all other data from a candidate s CV; Test itself must respond to the working situation and determined rules; It is good to make a difference between certain tests to see what we really want to measure; Tests should be checked by those who are already employed and se how successful or unsuccessful they are; Whenever possible, assistance from a psychologist should be sought (Table 5.7). Table 5.7: Guidelines for the use of tests GUIDELINES FOR USING TESTS 1. By analysing the job position the required abilities for the successful performance of job is prescribed in detail. 2. The types of available tests measuring the critical factors, determined by the job analysis and required for the successful performance of job are examined. 3. It is identified if the organisation is willing for to have its members tested. Is there a possibility for the resistance of employees? Is there a chance for the negative reaction of trade unions? Will the testing will distingvish good from bad candidates? 4. It is necessary to determine whether the organisation applies the objective of grading system. Although we can easily distingvish capable candidates from incapable ones it is hard to say that certain test is fully efficient, which means that it is almost impossible to reject the foundlings of a potential verification of the test. 5. It is necessary to secure equal testing conditions and circumstances for all candidates. 6. It is necessary to have a qualified person conducting the test as well as to ensure that the results of tests are kept strictly confidential. Before using the tests it is recommended to get answers to the following questions: Use of tests today and use of tests in the past what organisations are currently using tests? Why did they start using them? Why did they stop using them? What are the current experiences with testing? Literature on testing What literature examines certain tests and their application in the selection of employees? What current researches determine their usability and validity? Revision of the comments Who did a test revision? What draws one s attention in the evaluation of the test? Was the test referred to in standard reference sources? If not, what was the reason? What can be gathered about the test from independent expert organisations? HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

71 SELECTION METHODS Studies What studies support a certain test? What are the results? Who published the studies independent institutions or experts or someone who had an interest? Equal opportunities What is the opinion of human rights organisations on tests and their application in the recruitment selection? Do they assess the test as discriminatory, not related to a certain job position or as a good indicator of the ability to work in a certain service? Legal obligations What will be the consequences if it is determined that the test is discriminatory? Who will be responsible? What is the position of the consultant? Studies related to the job position If studies are required who will provide them and who will pay for those studies the organisation or the consultant? The use of described tests may bring expected results only in organisations that, on the basis of the job requirements analysis, defined profiles of ideal employees for each group of jobs and tasks Group exercises, work samples and assessment centres Special types of selection procedures are the method of observation assessment centres (or development centres) and methods of work samples. The majority of working tests are formulated in the 1920s and 1930s in Great Britain, Europe and USA. Working tests were extensively applied in the recruitment of soldiers and classified programmes of the Second World War. During 1942, the British army selected soldiers for different tasks and duties on the basis of recommendations of higher officers and interviews with military boards. Upon finding the of the system inefficient, group exercises in the form of discussion without a leadership became the key criterion of selection, as well as many practical tasks, one of which was the building of a bridge over a wide river by shot wooden trunks. This is still applied today for the selection of officers. Most group exercises were not standardised and did not give the possibility of obtaining grades due to which they had a debatable value. However, they were preferred and widely used. 20 The idea of group discussions gave inspirations to assessment centres that applied them for the selection of candidates for managers. The method was used for the first time with AT&T (American Telephone Company) in The existence of assessment centres and the method of work samples contributed to the development of simulated situations where a work sample represented a minimised version of a dally performance of work. 21 An assessment centre is a complex form of work samples which usually entails 5-10 simulated situations. For that occasion, a range of tests, exercises and meetings for the examination of feed-back information are used. The appraisals last from one to five days. The best methods are not exclusively used in the centres but a range of activities such as: O Inter alia, the CIA was the leader in using these methods of selection (in a combination with others) to select agents. 21 The first recorded work sample was shaped in 1913 for the needs of the Boston public tram transport and it comprised the estimation of distance and measurement of the average speed.

