Executive Summary and Key Findings... 3 INTRODUCTION... 3 KEY FINDINGS... 3 Section I: Instructional Models to Promote Writing Skills...

Transcription

1 January 2015 In the following report, Hanover Research reviews best practices in instructional models and strategies designed to improve elementary students writing skills. In addition, Hanover Research investigates about how to effectively integrate literacy skills into core content areas, focusing on instructional practices related to vocabulary, word identification, and comprehension.

2 Executive Summary and Key Findings... 3 INTRODUCTION... 3 KEY FINDINGS... 3 Section I: Instructional Models to Promote Writing Skills... 5 THE IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION... 5 FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION... 6 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE WRITING SKILLS... 8 Teaching Students to Write in Multiple Forms... 8 Ensure Students Master Basic Writing Skills Provision of Daily Writing Time Foster a Positive Writing Environment Other Instructional Strategies Section II: Integrating Literacy Skills into Core Content Areas PROMOTING CONTENT LITERACY APPROACHES TO LITERACY DEVELOPMENT INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES TO PROMOTE CONTENT LITERACY Word Identification Vocabulary Knowledge and Usage Teaching Comprehension Strategies Other Instructional Models LITERACY ENRICHMENT BY CONTENT AREA... 34

3 INTRODUCTION The available literature consistently cites the importance of literacy skills in determining students academic and future success, but in percent of fourth grade public school students and 26 percent of eighth grade students scored at or below the basic level on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading test. 1 Moreover, 2011 NAEP writing exam scores indicate that a majority of students cannot write effectively for an academic or workplace setting. 2 Qualitative research also suggests that teachers do not feel qualified to effectively teach literacy skills to their students. The following report presents a literature review regarding best practice approaches to reading and writing instruction. The report is organized into the following sections: Section I, Instructional Models and Strategies to Promote Writing Skills, provides an overview of the literature related to effective writing instruction. It also presents several instructional strategies to develop elementary students writing skills and recommendations for implementation. Section II, Integrating Literacy Skills into Core Content Areas, provides information about how to effectively integrate literacy skills into core content areas, focusing on instructional practices related to vocabulary, word identification, and comprehension. KEY FINDINGS The literature related to writing instruction recommends teaching writing in multiple forms, mastering basic writing skills, provision of daily time, and fostering a positive writing environment. These four recommendations were reviewed and promoted by the Institute for Educational Sciences (IES). In order to teach students to write in multiple forms, IES recommends that teachers provide instruction in the following areas: 1) the basic steps of the writing process, 2) the purpose and features of different writing genres, and 3) the importance of writing for different audiences. As part of an effective strategy, teachers can incorporate exemplary texts from different genres into their instruction as models for students. Instruction should also organize activities that allow students to write in different formats for a variety of audiences. Literature recommends a model of comprehensive instruction that integrates teacher instruction and student comprehension with opportunities for writing practice. The Duke and Pearson model gradually releases students through a 1 Literacy Facts and Stats. Reading is Fundamental. 2 Leal, F. Report: U.S. students lack writing skills. The Orange County Register.

4 progression that begins with teacher-directed instruction and culminates in students complete writing independence. Teachers balance explicit instruction with application and evaluate students to determine where curricular reinforcements are required to help students master elements of writing. Effective instructional strategies to promote content-area literacy focus on word identification, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Instruction in each of these areas should teach students how to approach words they do not recognize or understand. Research indicates that teachers should first model these instructional techniques for students and gradually increase students individual application as they develop their proficiency. The majority of literacy instructional models used in content areas can be organized into four categories (cognitive, sociocultural, linguistic, and critical), and effective literacy practices combine these instructional models. Fang specifies that most effective literacy practices combined elements from multiple approaches. Notably, the cognitive approach and the linguistic approach have the strongest evidence base to support their effectiveness. The research literature related to vocabulary instruction does not agree on one specific strategy that is most effective. Those practices that have been proven effective at vocabulary development generally rely on three overarching instructional techniques that focus on integration, repetition, and meaningful use. Research is inconclusive on the effectiveness of Words Their Way and Spelling for Writers. The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) identified 29 studies of Words Their Way that were published between 1983 and 2012, but none of the available studies meet their strict evidence standards. Therefore, the WWC was unable to draw any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of Words Their Way as a program for beginning readers. Similarly, the WWC has not conducted a research evaluation on Spelling for Writers, but the publisher has posted materials that indicate the program has positive effects. It is important to note that these studies probably do not meet the strict evidence standards of the WWC and as self-reported by the publisher, may also be biased toward portraying a positive image of the program.

