Citizenship Policies in an Era of Globalization

Transcription

1 Citizenship Policies in an Era of Globalization Still the Prerogative of the Nation-State? Maarten Vink Maastricht University European University Institute

2 Questions & Answers Is citizenship still the prerogative of the nation-state? Yes, but Therefore, we still see major differences What are the main trends in citizenship policies in Europe? Equal treatment women / men (ius sanguinis) Inclusion 2nd and/or 3rd generation (ius soli) Acceptance of dual citizenship Introduction of integration conditions Withdrawal of citizenship

3 Ia. Citizenship A legal status and relation between an individual and a state that entails specific legal rights and duties Universal Declaration: right to citizenship (Art. 15) Citizenship policies regulate the acquisition and loss of citizenship In citizenship law or nationality law, but in some countries also in Constitution Traditionally seen as last bastion of sovereignty The rules to determine who is a citizen (and who not) fall within domaine réservé of states

4 Ib. Citizenship: the European Union Every person with the nationality of a member state is a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship. Increasing constraints through the case law of the Court of Justice of the EU. National competence needs to be exercised with due regard to Community law (Micheletti). For example, withdrawal of citizenship should observe the principle of proportionality so far as concerns the consequences it entails for the situation of the person concerned in the light of European Union law (Rottmann).

5 European Convention on Nationality (1997)

6 IIa. Patterns in citizenship policies Traditional typologies, e.g. Civic vs. ethnic regimes; Inclusive vs. exclusive regimes Citizenship regimes defy easy generalization as citizenship is closely linked to political and demographic context of a state state-building processes migration experiences changing political contexts Citizenship laws can be inclusive to some, while exclusive to others

7 Purpose Intergenerational continuity Territorial inclusion Singularity Special ties Genuine link Functional component Ius sanguinis: acquisition by descent Ius soli: acquisition by birth in territory Loss of citizenship due to voluntary renunciation Ordinary naturalisation: residence conditions Ordinary naturalisation: language conditions Ordinary naturalisation: economic conditions Ordinary naturalisation: assimiliation conditions Ordinary naturalisation: renounce former citizenship Loss of citizenship due to acquisition other citizenship Special naturalisation: cultural affinity Special naturalisation: reacquisition by former citizens Loss of citizenship due to residence abroad Vink and Baubock (2013)

8 Citizenship configurations: a typology Ethnocultural inclusion Strong Ethnoculturally selective Expansive Weak Insular Territorially selective Weak Strong Territorial inclusion Vink and Baubock (2013)

9 Online observatory 47 Countries Information on citizenship laws Country profiles Laws / Case law Country reports Comparative tables and citizenship law indicators (36 countries) Statistics News & Discussion

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11 IIIa. Trends in citizenship policies Instrumentalization Since 1980s Citizenship policies as integration policies Elite-driven Politicization Since 1990s Citizenship policies as identity policies Society-driven Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

12 IIIb. Trends in citizenship policies 1. Equal treatment men / women - Extension of ius sanguinis 2. Inclusion 2nd and/or 3rd generation - Extension of ius soli 3. Acceptance of multiple citizenship 4. Introduction of integration conditions 5. Securitization and withdrawal of citizenship Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

13 1. Extension and limitation of ius sanguinis Introduction of citizenship attribution iure sanguinis a patre et a matre FRA IRE GER POR FIN SWI* ( 45) ( 56) ( 75) ( 81) GRE ( 06) ( 84) SPA DEN ICE BEL ( 78) ( 82) NET SWI* NOR AUT ( 85) SWE ITA ( 79) UK ( 83) Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