72 Exercises score a point Candidates must perform a series of memory tests connected to the business problems and activities. 22 Group discussion Candidates are members of a group which discusses business problems such as the relaxation, raise of sale and productivity. Psychological tests Candidates are subjected to different psychological tests such as an intelligence test, tests of talents and personality tests as well as tests for measuring the ability of managing and decision-making in conflict situations. Interviews Candidates have interviews with several people such as the leader of the group, employment experts and industrial psychologist. Business games The business games that include participation of candidates in the group decision-making are often prepared in assessment centres. O 72 After each activity the group of evaluators grades the candidate and, at the end of the programme, the evaluators consolidate the grades and try to harmonise individual opinions what should be the group recommendation on the eligibility of each individual candidate. For assessment centres and for the method of work samples, it is important to use two suitable approaches in processing one s abilities the approach of padding where personal characteristics are tested, such as management ability, and the result approach where a candidate must perform a certain task and gets a grade for the working results. In practice, most organisations use the first approach and test abilities such as: detailed understanding, strategic forecasting, confidence, supervision, adaptability and communication skills, etc. (Reid, Barrington, 1996: 262). Tests connected to work have two limitations. It pertains to concrete examples of work tasks that are necessarily specific in relation to certain jobs such as the system of tram transport. This requires differing work examples for drivers, mechanics, electricians, etc. Corresponding and valid working tests are very difficult to imagine especially when they are required for different types of tasks, elimination or inclusion of different people (as the environment). It is much easier to prepare working tests for routine workers in the production than for managers and clerks. Nevertheless, assessment centres are wide spread in USA and Great Britain and function, above all, as an instrument of selection for large organisations. It was established that grades given by the centres are more realistic than the ones obtained by applying other techniques. However, the price of these services is rather high. Anyhow, if they are used in an appropriate manner, the assessment centres can be a more economical way of selection method then any other Unusual methods It is very difficult to choose good staff and almost impossible to always pick the best one. Thus, most managers should be aware of frequent mistakes that the result of the application of different or unusual methods. Most of them are debatable. 22 Score a point or in processing are the exercises of the working tests for the management within the organisation dozens of papers, reminders, documents on the policies of the organisation have to be read and processed. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

73 SELECTION METHODS One of these methods is graphology which was widely used as a selection tool in Europe, when 5 percent of organisations used it in the 1970s. Later, its use was reduced although it is still occasionally used in USA and Great Britain. If graphology could mirror in detail one s personality it would be an economically very efficient tool since it enables the selection of candidates on the basis of filled forms job applications. However, it is absurd to suppose that handwriting reflects a personality. All researches clearly confirmed that graphology is not an acceptable assessment method. Periodically astrology, which is even more controversial, as well as lie detectors are tried to be used in practice. The latter is especially used for those jobs where thefts are possible (salesmen, workers in storages, bank clerks). Since 1988, the use of lie detectors has been forbidden in USA for recruitment tests except in the pubic sector. The use of lie detector is allowed in Great Britain, although the British association of psychologists advises against it Medical examinations Medical examinations are often performed by doctors engaged and paid by the employer. The purpose of a medical examination before employment is to determine the health condition of the candidate. This is important for the following reasons: To ensure that physically inappropriate persons are not assigned to certain job positions; To preventively protect the health of those already employed if presence of contagious diseases amongst the candidates is detected; To secure that the candidate is not assigned to a job position which would worsen his or her health condition; To protect the organisation from employee s requests for compensation in case of irregularities found or worsening of health condition upon the employment; To determine the candidate s suitability for life and health insurance and insurance in case of accidents. Bearing in mind the price of medical examination certain organisations propose to candidates to fill out the forms about their health condition. If real health problems are not visible from the forms the candidate is not be subjected to psychological tests. Advocates of human rights often sanction the performance of medical examinations when the nature of the job does not really require them. Taking medical examinations must be directly connected to the needs of the job Other selection techniques CV A CV is an old method of forecasting the success of a candidate and one of the weighed forms of data. It usually involves more types of data, such as standard forms of data collection, and contains different information on abilities, hobbies, sports competitions, membership to organisations, education, health, life experiences, experience in a particular professional field, as well as everything else than may O 73

