Education, English and Positive Psychology

Transcription

1 東洋大学人間科学総合研究所紀要 第 12 号 Education, English and Positive Psychology Joseph E. RING Abstract This article introduces the current state of educational research and research methods in positive psychology. Furthermore the current state of educational research in second language acquisition and positive psychology is touched upon. Theoretical and pedagogical ideals, such as the notion of a positive teacher will also be discussed. As a newly emerging field, positive psychology needs more research to test its theories. This article concludes by mentioning guidelines for research in positive psychology and details a practical application of positive psychology in a Japanese university EFL context. Keywords : positive psychology, strengths based education, positive research, research guidelines, educational psychology What is Positive Psychology? Positive psychology is a new research field. It is defined as the attempt to study both human strengths and human weaknesses scientifically. The term positive psychology arose within the past twenty years to indicate a focus on improving the human condition through scientific research. Positive psychologists, researchers and workers in the behavioral sciences such as teachers who subscribe to the tenets of positive psychology attempt to discover people s strengths in order to promote their optimal functioning. Unlike earlier attempts in humanistic psychology, positive psychology is primarily research-based with special attention given to measurement issues. This is a more balanced approach than has been attempted before in the human sciences A lecturer in the Faculty of Economics, and a member of the Institute of Human Sciences at Toyo University

2 12 東洋大学人間科学総合研究所紀要 第 12 号 2010 (Simonton & Baumeister, 2005). I have given a separate and more thorough introduction to the topic of positive psychology in a separate publication (Ring, in press). Much more thorough resources are The Handbook of Positive Psychology (2005) and Positive Psychology: The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths for a general introduction (2007). The basic principle which guides research in positive psychology is a deliberate, conscious effort to reconceptualize and overcome the past research emphasis on the tenebrous areas of the human mind and spirit. Positive psychologists believe that there has been a past over-emphasis on a defect model of the mind and that this over-emphasis has unduly influenced scientific research in psychology. Positive psychologists and researchers believe it is important to also discover and develop individual and group strengths and promulgate those strengths through positive institutions and programs. Criteria and Principles Now let us consider what criteria and principles should guide research in positive psychology, as suggested by some of the leading researchers and pioneers in the field. The outline of criteria is explicated in a later section of this article. Three Criteria According to Diener and Suh (1997) the following criteria can be used to guide research in positive psychology. 1. Decisions, choices, and goals indicate value to the people who make them. 2. People have the capacity to judge how satisfying goals and outcomes are for them. 3. The appropriateness of people s choices and judgments can be evaluated within a given context or culture once the normative structures and value systems are known. Therefore appropriate interventions and methods which promote optimal functioning through therapy and education can be developed. I will treat each of the three criteria in more detail below. Three Principles According to Seligman (2002), there are three important axioms which guide positive psychological research. They are positive subjective experience, positive institutions and communities, and positive individual strengths. The goal of the positive psychology field is use these principles to study what is best, worst and can be improved and what can be left unchanged about the human condition. These principles guide research to answer questions about how individuals use their strengths to promulgate enabling institutions and how, in turn, these institutions foster conditions which promote optimal functioning for individuals, for instance. Thus far positive psychological research includes discovery or clarification of some of the following

