ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

Transcription

1 SECTION 3.1 CHAPTER 2 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS CHAPTER 2: Short-term psychological preparation Text between pages 26 to 34, answers to questions on pages 34 and 35 of the text book. 1) a) What is meant by the term self-efficacy when applied to sports psychology. 1 mark Self-efficacy is the level of self-confidence an individual has in a given situation (also called state confidence). b) Bandura suggested that self-efficacy is influenced by four factors. Identify and apply these factors to a sport of your choice. 8 marks Performance accomplishment which means prior success. For example, a hockey pass successfully completed would tend to increase self-efficacy the next time a pass was expected. Vicarious Experience, which is seeing others of similar standard successfully complete task. This is modelling of a task by someone else - seeing the task performed successfully by someone else can increase self-efficacy of the observer. Verbal Persuasion or encouragement by others. This can be by a coach or significant other shouting encouragement form the sidelines during a game. Such a tactic can include deception - in which a player is encouraged in spite of faults. Emotional Arousal which is influenced by level of anxiety. For example, feeling anxious before a game can raise and increase or decrease self-efficacy. This can also affect and be affected by motivation and determination of the player. A more ly motivated (determined) player will have er and greater self-efficacy when faced with a task such as attempting to beat a favoured team at hockey. c) As a coach of a sports team, how would you raise an individual s level of self-efficacy? 4 marks Ensure the performer experiences success. Show the performer a model of similar age or ability being successful. Encourage the performer or persuade the performer that success is attainable. Calm the performer down if anxiety is. 2) A number of PE students are attending trials at their chosen sport. Describe the Inverted U theory and explain how it might affect a student s performance at the trials. 5 marks 2 marks for either diagram or description of inverted U: See diagram figure Q2.1. As (or anxiety) increases, performance increases. There is an optimum point at which the performance is best for this figure Q2.1 inverted U theory particular performer. 3 marks for: This optimum level depends on the classification of the skill being performed (whether fine or gross, open or closed etc). And the habitual nature of the skill, or how well-learnt the skill. optimal Once the optimum level is exceeded, performance falls. The message is that if the student tries too hard ( too ), then he or she may not do as well as if he or she were to relax and focus at the optimum level. low performance 8

2 SHORT-TERM PREPARATION 3) a) Discuss the possible relationships between anxiety and performance in sporting activities. 12 marks 8 marks for: Anxiety is an aspect of ( is required or evident in most sport performance). Inverted U theory links and performance in sport. Marks given for sketch graph (figure Q2.1) showing inverted U theory. Showing low performance at low. Showing performance at medium. Showing low performance at. Small amount of anxiety suggests that the performer is casual or inattentive, therefore unlikely to perform at his or her best (i.e. produce a low performance). High anxiety or can cause over-excitement or disruption of concentration, attention or control. Moderate levels of anxiety or is optimal and makes a performer ready for action. figure Q2.2 drive theory Differences depend on the type of activity, for example, may be required for contact games, and low or calmness for gymnastics. Differences may also be due to the personality of the performer (for example to perform well extroverts need anxiety, and introverts need low or anxiety. 4 marks for: Drive theory (see figure Q2.2), mark given for linear relationship between and performance. Drive theory (also called Hull s theory) can explain what happens for simple skills. The more, the better the performance. Performance can be explained by P = H x D (performance = habit x drive). This means that the dominant response is accentuated by levels (the low er the the better the performance). b) High levels of have often been linked with stress. Sketch a graph showing the relationship between the performance of a complex skill and level of. 2 marks See figure Q2.1 above for the inverted U graph. Inverted U shape. Optimum performance at moderate levels. c) Add a second curve to your graph showing how the performance of a simple skill might be affected by. 2 marks Graph in figure Q2.3 showing optimum performance at level (unbroken red line on graph). Or Drive theory, linear relationship between performance and, or the er the the better the performance (dashed red line on graph). performance figure Q2.3 inverted U or drive theory new optimal level performance low Chapter 2 9

3 SECTION 3.1 CHAPTER 2 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 4) With reference to sporting performance, explain how cognitive and somatic anxiety differ. 5 marks You must use a sporting example in your answer. Cognitive anxiety is a psychological response. This consists of: Worry. Inability to concentrate. Loss of attention. Fear of failure. For example, worry that a tennis opponent is a much better player than you. Somatic anxiety is a physiological response. For example, before the tennis match begins: Increased heart rate. Adrenaline. Butterflies. Sweaty palms. Cognitive anxiety may remain during a performance. The more you worry, the bigger the drop in performance. Somatic anxiety should reduce once a performance begins. The effects of somatic anxiety are similar to the inverted U. As anxiety increases, performance improves - up to an optimum point. After this point, further increase in anxiety will lead to reduced performance. 5) Outline and suggest strategies to aid mental short-term preparation. 8 marks Imagery relaxation: a technique in which a person will think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation. Linked to an image of the activity or skill. Self-talk: involves the talking through the process of the competition. Talking positively and building up self-confidence. Cognitive stress management: involves the control of emotions and though processes linked to attributions (i.e. the reasons for good or poor performances). This should eliminate negative feelings and develop self-confidence. Mental practice: or the rehearsal of a skill without actual physical movement. The movement pattern is visualised, often promoted by a video, tape or talk from a coach. Including the activation of neural pathways. Enabling the performer to memorise a skill or movement more effectively. 6) a) What do we mean by the term aggression in sports psychology? Give an example from a sport or game which would illustrate your answer. 2 marks Aggression is the intention or expectation to harm someone else outside the rules of the competition. An example - foul tackling where the intention is to injure the opponent rather than to prevent a goal. Spectator aggression - displaced from the action on the field, aggression between rival supporters. b) Using examples from sport, briefly describe the differences between aggression and assertion? 2 marks Aggression is the intent to hurt outside the rules of the game or sport. For example, foul tackling where the intension is to injure the opponent. Assertion is (goal directed) robust play within the rules of the game. Assertion could be described as instrumental aggression, channelled aggression, balanced tension. A suitable games example would be for legitimate yet hard or robust tackling, where the intention is to obtain the ball within the rules of the game. 10