74 help in determining if the criteria of success are fulfilled. A comprehensive questionnaire is used as an addition to the collection of responses connected to the job position (Table 5.8). Table 5.8: Questions that may be posed to a candidate in the form of a questionnaire Always among the best Immediately close to the best and better than average How successful were you in school? Average Below average, and better than poor Always among the worst Less than 16 years years At what age did you start working for the first time? years years years Obtained answers are compared to answers of the most successful employees. At the first sight, although these questions seem unnecessary they are connected to the characteristics determined and quantified abilities. A research defines CV as a good basis for forecasting future success in the job position. This simple and cheap technique may become very expensive if it is verified by external consultants. Despite due diligence in formulating the questionnaires, there is still a significant risk of discriminatory questions that are not connected to the job requirements. O Jury interviews committees for the interview There are two or more examiners conducting these types of interviews which enable several people to give a grade and to eliminate the factor of personal dislike or prejudice which may exist with certain individuals. A research recommends that members of the committee cooperate on the preparation of the interview and to agree that each member poses a question to each candidate. The discussion with candidates during the interview may provide additional information and better final results. It is true that cross examination could be stressful for a candidate; an additional weakness is the costs of applying this method since it also subsumes involvement of the future superior. This method is most often used in public services and for employment in the intelligence services Group interviews panels Group interviews are recommended particularly for employment at individual highly specialized places. A feature of these interviews is that a candidate is placed among other employees (3-5), who have a possibility of asking the candidate whatever interests them (of course, with limitations that refer to the prohibited questions) and write down the questions and answers (Lipičnik in Možina, 1994). The main reason for the application of this type of interviews is the reduction of possible influence on the side of persons conducting the interview. These interviews show potential quality, although they are not generally used. The problem of uncontrolled conversation often occurs where the moderator becomes a mere observer of the conversation. The organisations that use these methods place an emphasis on the personality of a candidate and his/her abilities and social skills, for example, influence, communication and intellect. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

75 SELECTION METHODS Group discussions are very useful for interviewing young candidates such as graduates or when they are used as a part of the process of assessing candidates in assessment centres Computer questionnaire One of the new approaches to interviewing job applicants is communication by computer whereby the initial interview is conducted in the form of a questionnaire filled in by the candidate on the screen without the presence of the interviewer. The typical interview includes 100 questions and lasts for 20 minutes. In this way it is possible to obtain a large amount of information. Questions that a candidate might deem inappropriate are posed without a feeling of embarrassment, very directly without an additional assistance and support. A research shows that candidates give more detailed information in this way than during a face to face interview. On the other hand, it is determined that candidates for more demanding jobs at higher levels have a feeling that they are not given enough attention which indicates that this method is maybe more suitable for recruitment at lower levels. A well done computer interview helps in avoiding the usual weaknesses of a face to face interview. A computer is a good interviewer since it conducts a conversation with the full focus and memory, precision and additional software. In this manner, an additional increase of value of a subsequent human decision-making is achieved. A computer questionnaire is a useful application for providing information on the abilities for a job position with different possibilities for identification of problematic areas, questions and answers (Table 5.9). Table 5.9: An example of a computer questionnaire 1 X, if you are placed to the position of a supervisor, how do you estimate your abilities? a My abilities are weak, it is not the job for me. d Good, even the result may be above average b Bad, but I would manage e I think that the job would be appropriate for me c Good, I think that It would be very successful f I am not sure I would be able to do it O 75 2 X, how would your superior grade your results at the previous job? a a a a b b b b c c c c 3 X, do you mind if we get in touch with your previous superior? a b Yes No

76 Video interview The latest novelty in the field of recruitment interviews is video conferencing which has great advantages in employment of candidates found in other countries or other continents. The top management of an organisation can assesses candidates on the basis of a video conference and selects those who are qualified for further interviews in the employer s headquarters. This technique is less costly in terms of time, transport and accommodation while its main weakness is the fact that candidates could feel uncomfortable, although he or she may seem composed. The experiences show that candidates usually overcome the initial nervousness and stiffness and become more comfortable as the interview goes on Selection of human resources managers O 76 The selection of human resources managers and their employment is an especially important and difficult task for which the application of several different possibilities is recommended. The ways and possibilities for a successful work of managers are numerous. However, it is essentially important that management requires a wide range of knowledge and skills. The above-mentioned factor of an ability test is rarely successful in the selection of managers. Certain studies demonstrated a significant connection between tests of mental abilities and management tests, as well as certain characteristics of a personality such as being extrovert, desire for power, need for success, envy, emotional stability these are indicators of successful management potentials. There is a tendency to correctly determine the potential necessary for successful management by a wide range of criteria (such as the potential for promotion by the superiors or assessment given by the assessment centre) Assessment centres and top level employees Assessment centres or development centres are mentioned in the previous chapter. Here, they are examined from the aspect of selecting top level employees. An assessment centre is a place where practical, substantial and valid examples from the work of top level employees are often used in the selection of employees engaged in ordinary job positions before they move to higher positions. In that sense, those individuals currently do not posses abilities necessary for the performance of the managerial duties; thus, the assessment of their current working abilities is not relevant for forecasting the future success at the top level and supervisory positions. In these cases, it is necessary to perform working test for management duties and tasks. Assessment centres are also used for the selection of sales persons, senior managers and supervisors who shall be successful in a group environment. The evaluation in the assessment centre lasts from one day to a week. The work in the centre has three characteristics: comprehensive importance of criteria, comprehensive grades and comprehensive evaluators. The overall importance of the assessment and different situational exercises and tests cover a wide range of activities and skills required for capable managers. The testing always includes a test done by a candidate by processing certain documents and messages ( scoring a point ) and where he or she must determine priority prob- HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