3 RING: Education, English and Positive Psychology 13 examples of individual and collective strengths. In 2004, a handbook was published which gathers together (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) thus far, the known following categories of character strengths. These are wisdom and knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. For example, in the area of wisdom and knowledge, examples include creativity, open-mindedness, and love of learning. Another example, in the category of temperance, includes strengths such as humility, self-regulation, and prudence (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, as cited in Linley & Harrington, 2006). Guidelines for research are given an overview in the next section. Research as the Foundation Research is at the center of the current positive psychology movement. This is quite different than earlier humanistic psychological endeavors which eventually became marginalized due to a lack of strong research and methods (Simonton & Baumeister, 2005). Several guidelines and considerations have been suggested by Lopez, Snyder, and Rasmussen to facilitate research efforts for the benefit of positive psychology (2005). First, they maintain that it is important to give consideration to the universality of human fulfillment (Lopez, Snyder, & Rasmussen, 2005, p. 7). In other words, a focused effort on researching what makes a good life, education or environment. Second, positive psychological researchers are still in the process of creating, validating, and utilizing instruments that can explain psychological strengths and processes. That is to say, the field is still in the early stages of research development and instrument validation. Third, it is important to take a balanced approach to testing hypotheses by examining the strengths as well as the weaknesses of the participants. Fourth, researchers in this field should give due consideration to the influence of environmental/contextual influences on optimal functioning. I will describe each of the four research considerations in more detail below and outline a general schema for conducting research. The term fulfillment is meant to convey what is good in life. What constitutes the good life has been a matter of sophisticated philosophical speculation since the time of Socrates in ancient Athens. However, positive psychological researchers are now making a concerted effort to research and study this issue. For example, current research areas include social relations, meaningful study, employment, and well-being. Whether or not universal fulfillments exist has not yet been established. Cross-cultural research in terms of establishing a universal criterion variable for optimal psychological functioning, though difficult, is essential to advancing positive psychological science (Lopez, Snyder, & Rasmussen, 2005, p. 9). Researchers in this field are currently seeking to establish whether or not universal fulfillment variables exist. At the heart of research in positive psychology is the attempt to measure dynamic means of living that facilitate adaptation, growth, and the attainment of fulfillments (Lopez, Snyder, & Rasmussen, 2005, p. 8). Admittedly, this is a difficult task. However, technological advances such as mood measurements via mobile

4 14 東 洋 大 学 人 間 科 学 総 合 研 究 所 紀 要 第 12 号 (2010) phone technology and statistical advances in longitudinal research design may facilitate attempts at measuring dynamic processes. Next, I discuss research into the role of the environment and contextual influences from a positive psychological perspective. Positive psychological researchers need to be aware of the contextual/environmental sources of influence. Current areas of research include investigating how the environment allows people to demonstrate their strengths in an optimal fashion. Other constraints on behavior and research into those constraints include the interrelationship between person and environment and how they mutually influence each other, for example. Finally, in terms of organizing methods of data collection in a research design, Wright s (1991) four-front, balanced approach has been advocated as the main research method in the field of positive psychology. This approach is designed primarily to create a balanced observational scheme that allows for the observation of participants patterns of stability, growth, and decline. Though this approach was originally designed for clinical research, it is also applicable to education. It is the methodological research approach now being advocated for positive psychology in general (Lopez, Snyder, & Rasmussen, 2005). The four fronts are as follows. First, it is important to discover what habits and tendencies of the individual participant are undermining that person. Next, in keeping with the balanced approach of positive psychology, it is necessary to also identify the participants positive powers and resources. Third, in keeping with the importance of the role and influence of the environment, it is important to identify negative influences in the environment, and conversely, to identify assets and potential opportunities within the environment. The observational scheme is supported through researching what weaknesses and strengths the individual contributes to the problems and how effectively the individual deals with challenges. It is also important to identify what environmental influences block optimal functioning and what environmental resources promote optimal functioning. Positive Education Mastery in Teaching The next discussion will consider example characteristics of an ideal teacher as seen from a positive psychology perspective. Keep in mind, very little Japan-specific evidence is widely available. Furthermore, there seems to be a wide gap between pedagogy and research/researchers in Japan from the tertiary at least down as far as the junior high school level as far as second language acquisition research is concerned (Riley, 2008). Though, as noted, there is yet little research investigating positive teachers, there are some characteristics which master teachers appear to have in common. According to Synder and Lopez (2007) such teachers tend to feel that they have a calling or mission to teach (Snyder & Lopez, 2007). Those who feel such a strong sense of vocation also tend to be highly motivated to motivate their own students and demonstrate a profound and

