Fuel Cells and Their Applications
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1 Karl Kordesch, Giinter Simader Fuel Cells and Their Applications VCH Weinheim New York Basel Cambridge Tokyo
2 Contents 1. Introduction Fuel Cell Technology: a Dream, Challenge or a Necessity? The Historic Trends in Fuel Cell System Developments Current Projects and Applications For Fuel Cells Fuel Cell Technology Programs in the USA and Canada Fuel Cell Activities in Japan Fuel Cell Programs in Europe Fuels for Fuel Cells: More Reformer Development Fuel Cell Operated Electric Vehicles Outlook for Fuel Cell Technology 7 2. General Aspects of Fuel Cell Systems Introduction "Fuel Cells as Energy Converter" Classification of Fuel Cell Systems Characteristics of Fuel Cell Systems High Efficiency and Reliability Unparalleled Environmental Performance Unique Operating Characteristics Planning Flexibility Future Potential Economic Benefits of Fuel Cell Systems The Potential Fuel Cell Market, Production Volume and Estimated Costs Basic Principles Thermodynamics of Chemical Reactions Free-Energy Change of a Chemical Reaction Standard Free-Energy Change of a Chemical Reaction Relation between Free-Energy Change in a Cell Reaction and Cell Potential Temperature and Pressure Coefficients of Thermodynamic Reversible Cell Potentials 26
3 X Inhalt 3.2. Some Electrode Kinetic Aspects of Electrochemical Energy Conversion Electrode Polarization (Overvoltage) - Nomenclature Types of Overvoltage Electrode Characteristics The Electrode Mechanism of Fuel Cells Anode Process Cathode Process Theory of the Gas Diffusion Electrode Electrocatalysts Fuel Cell Efficiency General Theoretical Efficiency of the Conversion of Heat Liberated from a Chemical Reaction into other Forms of Energy (Mechanical, Electrical) Thermodynamic Derivation of the Theoretical Efficiency of a Heat Engine Thermodynamic Efficiency Electrochemical Efficiency Practical Efficiency Faradaic Efficiency Total Efficiency Monopolar and Bipolar Electrode Constructions Fuel Cell Systems Introduction Alkaline Fuell Cells (AFC) General Principle Early Developments of Alkaline Fuel Cell Systems Further Developments Polymer-Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFCs) Introduction History of Development Operating Principles of PEFCs General Electrodes Electrolytes-Membranes Heat and Water Management Performance of Polymer-Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFCs) Influence of Temperature Influence of Cathodic Reactant Composition and Pressure Influence of CO in the Fuel Gas Solid-Polymer Fuel Cell Stacks Regenerative Fuel Cell Systems Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC) Introduction Reaction Principle of the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell 94
4 Inhalt XI Electrodes and Manufacturing The Electrode Materials Carbon Corrosion and Cathode-Catalyst Stability in the PAFC Performance Stacks and Systems Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) Introduction Operating Principle Cell Components Matrix Support Material Cathode Anode Internal Reforming Concept Performance of MCFCs MCFC R & D Programs Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) Introduction Reactions, Electrolyte and Cell Materials of SOFCs Variations of SOFC Developments Performance of SOFCs SOFC Programs Processing Techniques of SOFC Components Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) Hybrid Cells Metal-Air Batteries Zinc-Air Batteries Iron-Air Batteries Metaloxide-Hydrogen Batteries Metaloxide-Metalhydride Batteries Fuel Cells and Their Applications in Dispersed Energy Systems (Utility Use) Utility Interest in Fuel Cells Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) Least Cost Planning (LCP) Demand-Side Management (DSM) Utility Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Plants History MW PAFC Demonstration (TEPCO) Introduction Plant Construction and Operation Plant Performance 188
5 XII Inhalt MW PAFC Demonstration (FE) General Basic Specifications and Configuration of Plant Main Components Utility Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) Introduction System Description of Energy Research Corporation's 2 MW MCFC Introduction General Plant Overview Main Components Demonstration of MCFC Stacks and Plant System at Akagi Stack and System Square (3S) Development Status of MCFC at the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) Further Concepts Including SOFC Fuel Cells and Their Applications in On-Site Integrated Energy Systems and Industrial Co-generation Introduction Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells for On-Site Use Historical Review of Developments International Fuel Cells Corp. (IFC) Westinghouse/ERC Engelhard On-Site Fuel Cell Program Developments in Japan Work and Developments at Toshiba Fuji Electric PAFC Plants Using Natural Gas (Town Gas 14A) PAFC Plants Using Various Fuels Mitsubishi Electric Corporation Technological, Ecological and Economic Comparison Between PAFC and Conventional On-Site Power Plants Troubles and Their Eradications Referring to PAFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) for On-Site Use Other Projects for On-Site Use Fuel Cell Powered Electric Vehicles Introduction The Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Vehicles Present Day Electric Vehicle Technology The Performance of Rechargeable Batteries Electric Motors 255
6 Inhalt 7.4. Historical Review of Fuel Cell Vehicles The Early Developments The General Motors Corp. "Electrovan" The Kordesch Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid Passenger Car Description of the Vehicle The Fuel Cell System The Hybrid System: Fuel Cell and Rechargeable Battery Improved Fuel Cell/Secondary Battery Hybrid Systems Other Fuels for Fuel Cell Systems Ammonia as Fuel Hydrazine as Fuel Overview - The Changes in Fuel Cell Technology Fuel Cell Vehicle Technology in the 1980s and 90s Alkaline Fuel Cells for Electric Vehicles The Elenco Fuel Cell System The EUREKA Bus Project Fuel Cells for Underwater Propulsion Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells for Electric Vehicles The DOE-Program for Fuel Cells in Transportation The PAFC City Bus Program The Engelhard Industries "Liquid Cooled System" The Proton Exchange Membrane FC for Electric Vehicles The DOE-PEM Fuel Cell Program The Ballard Power System PEFC Activities International Fuel Cells Corporation (IFC) Other PEM-Fuel Cell Programs Energy Partners United Technologies - Hamilton Standard Div Ergenics Power Systems, Inc. (EPSI) Siemens AG Technological Outlook and Conclusion 290 XIII Fuels for the Fuel Cell Technology Hydrogen Hydrogen Production Safety Aspects of Hydrogen The Industrial Production of Hydrogen Hydrogen by Catalytic Steam Reforming of Natural Gas The Reforming Process for Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells Problem Areas in the Reforming Process Substitution of Gaseous Fuels in PAFC Systems Hydrogen by Methane Decomposition Partial Oxidation of Heavy Hydrocarbons
7 XIV Inhalt 8.6. Hydrogen from Coal Hydrogen from Coal Gasification Coal-Assisted Electrolysis Internal Hydrocarbon Processing Hydrogen as a By-Product from Other Conventional Processes Methanol Steam Reforming The Production of Hydrogen and Methanol from Solid Biomass Hydrogen from Electrolysis of Water Hydrogen from the Steam-Iron Process Carbon-Free Energy Carriers Ammonia Hydrazine, N 2 H Fuel Cells: Summary and Outlook beyond Fuel Cell Systems as Energy Converters, Applications Dispersed Systems Partly Replacing Central Systems Environmental Performance Economic Aspects The Worldwide State of the Art and Readiness of the Different Fuel Cell Systems Programs in USA and Canada Japan Europe The Hydrogen Technology (Gaseous-, Liquid- or Solid Fuels?) The Fuel Cell Strategies until and beyond 2000 (Support and Opposition) My Outlook on Fuel Cells (A personal post scriptum by the senior author) 357 Index 363
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