77 SELECTION METHODS lems and to solve them by decisions and warnings, messages, delegation or by seeking additional information. The assessment centres include testing of the aforementioned group discussions since managers spend too much time in meeting all types of groups. Here we have a game of two people (for example, the seller and the client, the superior and a problematic subordinate), managerial games, conversation with the evaluators, written tests of intelligence and personality tests and possibility of preparing and giving a speech. Through all these exercises the evaluators observe dimensions such as decision-making, planning, managerial abilities, eloquence, energy, and interpersonal sensitivity and communication skills. The possible dimensions of evaluation and exercises are based on a detailed job analysis, type and the level of the managerial position for which a candidate is appraised. If the group exercises are not used, it is necessary to evaluate more than one candidate at the same time. Usually a class of 6 to 12 candidates is organised with 3 to 6 evaluators who monitor the candidates and assess their abilities. The evaluators are mainly managers from positions two to three higher in rank from the position for which a candidate is assessed. The evaluators perform training and evaluation tasks, monitoring of candidates for exercises and then they meet (after the candidate leaves). They give grades and prepare reports on each potential candidate and define requirements for additional development. The evaluators keep records that are used together with the opinion on additional suggestions for improvement of certain candidates skills such as conducting interviews or communication skills. According to certain studies, the evaluation centre information prescribes shortterm and long-term potential for the promotion to higher ranking positions. Accuracy of assessments is often very high. Besides, the grades are equally valid for both sexes. There are certain questions on the composition of values and grades for evaluators. However, despite this issue, good evaluation centres function in an efficient manner and search for qualitative managerial potentials. The centres are the most expensive instrument of selection. The high validity of the selection process on one side and potentially high losses (if an incapable manager is engaged) on the other side justify the invested costs and lead to the conclusion that centres are a better instrument for a good selection of managers Other methods of selection of the top level employees When it is not possible to use the assessment centres the two complementary selection methods are recommended: Firstly, the candidates references are carefully verified; Then the interview with the candidate is conducted in order to draft in the best possible way the characteristics of a candidate. A careful analysis of the previous work of a candidate, dimensions derived from the description of the interview and behavioural characteristics of a candidate may be determined as well as his or her references. Very useful information may be obtained from the examination of the previous behaviour of the candidate in situations similar to those at work. O 77