5 The development of strong writing skills during elementary school can be advantageous to students throughout their lives. The use of effective instructional strategies can facilitate students confidence in their writing, improve literacy skills, which can in turn promote success academically, emotionally, and socially. 3 This section of the report provides an overview of the available literature related to effective writing instruction. THE IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION The available literature suggests that effective writing instruction in elementary grades is particularly important because quality writing instruction during early grades maximizes students literacy potential and reduces the number of students who struggle with writing development. 4 Those students who do not learn to write well typically earn lower grades, especially in courses that rely on written assignments as the primary measure of student achievement. In addition, students who do not write well are less likely to support their learning in content areas through writing. Notably, research suggests that writing about content in other primary subject areas further promotes student learning and comprehension. 5 A 2009 nationwide survey conducted by Kiuhara, et al. and published in the Journal of Educational Psychology asked a random sample of language arts, science, and social studies teachers about the writing practices utilized in their classrooms. Approximately one-half of teachers did not assign at least one multi-paragraph writing assignment monthly. Moreover, the majority of teachers reported infrequent use of evidence-based writing instructional practices and many indicated that their teacher training did not adequately prepare them to The majority of teachers reported infrequent use of evidence-based writing instructional practices and a sizeable number indicated that their teacher training did not adequately prepare them to teach writing. teach writing. 6 As experts note that teachers who are well-prepared to teach writing are more likely to use evidence-based writing strategies and are better able to develop effective 3 Polisena, J. Importance of Writing in Elementary Schools. Global Post. 4 Graham, S., K. Harris, and L. Larsen. Prevention and Intervention of Writing Difficulties for Students with Learning Disabilities. ID Online. 5 Graham, S. Effective Writing Instruction for All Students. Renaissance Learning. p Kiuhara, S., S. Graham, and L. Hawken. Teaching writing to high school students: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology,

6 interventions for struggling writers, those national teacher survey responses suggest a need for raising the quality of writing instruction in schools. 7 FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING INSTRUCTION In order to determine which features are associated with effective writing instruction, researchers Graham, Harris, and Larsen evaluated research related to instruction for students with and without writing difficulties, explored best practice recommendations for teaching writing to students, and focused on the instructional practices of exemplary literacy teachers. 8 Based on their analysis a list of features linked to effective writing instruction was developed and is displayed in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1 Features of Effective Writing Instruction A literate classroom environment where students' written work is prominently displayed, the room is packed with writing and reading material, and word lists adorn the walls. Daily writing with students working on a wide range of writing tasks for multiple audiences, including writing at home. Extensive efforts to make writing motivating by setting an exciting mood, creating a risk-free environment, allowing students to select their own writing topics or modify teacher assignments, developing assigned topics compatible with students' interests, reinforcing children's accomplishments, specifying the goal for each lesson, and promoting an "I can" attitude. Regular teacher/student conferences concerning the writing topic the student is currently working on, including the establishment of goals or criteria to guide the child's writing and revising efforts. A predictable writing routine where students are encouraged to think, reflect, and revise. Overt teacher modeling of the process of writing as well as positive attitudes toward writing. Cooperative arrangements where students help each other plan, draft, revise, edit, or publish their written work. Group or individual sharing where students present work in progress or completed papers to their peers for feedback. Instruction covering a broad range of skills, knowledge, and strategies, including phonological awareness, handwriting and spelling, writing conventions, sentence-level skills, text structure, the functions of writing, and planning and revising. Follow-up instruction to ensure mastery of targeted writing skills, knowledge, and strategies. Integration of writing activities across the curriculum and the use of reading to support writing development. Frequent opportunities for students' to self-regulate their behavior during writing, including working independently, arranging their own space, and seeking help from others. Teacher and student assessment of writing progress, strengths, and needs. Periodic conferences with parents and frequent communications with home about the writing program and students' progress as writers. Source: LD Online 9 7 Graham, S. Op. cit. 8 Graham, S., K. Harris, and L. Larsen. Op. cit. 9 Bullet points taken verbatim from Ibid.