5 RING: Education, English and Positive Psychology 15 strong love for teaching (Snyder & Lopez, 2005, p. 396). Furthermore, such teachers tend to take a learnercentered approach and are sympathetic to their students. That is, students feel as if the teachers are genuinely concerned about their educations and also care about them as individuals. Though such teachers have insight and understanding into their student s feelings and thought processes, they still have expectations of excellence for their students. They expect that their students will perform well. Such teachers tend to expect students to become independent learners. This expectation contrasts greatly with the teacher-centered approach still applied heavily in Japan today. Master teachers have a strong sense of efficacy and belief in their ability to influence student academic behavior. Passion for teaching does not necessarily grant insight into student behavior or mastery of the craft and, as mentioned above, there is not much research widely available investigating master teacher behavior. On the other hand, there is promising research that demonstrates a long list of positive behaviors associated with teachers with high levels of efficacy who have a strong belief in their ability to influence student behavior and academic outcomes (Bandura, 1997). Teacher Influence A large body of research suggests that, the power of teachers to influence students for better or not is substantial. For example, Heywood, Dweck, and Cain (1992, as cited in Snyder & Lopez, 2005) investigated young learners attribution patterns (subjective explanations of success/failure) in response to teacher criticism. They found that teachers criticism of kindergarten student projects influenced 39% of the students in the sample to the point where they showed a helpless response to the teachers criticism: exhibiting negative affect, changing their original positive opinions of the project to more negative ones, and expressing disinclination toward future involvements in that type of project. In addition, those children were more likely to make negative judgments about themselves that were internal, stable, and global (Heywood, Dweck, and Cain, 1992, Snyder & Lopez, 2005, p. 250). Another study which demonstrates the influential power of a teacher s explanatory style is a 1998 study by Mueller and Dweck (as cited in Snyder & Lopez, 2005), who showed that even teacher praise can have a negative impact on a student if the trait being praised, such as intelligence in this case, is perceived as fixed and stable by the student. The students in the study demonstrated more helplessness in the face of failure than students who received praise based on effort. Thus, how a teacher expresses feedback, even positive feedback, can have a strong, perhaps even critical, shaping influence on student development (Dweck, 1999, as cited in Snyder & Lopez, 2005). Focusing primarily on a teacher s explanatory style, as we have above, research shows that negative or positive feedback of the wrong factor can have a strong influence on student behavior. In the next section, I will discuss foundational aspects of positive schooling, such as care, trust, feedback and goals.

6 16 東 洋 大 学 人 間 科 学 総 合 研 究 所 紀 要 第 12 号 (2010) Foundations Finally, now that we have touched upon characteristic behaviors of master teachers, let us take a brief look at aspects of positive schooling. What does a positive education entail? Thus far, research by Snyder and Lopez (2007) shows the following elements present in the positive educational process and environment. First of all, Snyder and Lopez (2007, p. 384) assert that positive schooling starts with a foundation of care, trust, and respect for diversity, where teachers develop tailored goals for each student to engender learning and then work with him or her to develop plans and motivation to reach their goals. At the University level, overly disruptive students are not as much of an issue as at the secondary, middle, and primary levels. However, uncooperative or unengaged students are still present, in my experience. Rather than ignoring or singling out such students for corrective behavior, finding out their interests and strengths before, during, or after class is one possible way of establishing trust. It is, at least in my experience, an opportunity to show some care for the student. I recommend a behavioral matrix with explanatory notes and feedback (see Appendix) as a way to keep track of students interests, strengths and needs. Such a behavioral scheme can be included in a student s portfolio or can also be explained to each student directly. I apply it in both ways and also use it for consultations with students during office hours/appointments. I have found it to be a useful form of feedback and observation over the past several years, regardless of an individual student s level of engagement. Furthermore, regardless of method of interaction, feedback is an important tool for a positive teacher. Because a teacher who subscribes to the tenets of positive psychology tries to find ways to make students look good. Unless students sense the teacher s respect, they will not take the risks that are so important for learning (Snyder & Lopez, 2007, p. 387). Taking a positive strengths based approach to the learning act, one most also have respect for the diversity of individual students abilities, learning proclivities, and goals, which is the subject of the next section. Goals As an organizational axiom, goal directed behavior is common to all living beings. Goals and the value systems that prioritize them are the fundamental source of individual variation in behavior, according to Locke (2005). That is why a positive teacher must necessarily capitalize on the individual goals of each student, and must respect their diverse hopes and strengths. One must do so in order to assist them to perform optimally in the learning process. For a more detailed discussion of the importance of level of difficulty for goal selection and goal agency, see the excellent overview by Locke (2005). What follows is a précis based mainly on Locke s discussion. Selecting an appropriate level of difficulty is an important but challenging task for a teacher. Research has consistently found that if a person s engagement in a goal is sufficient and their abilities are also sufficient, the