78 Some organisations hire psychologists as consultants who give individual estimation of a candidate for employment at the medium and top level. The appraisal process usually includes collection of information on work and the organisation, on the candidate (CV, questionnaires, cognitive and personality tests, interviews, etc.) (Picture 5.1). At the end, all information is evaluated, consolidated and put in a report of the evaluator where the candidates advantages, weaknesses and work abilities are examined in detail. O 78 Picture 5.1: Recommendations for the selection of managers which come from the business strategy of the organisation MAIN OFFICIAL SITUATION SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL CADIDATES TASKS Beginners Overview of the situation Liquidation / taking over poorly performed task Shaping of business vision Formation of nucleus of technical and marketing experts Building of managerial team. Quick and precise diagnosis of a problem Definition of short-term and long-term problems Reduction of losses Making difficult decisions Making best deals Vision on completed tasks Oriented to work employee Detailed knowledge of critical technical fields Organisational abilities, ability to shape the working group, ability to form teams Resilience and high level of energy Personal attractiveness and charisma Broad knowledge of all key functions Strong leader, support changes Great analytical and diagnostic abilities, especially in the field of finance Superb business strategist Takes risk Able to work under pressure Good abilities for crisis management Good negotiator Isensible; firm opinions, wants to be a bad guy High analytical treatment of expenses/revenues, how the things are currently moving Takes risk Does not want glory; desire for dirty work and not glamour Wants to be respected and not to be necessarily required The selection of managers may also have the additional positive result the organisation is forced to start thinking about abilities of managers it expects to have. In the selection of top level employees the organisation itself should define the desirable type of mangers abilities and characteristics that correspond to the business strategy and the internal organisational environment Selection procedure Strategies and techniques of human resources selection The purpose of the selection is to find those individuals who, from a group of candidates, will be employed. The ideal would be that the employer hires the best candidates and reject the weak ones. If the preparation of selection and appraisal are well organised, with the application of realistic and valid tests, choosing of the best candidates is almost guaranteed. Numerous organisations use several selection methods in order to secure information on candidates. Usually, those methods are applied in different fields from the field of making top management decisions and tests that contain many obstacles for the candidates. Candidates must express themselves in each selection field from the beginning to the end. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

79 SELECTION METHODS Frequently, human resources units take the responsibility for the first rounds of selection, conducting the interviews and keeping records of the verification of candidates abilities. Following that, one or more managers or supervisors conduct interviews with the survivors. At the end, the job offer is prepared for those who passed all tests, the medical examinations are performed and the chosen candidate is employed. (Picture 5.2) Picture 5.2: Typical steps in the preparation of a selection procedure Information forms Refusal of certain candidates Introductory interview Refusal of certain candidates Tests Refusal of certain candidates Additional interviews Refusal of certain candidates Verification of references Refusal of certain candidates Conditional offer Certain candidates reject offer Medical examination Employment O Advantages of a careful strategic selection Organisations change their system of selection. Some of them only prepare a summary of the data from the forms and received reports, interviews, tests, repeated interviews, verification of candidates background and other means of assessment. A weak selection may produce subsequent additional expenses as opposite to a diligent selection which, later on, brings numerous advantages and benefits. The verification of knowledge of mathematics and reading abilities often results in an unexpected percentage of unsatisfactory knowledge. In the labour market, where the less capable are generally predominant, a careful selection is needed even more. This, at the same time, forces potential candidates to begin to prepare in a timely manner for the future requests of selection and the further work. A sociologist can emphasize that organisations need employees trained and motivated for the performance of tasks and roles in the team. Each of the employees must be chosen through a careful selection and additional training should be provided following the employment and socialization with the job position. A superficial selection causes a need for additional training and supervision and causes an increase of expenses, which means that higher expenses in the selection phase mean lower costs after the employment. The reduction of expenses by adequate selection may be very far-reaching A research showed that the use of cognitive tests for the selection of employees (for example 5.000) resulted in the savings of euro annually for the European Union administration. At the same time, the Government of USA saved 15,6 billions $ annually by improving the strategy of labour selection.

80 O 80 The selection of the right people is also important for the introduction of proven successful strategies into an organisation. The strategy of the organisation subsequently penetrates the process of defining the working tasks and makes selection dependable on the development of the individual services. If, for example, the organisation decides to build its competitive position on the basis of a polite and personal approach, the specification of a job position must be adjusted to this new trend. At the same time, the selection procedures will have to identify personnel having the required abilities through the adequate criteria for the selection of candidates. This argument entails that the strategy of the organisation is clear, known and correctly introduced and that it may be used for the determination of capable people who will implement the same strategy. However, experts notice that the world changing quickly and its uncertainties impose a need for organisations to change their strategies even before they are in the situation to employ human resources appropriate to a new strategy (in this manner they would achieve certain benefits). The other approach in organisational strategy is based on the position that, firstly, it is necessary to pay attention to human resources and, subsequently, formulate the strategy. The organisations start to understand that the human resources potential of the organisation is the basis of their competition strategy. The highest level of knowledge, adaptability and innovation of employees is a competitive advantage, which results in a technological and market advantage. These profiles may formulate a broader range of new strategies that will be adjusted to changes in the environment. The request to employ the best candidates that can be found is better than searching for someone who just currently satisfies the immediate requirements of a job position or strategy which is valid today and will be changed tomorrow. Bearing in mind that work in the organisation that change rapidly requires collective efforts, agreement and management in that new context the expression the best entails having the most intelligent, most capable human resources suitable for complex interpersonal human relations. HUMAN RESOURCES RECRUITMENT IN STATE ADMINISTRATION