7 Furthermore, other researchers have also explored the educational elements that correspond with effective writing instruction and the literature promotes a balance between explicit instruction and application. Duke and Pearson recommend a model of comprehension instruction that proficiently integrates teacher instruction and student comprehension with opportunities for writing practice. The Duke and Pearson model gradually releases students through a progression that begins with teacher-directed instruction and culminates in complete writing independence. Their model includes the following components: 1) An explicit description of the strategy and when and how it should be used 2) Teacher and/or student modeling of the strategy in action 3) Collaborative use of the strategy in action 4) Guided practice using the strategy with gradual release of responsibility 5) Independent uses of the strategy 10 The shift in responsibility from teacher to student according to this model is illustrated in Figure 1.2. Duke and Pearson note the importance of continued student and teacher coordination throughout these five phases of instruction and indicate that each of these strategies are not to be used exclusively for all students. 11 In order to effectively teach students to write well, teachers should continually evaluate students and make determinations about when it might be beneficial to reinforce elements through explicit instruction or modeling as some students require more time to master certain elements of writing. 12 Figure 1.2 Responsibility Shift Between Student and Teacher Teach background knowledge Describe the strategy Model the strategy Collaborative use Student Teacher Guided practice Independent use Source: Institute of Education Sciences Bulleted points taken verbatim from: Duke, N. and P.D. Pearson. Effective Practices for Developing Reading Comprehension. What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction, pp Ibid. 12 Graham, S., et al. Teaching Elementary School Students to Be Effective Writers. Institute of Education Sciences, p Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p. 18.

8 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE WRITING SKILLS The remainder of this section discusses specific strategies that promote writing skills. In order to identify the best practices in this field, this report referred to the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), the research arm of the Department of Education that examines educational practices and policies to identify those which have positive effects on student outcomes. IES applies the highest research standards in assessing the effectiveness of various educational practices and publishes recommendations. 14 In June 2012, IES released a practice guide which presents recommendations for writing instruction at the elementary level, focusing on strategies with strong evidence of positive effects on student writing outcomes. Given the high standards required to be considered for inclusion in this IES practice guide, the remainder of this section heavily references IES in presenting five instructional recommendations to improve elementary student writing teaching writing in multiple forms, mastering basic writing skills, provision of daily time, fostering a positive writing environment, and other strategies. Each subsection includes relevant evidence related to each recommendation and describes suggested approaches to implementation. TEACHING STUDENTS TO WRITE IN MULTIPLE FORMS The writing process requires a writer to develop a purpose for their writing and make a determination about how to best present the relevant information. Students should understand that writing can be used for a variety of purposes, such as informing the reader, making an argument, or providing entertainment. In order to effectively write for different purposes, it is important that students understand how to adjust their writing for different genres. 15 It important that teacher explain the different purposes of writing to students and further describe how different writing genres might be more effective, depending on the purpose of their writing. For example, a student might want to describe a warm summer day. To achieve this purpose, the student might choose to write a poem or a journal entry. Both genres (poem and journal entry) enable the student to communicate the purpose, but they do so in different ways. Writers use genres to achieve a wide variety of writing purposes. 16 Students who understand the appropriate uses of dissimilar genres are more likely to employ diverse forms of writing, which will help them write more effectively for a wide range of purposes and readers. 17 Furthermore, the use of multiple genres is also part of 14 About IES: Connecting Research, Policy, and Practice. Institute of Education Sciences NCTE Beliefs about the Teaching of Writing. National Council of Teachers of English Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p Ibid.

9 Wisconsin s commitment to the Common Core, particularly in using narrative, informative/explanatory, and opinion writing... in addition to other genres. 18 The evidence to support this recommendation is strong, according to the standards established by the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC). IES determined that there are 25 studies that examine the effectiveness of various strategies designed to teach students to write in multiple forms and also meet WWC criteria. IES separates the relevant studies into four categories based on their alignment with IES final instructional recommendations: Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD): Studies classified into this category employed an SRSD instructional approach, which encourages students to evaluate and review their writing in order to promote self-regulation and independent learning skills. 20 Using the SRSD approach, students are instructed in various writing strategies and are expected to take increasing levels of responsibility over their writing process. The studies related to SRSD were the most heavily evaluated and showed consistent positive effects on students writing outcomes. Goal setting: Studies within this subset examined an instructional approach wherein students were assigned concrete objectives designed to improve their quality of writing. Notably, the studies related to goal setting did not focus on students in a whole classroom setting, but the strategy had a positive effect on the writing quality of students in small group settings. Studies closely aligned with IES recommendation: The studies organized into this category were not related to SRSD or goal setting, but examined practices cited by IES in their instructional recommendations for implementation. The instructional practices examined in this category produced favorable effects on students overall writing and also increased the number of genre elements utilized by students in their stories. Studies partly aligned with IES recommendation: This subgroup of research focused on instructional practices not strongly associated with IES recommendations, but generally resulted in advantageous effects on students writing quality and the number of writing elements incorporated into their stories. 22 Overall, the research indicates that educational strategies aligned with IES recommendations have a positive effect on writing quality. The studies strongly suggest that these practices are also beneficial for students across a wide range of skill, from struggling writers to gifted ones. 18 Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. p Fact Sheet: Self-Regulated Strategy Development. Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy Bullet points adapted from Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p. 13.