7 RING: Education, English and Positive Psychology 17 amount of energy or agency expended will match the challenge level of the goal. That is to say, demanding goals will yield great effort. Easily accomplished goals will yield low effort. Success at a relatively easy undertaking provides no new information for altering one s sense of self-efficacy, whereas mastery of challenging tasks conveys salient evidence of enhanced competence. The rate and pattern of attainment furnish additional information for judging personal efficacy. Thus, people who experience setbacks but detect relative progress will raise their perceived efficacy more than those who succeed but see their performances leveling off compared to their prior rate of improvement (Bandura, 1977, p. 201). Next I will discuss why it is important to give students specific goals as opposed to general ones. It may not be the best instructional approach to unthinkingly exhort students to simply do their best. Rather, specifying how, how much, and for how long students need to exert agency will lead to better performance. In fact, people working toward specific, difficult goals reliably outperform those trying to do their best or those trying for specific, moderate or specific, easy goals (Locke, 2005, p. 305). Furthermore, feedback about performance in relation to specific goal attainment is effective. A person s performance or levels of effort will not improve without a well understood standard and clear target behavior in which to gauge their progress by (Locke, 2005). Vague goals and poorly delineated standards will be of minimal utility and effect. Next, I will give a brief discussion of a practical example of a behavioral scheme which I have utilized for a number of years now with, I believe, good effect. Practical Example As one focus of this article is individual strength based educational practices and research, I will give positive individual strengths research a more thorough treatment in this section. What follows is an introductory explanation of how I utilize an observational format to assess, support, and give feedback to students. I use this individual student evaluation system in every course that I teach. As can be seen in the format of the rubric in the Appendix, there is room for recording short notes pertaining to a student s strengths and needs. This can be used as both a diagnostic tool at the beginning of the semester and as a form of feedback at semester end. This particular example is designed to be used in a Language Acquisition class so it also contains room for making brief notes pertaining to the various areas of language study. For example, in a communicative language class, in section 1, you can use this to make notes for each student for a one on one communication test, as part of their course evaluation. You make notes in the bottom border where vocabulary etc. is written, in section 2. Notes of whether or not they have fulfilled the criteria for that particular course in each particular category can also be made. In section 1 of the strengths area, you make note of each student s particular strong points at that point in time, whether it is a noticeable improvement