81 Bibliography 6. Bibliography 1. Armstrong, M. (1991) A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice. 4. edition. London: Kogan Page. 2. Bee, F.; Bee, R. (1994) Training Needs Analysis and Evaluation. Institute of Personnel and Development. Exter: Short Run Press. 3. Brannick, T. Mi.; Levine, L. E. (1997) Job specification. V: Peters, L. H.; Greer, R. C.; Youngblood, A., S. (editor): Human Resource Management, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management, vol. IX. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Cook, M. (1996) Personnel Selection and Productivity. 2. edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 5. Fisher, C. D.; Schoenfeldt, L. F.; Shaw, B. J. (1999) Human Resource Management. 4. edition. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 6. Harrison, R. (1991) Training and Development. Institute of Personnel Management. London. 7. Harrison, R. (1995): Employee Development. London: Institute of Personnel Management. 8. Jug, J. (2002) Zagotavljanje kadrovskih virov. Kranj: Fakulteta za organizacijske vede. 9. Leskovar, R. (2005) Podpora izvajanja studija s paketom Moodle - izkušnje in perspektive = Studies implementation support using the moodle package - experience and perspectives. V: Kaluža, J. (ur.). Sinergija metodologij : zbornik 24. mednarodne konference o razvoju organizacionih znanosti, Slovenija, Portorož, marec 2005 : proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Organizational Science Development, Slovenia, Portorož, March 16-18, Kranj: Moderna organizacija, 2005, str Lipičnik, B.; Mežnar, D. (1998) Ravnanje z ljudmi pri delu (Human Resources Managament). Ljubljana: Gospodarski vestnik. 11. Miglič, G.; Vukovič, G (2006): Spretnosti vodenja in sporazumevanja. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za javno upravo, Upravna akademija. 12. Možina, S. idr. (1994) Management. Radovljica: Didakta. 13. Ovsenik, M. (1995) Ocenjevalni razgovor. Ljubljana: Visoka šola za socijalno delo. 14. Ovsenik, M.; Marinko, I. (1997) Oblikovanje novih metod didaktičnih pripomočkov pri kadrovskem svetovanju. Ljubljana: Leila. 15. Reid, M. A.; Barrington, H. (1996) Training Interventions. Employee Development. London: Institute of Personnel and Development. 16. Rummler, G. A. (1987) Determining Needs. V: Craig, L. R. (editor): Training and Development Handbook, A Guide to Human Resource Development. 3. edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company Rynes, S. L. (1997a): Job description. V: Nicholson, N. (editor): Organisational Behavior, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management, vol. VI. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Rynes, S. L. (1997b) Person specification. V: Nicholson, N. (editor): Organisational Behavior, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management, vol. VI. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Stanley, L. A. (1987) Guide to Training Need Assessment. Ljubljana: International Centre for Public Enterprises & Developing Countries. 20. Stone, R. J. (1995) Human Resource Management. Milton: John Wiley i Sons. 21. Svetlik, I. (1995) Kakovost delovnega življenja. V: Svetlik, I. (ur.): Kakovost življenja v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: FDV Svetlik, I. (1998) Analiza dela in določanje lastnosti delavcev. V: Možina, S. (ur.): Menedžment kadrovskih virov. Ljubljana: FDV Treven, s. (1998): Management človeških virov. Ljubljana: Gospodarski vestnik. 24. Vukovič, G.; Leskovar, R. (2004) Work rehabilitation and computer education for children with special needs. V: Simpozijum sa međunarodnim učešćem Interdisciplinarni aspekti u edukaciji i rehabilitaciji, Tuzla, oktobar Tuzla: Univerzitet, 2005, str Vukovič, G.; Miglič, Č. (2006): Zagotavljanje kadrovskih virov. Kranj: Založba Moderna organizacija. 26. Završnik, B. (2004) Negotiation skills of Slovenian manager s. Tekstilec. Zv. 47, št. 1/2, O 81