10 Recommendations for Implementation The process of teaching students to write in multiple forms is complex and IES recommends that it be carried out in multiple phases. The first important element required for effective implementation is an understanding of the writing process. Although the writing process is flexible in nature, it is recommended that teachers and students exercise a basic understanding of the various components associated with it. 24 The writing process includes the following writing elements: Planning often involves developing goals and generating ideas; gathering information from reading, prior knowledge, and discussions with others; and organized ideas for writing based on the purpose of the text. Drafting focuses on creating a preliminary version of the text. Sharing ideas or drafts with teachers, other adults, and peers throughout the writing process enables students to obtain feedback and suggestions for improvement. Evaluating can be carried out by individual writers as they reread all or part of their text and carefully consider whether they are meeting their original writing goals. Revising involves making content changes after students first have evaluated problems within their text that obscure their intended meaning. Editing involves making changes to ensure that a text correctly adheres to the conventions of written English. Publishing typically occurs at the end of the writing process, as students produce a final product that is shared publicly in written form, oral form, or both. 25 Students should become familiar with instructional strategies related to their understanding of various elements within the writing process. Examples of writing strategies for multiple forms are outlined by IES and follow on the next page, in Figure 2.1. Basic strategies may be taught to children in younger grades while the complicated components of the writing process are not typically introduced until Grade 2. IES recommends that teachers gradually shift toward a student-oriented writing process as students develop the knowledge and skills they need to effectively use the strategies they are taught. 26 After students demonstrate an understanding of the relevant strategy, teachers should provide students with the opportunity to practice writing independently Ibid. pp Bulleted points taken verbatim from: Ibid. p Ibid. 27 Graham, S. Teaching Elementary School Students to Be Effective Writers. What Works Clearinghouse, U.S. Department of Education.

11 Figure 2.1 Example Strategies to Teach Components of the Writing Process COMPONENT OF THE WRITING PROCESS Planning Drafting Sharing Evaluating WRITING STRATEGY HOW STUDENTS CAN USE THE STRATEGY GRADE RANGE POW Ordering ideas/outlining Pick ideas (i.e. decide what to write about). Organize their notes (i.e. brainstorm and organize possible writing ideas into a writing plan). Write and say more (i.e. continue to modify the plan while writing Brainstorm/generate ideas for their paper. Review their ideas and place a number by what will go first, second, third, and so on. Brainstorm/generate ideas for their paper. Decide which are main ideas and which are supporting ideas. Create an outline that shows the order of the main ideas and the support details for each main idea. Imitation Select a sentence, paragraph, or text excerpt and imitate the author s form 1-6 Sentence generation Peer sharing Try out sentences orally before writing them on paper. Try multiple sentences and choose the best one. Use transition words to develop different sentence structures. Practice writing good topic sentences. In pairs, listen and read along as the author reads aloud. Share feedback with their writing partner, starting with what they liked. Author s Chair Sit in a special chair in front of peers and read their writing. K-6 Self-evaluating Reread and ask these questions: 1) Are the ideas clear? 2) Is there a clear, beginning, middle, and end? 3) Does the writing connect with the reader? 4) Are sentence types varied? Self-monitoring Self-assess and ask these questions, either out loud or internally:

12 Revising and editing Peer-revising COPS (editing) Source: Institute of Education Sciences 28 1) Did I meet the goals I developed for my writing? If not, what changes should I make to meet my goals? 2) Did I correctly use strategies that were appropriate for this task? If not, what should I change? Record their answers to self-assessment questions on a chart or teacher-provided questionnaire in order to track their progress toward writing goals and strategy use. Congratulate themselves, and inform their teacher, when they meet their goals. Place a question mark (?) by anything they do not understand in their writing partner s paper. Place a carat (^) anywhere it would be useful to have the author include more information. Ask the COPS editing questions: 1) Did I Capitalize the first word in sentences and proper names? 2) How is the Overall appearance of my paper? 3) Did I use commas and end-of-sentence Punctuation? 4) Did I Spell each word correctly? Table adapted from Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p. 16.