14 1. Extension and limitation of ius sanguinis Extension to children born out of wedlock LUX (87), DE (93), ICE (98) DEN (99), UK (02), FIN (03), NOR (06) for biological fathers SWE (05) also to non-biological mother (art. ins.) Open question: surrogate mothers? Cf. Genovese v. Malta (ECtHR, 11 October 2011) Citizenship has an impact on social identity Gender discrimination violates Art. 8 ECHR Conditional when born abroad, 1 parent citizen SLO (registration), LAT, LIT (parental consent) Limitation to first generation born abroad BE (85), DE (00); see also IRE, POR and UK Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

15 2. Extension and limitation of ius soli Ius soli countries amend their ius soli principle UK (83: perm. residence), IRE (04: 3 years) Ius sanguinis countries introduce ius soli GER (00: 8 years)*, GRE (10: 5 years, both parents) * with obligatory citizenship choice between 18-23! Ius sanguinis countries provide for ex lege acquisition via double ius soli FRA, NET (53), SPA (82), BEL (92), POR (06), LUX (09), GRE (10) Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

16 Ius soli (birthright)

17 Trends: access to citizenship by birth at territory ( ius soli )

18 3. Increasing acceptance of multiple citizenship Extension ius sanguinis /ius soli à increasing occurrence of multiple citizenship à why avoid dual citizenship in case of naturalization (immigrants + emigrants), but accept multiple citizenship for children with parents with different citizenships, or for second and third generation immigrants?

19 Renunciation Loss due to Strasbourg Second ECN demand voluntary Convention Protocol acquisition (Ch. 1) AUT Yes Yes Yes Yes BEL (2008) (2008) BUL Yes (1948) Yes CYP CZE Yes (1993) Yes (1993) Yes DEN Yes Yes Yes Yes EST Yes (1992) Yes (1992) FIN (2003) (2003) Yes FRA (1973) (2009) (2009) GER Yes * (2000) Yes * (2002) Yes GRE HUN Yes ICE (2003) Yes IRE

20 Renunciation Loss Strasbourg 2 nd Prot. ECN ITA (1992) (1992) (2010) (2010) LAT Yes Yes LIT Yes Yes LUX (2009) (2009) (2009) MAL NET Yes * Yes * Yes Yes Yes NOR Yes Yes Yes Yes POL Yes * POR (1981) Yes ROM Yes SLK Yes (2010) Yes SLN Yes SPA Yes (1990) * Yes (1990) * SWE (2001) (2001) (2002) Yes SWI (1992) UK

21 Fully tolerated Only for immigrants Tolerated in prac6ce Not tolerated (excep6ons) Not tolerated Only for emigrants Dual citizenship

22 4. Naturalization: opening + thickening Residence requirements Introduction/restriction integration conditions Increasing costs of naturalisation Great variety: from 0 to 1300 euro (Greece)

23 Naturalization: years of residence

24 Trends: language tests

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28 Trends: civic knowledge tests

29 5. Withdrawal of citizenship Status of citizenship less secure? Discovery of fraudulent acquisition DK (06), FI (03), NL (03), BE (06), DE (06) time? Deprivation due to criminal or prejudicial behavior UK 02, DK 04 International instruments (ex.): Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961) European Convention on Nationality (1997)

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31 To conclude Citizenship still (largely) prerogative of national state Different types of regimes No single European approach Some (contrasting) European trends More emphasis on role of citizenship in integration process: ius soli, toleration dual citizenship, decreasing residence req. More emphasis on symbolic dimension: language & integration, ceremonies

32 Bibliography Vink, M. and R. Bauböck (2013). Citizenship Configurations: Analysing the Multiple Purposes of Citizenship Regimes in Europe. Comparative European Politics. Forthcoming. Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2013). Citizenship Policies in the European Union: International Framework and Domestic Trends. In M. Lopez and M. Siegel, eds. A World in Motion: Trends in Migration and Migration Policy. Oxford University Press. Forthcoming. Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2010). Citizenship Attribution in Western Europe: International Framework and Domestic Trends. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(5) Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2010). Birthright Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/8. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 35. De Groot, G.R. and M. Vink (2010). Loss of Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/4. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 52.