8 18 東 洋 大 学 人 間 科 学 総 合 研 究 所 紀 要 第 12 号 (2010) from the beginning of the course or a personality variable such as self-confidence. In any event, you try to find something positive to note for each student. Of course, there is the occasional student who needs retesting or student who fails but even in that case, you try to find something positive to say to the student and to write down under their evaluation. Again, in section 1, under the needs area, you make note of the reasons why they did not fulfill the criteria for the class or of some future area of study. At the end of the communication test, you immediately give feedback on the student s performance and an explanation of the student s grade. Compared to past classes in which I have not used this rubric, I have found this to be a powerful motivational opportunity. Of course, from the very first class at the beginning of the semester, goals, schedule, and standards of the class need to be made explicit and feedback on rate and quality of goal directed motivation needs to be given on a weekly basis at the beginning and end of every class. In summary, a practical example of how I attempt to apply the principles of positive psychology in the second language acquisition classroom has been explained. This application, in the main, is in keeping with Locke s recommendations outlined above. Concluding Observations This article has offered a theoretical and research-based introduction to positive psychological pedagogy for teachers and researchers in education and in applied linguistics. The importance of focusing on individual student s strengths in a supportive student-teacher environment has been emphasized. Finally, in keeping with positive psychological research guidelines, a brief, applied example of an observational scheme which I have used with moderate success was described. Certainly more supporting research for the principles or practices cited in this article is needed. Some promising initial research by Ring (2006) and Kito and Hamada (2008) on strengths based education in second language acquisition has been conducted. Though positive psychology is a relatively new field, it has grown into a strong, research-based endeavor within the human sciences. There are many areas and human strengths which still need to be researched. Applied linguistics and general education in Japan are relatively unexplored frontiers which may offer exciting discoveries in potentia. I would like to conclude with the words of Martin Seligman (1998), former president of the American Psychological Association, who has done much pioneering research in the fields of depression, learned helplessness, learned optimism, and positive psychology: the positive social science of the 21st century will have as a useful side effect the possibility of prevention of the serious mental illnesses; for there are a set of human strengths that most likely buffer against mental illness: courage, optimism, interpersonal skill, work ethic, hope, responsibility, future-mindedness, honesty, and perseverance, to name several. But it will have as its direct effect a scientific understanding of the practice of civic virtue and the pursuit of the best things in life (Seligman, 1998, para. 10).

9 RING: Education, English and Positive Psychology 19 In order to help fulfill such a vision, a scientific investigation into individual and group motivational constructs will be of importance in establishing a wider and deeper body of knowledge to guide us in both our educational practice and our pursuits. References Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1997). Measuring quality of life: Economic, social, and subjective indicators. Social Indicators Research, 40, Kito, K., & Hamada, Y. (2008). Japanese high school students emotional ratings of the four skills: A first step towards strength-based education. In T. Newfields & P. Wanner, & M. Kawate-Mierzejewska (Eds.), Divergence and convergence, educating with integrity: Proceedings of the 7th annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference, Kyoto, Japan. pp Retrieved October 23, 2009 from Linley, P. A., & Harrington, S. (2006). Playing to your strengths. The Psychologist, 19(2), Locke, E. A. (2005). Setting goals for life and happinesss. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R., & Rasmussen, H. N. (2005). Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and Measures. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. Riley, P. A. (2008). Reform in English language teaching in Japan. 人 間 環 境 学 会 紀 要, 第 9 号 (March). Retrieved October 23, 2009 from NI /Body/link/ pdf Ring, J. E. (2006). [Strengths Based Education]. Unpublished Raw Data. Ring, J.E. (in press). An Introduction to Positive Psychology Part I: Individuals. Toyo University Journal of Economics. Seligman, M. E. P. (1998c). Positive social science. APA Monitor, 29(4). Retrieved October 23, 2009 from Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (pp. 3-12). New York: Oxford Press. Simonton, D. K., & Baumeister, R. F. (2005). Positive psychology at the summit. Review of General Psychology, 9, Snyder, C. R., & López, S. J. (2007). Positive psychology: the scientific and practical explorations of human strengths. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. Wright, B. A. (1991). Labeling: The need for greater person-environment individuation. In C. R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective. New York: Pergamon Press.

10 20 東洋大学人間科学総合研究所紀要 第 12 号 2010 Appendix Section 1 Is used to write comments and note future instructional options. Section 2 Can be used to make notes of whether course assessment areas are fulfilled or not.

11 The Bulletin of the Institute of Human Sciences, Toyo University, No. 12 英語教育とポジティブ心理学についての研究 ジョゼフ E リング 心理学の新しい分野であるポジティブ心理学の研究とその研究方法の現状について また ポジティブ心理学が第 2 言語の修得にどのように応用されるかについて 実例 を含めた考察 キーワード ポジティブ心理学 長所肯定の教育 生徒の長所 自身についての調査 研究方法 実例 人間科学総合研究所研究員 東洋大学経済学部 21