13 In the initial stages of learning, it is recommended that teachers guide students in the application of the relevant techniques so students are able to develop a strong understanding of when and how to use each strategy throughout the course of their writing process. As students become familiar with the applicable writing strategies and develop an understanding of when to properly use them, teachers should encourage them to use the learned approaches in numerous and flexible writing situations. IES asserts that teachers should use in-class activities that require students to move between multiple components of the writing process so they become acquainted with flexibility and change. 29 Once students understand the complexities of the writing process, they are better prepared to write in multiple forms and for varying purposes. In order to write for a variety of purposes, students must comprehend the basis of different writing genres. In order to effectively teach this concept, teachers should highlight the purpose of the genre and how the features of writing connect to that overall purpose. Additionally, IES recommends that teachers associate different genres with real-world scenarios to further students mastery of the concept. The multiple purposes of writing and their descriptions are listed in Figure 2.2 along with genres commonly associated with each purpose. It is important to note that each genre can be used for multiple purposes. For example, a letter can be used to describe, inform, or persuade its reader. 30 Figure 2.2 Multiple Purposes of Writing and Example Genres Purpose Explanation Examples of Genres Describe Narrate Inform Persuade/analyze To describe something, such as a person, place, process, or experience, in vivid detail To tell a story of an experience, event, or sequence of events while holding the reader s interest To examine previously learned information or provide new information To give an opinion in an attempt to convince the reader that this point of view Descriptions (people, places, events) Character sketches Nature writing Brochures (personal, travel) Diary entries (real or fictional) Folktales, fairy tales, fables Short stories Poems Eyewitness accounts Summaries of new or previously learned information Instructions or directions Letters Newspaper articles Science reports Persuasive essays Editorials 29 Ibid. p Ibid. p. 21.

14 Purpose Explanation Examples of Genres Source: Institute of Education Sciences 31 is valid or to persuade the reader to take a specific action; to analyze ideas in text, for example, by considering their veracity or comparing them to one another. Compare-and-contrast essays Reviews Literary analysis When students write for different purposes, they may write for a variety of audiences. It is important for teachers to organize activities that allow students to write for different audiences so that they learn how to effectively write for non-teachers. By doing this, students will learn how to adjust the tone of their writing to appeal to unique audiences. IES recommends that teachers incorporate exemplary texts from different genres into their instruction as models for students writing. This technique helps teachers instruct students on how to imitate the features of effective writing and exposes students to a number of writing features such as text structure, graphs, tables, charts, pictures, varied sentence structure, and operative word choice. 32 IES recommends that teacher choose texts that: Support the instructional goals of the lesson Are appropriate for the students reading levels and abilities Provide exemplary models of what students will write 33 ENSURE STUDENTS MASTER BASIC WRITING SKILLS Basic writing skills are important for elementary students to master as they develop writing proficiency. Basic writing skills are necessary for success in all the subjects and poor handwriting may undermine students academic performance. 34 Writing generally includes handwriting, spelling, sentence development, typing, and word processing. Failure to develop rudimentary writing skills may impact students overall quality of writing as it typically affects students sentence complexity and diminishes their ability to express their intended meaning. IES recommends the implementation of instructional practices that focus on basic writing skills to ensure that young writers acquire these necessary skills. 35 IES concludes that there is moderate evidence to support instruction in basic writing skills via nine studies meet the research standards required by WWC. Of those nine studies, three focused on handwriting instruction, three tested the effectiveness of explicit instruction in phonological awareness and spelling, and two revolved around sentence construction interventions. Only one study tested the effectiveness of using a word processor. The majority of studies included students who were at-risk for writing difficulties and the 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. p Bulleted points taken verbatim from: Ibid. 34 The Importance of Teaching Handwriting. Reading Rockets Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p. 27.

15 interventions were often carried out in small groups or pairs of students. Eight of the nine studies determined that the intervention in question had positive effects on students basic writing skills and general quality of writing. 36 Recommendations for Implementation The instructional practices recommended by IES focus on several areas of elementary writing development. The first emphasizes the importance of teaching students to hold the pencil correctly and form letters properly. It notes that a comfortable pencil grip is important so that students are not discouraged from writing due to physical discomfort. In regard to handwriting instruction, literature suggests that teachers should show students how to form each letter of the alphabet through guided practice or hand-writing diagrams. Handwriting generally assumes manuscript (print) style precedes cursive writing, and either form may be used so long as handwriting proceeds unencumbered. 37 Moreover, instructors should incorporate lessons that allow students to practice writing letters from memory. IES indicates that hand-writing skills should be practiced during numerous short-sessions throughout the day and these basic skills should eventually be incorporated into other, more advanced writing activities as students progress. 38 The second instructional practice related to the development of basic writing skills concentrates on teaching students to spell correctly. Students who struggle with spelling are less likely to include words that they do not know how to spell, which diminishes their ability to create strong and complex sentences. IES notes that effective spelling instruction incorporates writing when possible and provides students with strategies to develop possible spellings for words. In order to accomplish this, teachers can teach students to use invented spelling or spelling by analogy. 39 Invented spelling encourages students to spell words using their background knowledge about letter sounds and patterns. Students should become more advanced in this as they age. Spelling by analogy teaches students to use the spelling of a word they know to develop a potential spelling of a word they are unfamiliar with. For example, if a student knows how to spell lamp they can use that knowledge to figure out how to spell stamp. 40 In addition, IES highlights the dictionary as an important tool to educate elementary students about the formation of words. Figure 2.3, on the next page, includes supplementary example lessons cited by IES that are designed to improve students spelling skills at different grade levels. 36 Ibid. p The Importance of Teaching Handwriting. Op. Cit. 38 Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p Ibid. pp Bulleted points adapted from: Ibid. p. 30.

16 Figure 2.3 Example Lessons to Promote Spelling Skills SPELLING SKILL EXPLANATION EXAMPLE LESSON GRADE RANGE Phonological awareness Spelling phonics Morphological spelling Awareness of the sound structure of spoken words Knowledge of how to connect the sounds of spoken English with letters or groups of letters Understanding of the meaning of the parts (e.g. prefixes and suffixes) of words. Source: Institute for Education Sciences 41 The teacher shows students two cards with pictures representing words that illustrate target features. The teacher pronounces the words with extra emphasis on the target feature. Students sort additional cards by matching based on the target feature (e.g., red and sled with bed; cat and bat with hat) The teacher shows students a card with a picture (e.g. a ship) and pronounces the word, and describes the targeted sound (/sh/). The teacher then names the letters in the associated spelling unit and writes them on the board. The students repeat the example by chanting along with the teacher and writing the sound or word down on paper. The teacher continues with additional words that contain the sound (e.g. fish, shape). The teacher shows students a card with three written words (e.g. walked, wagged, wanted) and points out that although the part at the end of the word (-ed) sounds different, in all cases the spellings signal the same thing (that the action happen in the past). Once students master basic spelling skills, teachers can begin to focus on sentence construction. In Kindergarten, students should understand the concept of sentences and be introduced to the elementary principles of capitalization and punctuation. In order to convey these teachings effectively, teachers should model sentence building activities through the gradual release of responsibility method cited in Section I. Activities related to sentence construction should focus on sentence framing, sentence expanding, and sentence combining. As students develop their proficiency, instruction can incorporate independent writing practice and teach students how to identify run-on sentences and separate them into more succinct sentences. 42 IES also mentions the importance of technology in the composition of text and states that students must be taught how to type fluently and use word processors to develop text. Notably, the use of technology in writing is part of Wisconsin s Common Core standards for writing that technology is viewed as more than a tool; it changes writing and instruction. 43 Students should be exposed to typing by Grade 1 and effective typing lessons occur regularly in short stints and focus on speed, accuracy, and correct fingering. Wordprocessing instruction should guide students through the relevant features of the wordprocessing programs and teach them the limitations of platforms as well. 44 K-2 K Ibid. p Ibid. pp Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts Op. Cit p Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p. 32.

17 PROVISION OF DAILY WRITING TIME IES recommends that students be provided with time to write on a daily basis and experts note that students should have designated instructional time devoted to writing wherein they are able to learn and apply the skills necessary to become an effective writer. Through the incorporation of daily instructional writing time, teachers can observe students, identify areas of strength and weakness, and assist students with their writing. In addition, regularly scheduled writing time provides students with an opportunity to practice and hone writing techniques. IES indicates that daily writing time should be accompanied by worthwhile instructional strategies because merely providing time for writing is insufficient. 45 Although this instructional strategy is recommended by IES, there are no existing studies that specifically examine the link between daily writing and student writing outcomes. 46 Notably though, a 2004 study by experts note that students should have designated instructional time devoted to writing wherein they are able to learn and apply the skills necessary to become an effective writer Saddler, et al. examined the link between supplementary writing instruction and struggling students writing aptitude. The findings concluded that that the additional strategy-focused instructional time had a positive impact on students writing and positive effects were sustained over time. 47 Recommendations for Implementation In order to implement daily writing time, IES recommends that a minimum of one hour each day be dedicated to student writing, beginning in Grade 1. In Kindergarten, it is suggested that at least 30 minutes per day be allotted for writing training and practice. During daily writing, approximately half of the time should be spent on teaching relevant writing strategies, techniques, and skills while the second half should give students the opportunity to practice the skills taught during the preceding instructional period. This instructional method can be used to improve students styled writing across multiple subject areas. For example, a science teacher might require students to write up a lab report during class following an experiment or a social studies teacher might assign students to write a diary entry from the point of view of a historical figure. IES notes that the integration of writing tasks in additional content areas may also contribute to students understanding of the associated material Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p Ibid. 47 Saddler, B. et al. Preventing Writing Difficulties: The Effects of Planning Strategy Instruction on the Writing Performance of Struggling Writers. Exceptionality: A Special Education Journal, Graham, S., et al. Op. cit. p. 11.

18 FOSTER A POSITIVE WRITING ENVIRONMENT Finally, IES notes the importance of establishing a positive writing environment for students so that they are continually engaged in the writing process. To create a community of engaged writers, teachers should give students the opportunity to write about their own chosen topics to further inspire their creativity. In addition, teachers should build in time for collaboration among students as this creates a greater sense of community within the classroom and encourages students to discuss the writing process with their peers. Students who are given constructive instructional support are typically more motivated to write well. Through the incorporation of writing activities, teachers emphasize the importance of writing and convey the message that writing is important, valued, and rewarding. 49 The evidence to support this instructional strategy is based on five research studies that meet WWC criteria and are only partially aligned to IES final recommendation. The five studies referenced by IES focused on multiple engagement practices including: teachers writing with their class, students choosing their own writing topics, student brainstorming in groups or editing in groups, teachers or peers giving structured feedback, and the publishing of students work. Four studies reported that the strategies had a positive effect on student writing quality and output while one study found no effect. IES cautions that there is minimal evidence to support this recommendation because many of the studies also examined the effectiveness of additional, unrelated practices. This made it difficult to determine whether the effects were a product of the specific engagement practices or caused by other instructional elements involved in the interventions. 50 Recommendations for Implementation The implementation of this recommendation can be carried out in multiple phases. First, IES highlights the importance of teacher engagement and notes that teachers should act as members of the classroom s writing community through active participation, modeling, and collaboration. IES additionally states that teachers should provide students with the opportunity to select their own topics and to collaborate as writers. In order to introduce student choice into writing assignments, teachers may require students to keep a notebook wherein they are able to write about whatever topic they wish or teachers can issue writing prompts that leave room for students to express themselves. Prompts are effective because they inspire students to write but can also strategically emphasize certain writing skills, if desired by the teacher. In regards to collaboration, teachers can encourage students to work together through a variety of processes such as class brainstorming activities, peer editing groups, or collective writing assignments. 51 Furthermore, IES emphasizes the importance of feedback throughout the writing process. Feedback can be provided by the teacher or by peers, but it is important because it helps students recognize where improvements need to be made. Through the provision of 49 Ibid. p Ibid. p Ibid. p. 36.

19 feedback, students become actively involved in the writing process as they receive and respond to constructive advice. 52 The final instructional strategy put forth by IES advises that teachers give students the opportunity to publish their writing. This strategy is recommended because it celebrates students writing and creates an environment that is supportive of learning. Teachers can publish students work through numerous outlets including: a class-made storybook for the school library, a classroom Wall of Fame that features exemplary student excerpts, a Gallery Walk in hallway, or through an online class blog. 53 OTHER INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES The instructional practices highlighted in detail in the preceding recommendations do not represent all of the available educational models; instead they focus on those strategies that are found effective according to the most rigorous research standards applied by the Department of Education. The table in Figure 2.4 describes ten additional classroom strategies for writing instruction that may be helpful based on research collected by Reading Rockets, an education initiative of WETA. 52 Ibid. p Ibid. p. 38.

20 Figure 2.4 Classroom Strategies for Writing Instruction STRATEGY Descriptive Writing Dictation Framed Paragraphs Paragraph Hamburger Persuasive Writing RAFT DESCRIPTION The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place or thing in such a way that a picture is formed in the reader's mind. Capturing an event through descriptive writing involves paying close attention to the details by using all of your five senses. Teaching students to write more descriptively will improve their writing by making it more interesting and engaging to read. The process of writing down what someone else has said. With young children, dictation offers a way for a parent or a teacher to record a child's thoughts or ideas when the writing demands surpass writing skills. Dictation provides a chance for an adult to model many writing behaviors including handwriting, matching sounds-toletters to spell words, and sentence formation. The use of framed paragraphs provides students with a framework for writing strong paragraphs and guides students by providing the transition phrases for sentence. A writing organizer that visually outlines the key components of a paragraph. Topic sentence, detail sentences, and a closing sentence are the main elements of a good paragraph, and each one forms a different "piece" of the hamburger. A form of nonfiction writing that encourages careful word choice, the development of logical arguments, and a cohesive summary. Young children can be guided through a series of simple steps in an effort to develop their persuasive writing skills. A writing strategy that helps students understand their Role as a writer, the Audience they will address, the WHEN TO USE HOW TO USE BEFORE DURING AFTER SMALL WHOLE INDIVIDUAL READING READING READING GROUPS CLASS X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

21 STRATEGY Revision Sentence Combining Transition Words Writing Conferences Source: Reading Rockets 54 DESCRIPTION varied Formats for writing, and the Topic they'll be writing about (RAFT). By using this strategy, teachers encourage students to write creatively, to consider a topic from a different perspective, and to gain practice writing for different audiences. Revision skills complement reading skills; revision requires that writers distance themselves from the writing and critically evaluate a text. A strategy that encourages a writer to take two or more short, choppy sentences and combine them into one effective sentence. By learning this skill, students enhance their writing style. Sentence combining skill is something that will develop over several short practice sessions and should be considered as one component of an overall writing program. Teaching students to use transition words helps them improve their writing. Transition words help stories flow more smoothly, by providing logical organization and improving the connections between thoughts. Research on the writing process suggests that writers learn the most about writing when they share and reflect on their writing. In classrooms, this is most commonly done through writing conferences as part of the revision stage. Whether they occur with pairs, with small groups, or with the teacher, the social benefits of sharing writing improves writing. BEFORE READING WHEN TO USE DURING READING AFTER READING HOW TO USE SMALL WHOLE INDIVIDUAL GROUPS CLASS X X X X X X X X X X X 54 Contents adapted from: Classroom Strategies. Reading Rockets.

22 This section of the report highlights the importance of content literacy and introduces several instructional practices that can be employed to promote literacy skills in core content areas. PROMOTING CONTENT LITERACY Content literacy relates to students ability to use reading and writing skills to learn across various subject areas. 55 Students progress in content areas is often reliant on their ability to understand how to read and write independently, yet non-english subject area teachers often consider themselves to be solely responsible for their specific subject and do not focus on teaching literacy skills related to their content area. Early research by Hal Herber hypothesized that the skills students learn in English classes are applicable to other content areas, but students must be taught how to adapt their literacy skills to meet the distinctive needs associated with different content areas. Additional literature related to the topic suggests that educators often assume that once a student learns to read, there is not a need for any additional instruction, but research findings suggest that specific content-area literacy instruction can have a substantial impact on students learning capabilities. 56 Research indicates that content area teachers can enhance student learning through the incorporation of content literacy practices, but previous studies have determined that there is sometimes a discrepancy between knowledge and actual classroom practice. Several studies have been conducted in order to determine which strategies are most effective at integrating literacy practices across content areas. The majority of these studies employed surveys, interviews, or questionnaires to ask teachers about their knowledge and use of content literacy strategies. Six studies carried out by different researchers between 1991 and 2007 sought to determine the most common literacy practices and techniques used by teachers and the most frequently cited strategies according to each study are included in Figure 3.1, on the next page Vacca, R. and J.Vacca. Preface. Content Area Reading: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum, Vacca, R. Making a Difference in Adolescents School Lives: Visible and Invisible Aspects of Content Area Reading. What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction, August pp ts=gftlskyjsj&sig=mz0lrrjqpgv6i23mgsyf0df1p3u#v=onepage&q=content%20area%20reading&f=false 57 Ulusoy, M. and H. Dedeoglu. Content Area Reading and Writing: Practices and Beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, p. 2.