4 SHORT-TERM PREPARATION c) Some team players display unwanted aggression. What are the possible causes of such aggression? 4 marks Frustration or perceived unfairness. High level of competition or the importance of the event or expectations of victory. Losing a competition or a sense of failure or loss of self-esteem. An innate feeling which cannot be helped or is instinctive. Physical contact in the game. Influences outside the game. 7) a) Explain in more detail what is meant by social learning when applied to aggression. 4 marks The observation and copying of others. If what is observed is reinforced, then it is more likely to be copied. It is more likely that the learner will copy others with status. Media which light aggression makes it seem normal or the expected thing in the situation. May be adopted by the performer to be accepted in a group or to avoid rejection from the group. Live aggression is more likely to be copied than aggression recorded and played back later. Aggression is more likely to be copied if male watches male (or female watches female) - similar role models. If the situation is realistic when modelled, then it is more likely to be copied. b) How can aggressive tendencies be eliminated in a sports situation? 4 marks Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviours. Give negative feedback to aggression. Punish. Remove the offending player from the aggressive situation. Suggest that the performer undertakes physical relaxation or control of. Promote cognitive strategies or temper control. Give non-aggressive role models. 8) a) The aggressive cue hypothesis (Berkowitz 1969), is a theory which explains why aggression may be experienced by sports performers. Using an example from sport, describe the aggressive cue hypothesis. 4 marks The individual is frustrated - the football player is having a bad game. There is an increase in levels or intensity of behaviour - the football player gets a physiological and psychological response. The player not playing very well becomes the cue for aggression. This cue if repeated may well result in further aggression. b) Using examples from sport, explain the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 4 marks Frustration can occur if the performer s personal goals are blocked. This increases the drive but there is no outlet for this drive. For example, an opposing defender keeps taking the ball off an attacker in football. The attacker feels frustration because the aim is to beat the defender. Frustration leads to aggression because of the drive to get rid of the frustration. For example, the attacker fouls the defender because he wants to regain his self/others regard. Aggression often does not rid the performer of frustration and makes it worse. Because aggression brings its own penalties. For example, the attacker has a red card and is sent off - frustration is furthered because now he cannot succeed. Chapter 2 11

5 SECTION 3.1 CHAPTER 2 ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 9) Discuss how theories of aggression can be applied to sport. 6 marks Instinct theory. We are born aggressive. Aggression is instinctive. Aggressive energy builds up inside us and needs to be released. We are biologically determined to act aggressively in an attempt to dominate. A top rugby player or boxer will need to draw on this element of aggression. Social Learning Theory. We copy the aggressive acts of others. We see players on TV arguing or gesticulating with the referee. And we will copy this behaviour when coming across a confrontation situation in a match of our own.. If aggression by a player is seen to be rewarding, others will copy. Frustration-Aggression Theory and Drive theory. The blocking of goals leads to frustration which leads to aggression. Frustration can be released in contact sports. Aggressive cues or aggressive sports or previous aggressive situations make aggression more likely. 10) a) What is meant by social facilitation and what is its main effect? 3 marks 1 mark for social facilitation: Social facilitation means the effects of the presence of others on performance. 2 marks for two of: This can be the effect of an audience or coactor (members of the performer s own team or the opposition). Social facilitation can be positive or negative. If negative it is often called social inhibition. The main effect of social facilitation is to raise level. b) What effects can be experienced by an individual if there is an audience present? 6 marks Raising of the performer s level. More mistakes could be made by the performer. Feeling of being evaluated or judged (evaluation apprehension). Physiological effects (for example, heart rate ). The dominant response (a practised activity) is more likely to occur (linked with er ), Drive Theory. Inverted U Theory says that the effect can be positive up to a point (moderate level). If the performer is experienced, the audience could spur him or her on to levels of performance. If the performer is extrovert, the audience could facilitate performance (showing off to the audience). If the performer is introvert, the audience could inhibit performance (shy in front of the audience). The effect of an audience on a performer depends on the type of task being performed. Gross or simple skills could facilitate performance. Fine or complex skills could inhibit performance. 11) a) What is meant by evaluation apprehension? 2 marks This means a level of anxiety or negative stress or levels are experienced by the performer. Which would be caused by perceived external judgement or evaluation by others. b) As a coach of an individual who is affected adversely by the presence of an audience, how would you help him or her to overcome the negative influences? 4 marks Decrease the importance of the event. Selective attention, focus on technique or tactics instead of the audience (ignore distractions). Use an audience in training. Use the audience to get behind you in an event. Get the performer to use relaxation or somatic strategies. Get the performer to use cognitive stress management, positive thinking or imagery. 12

6 SHORT-TERM PREPARATION 12) Two groups of male sportspeople (of the same age) undertook an arms length weight hold endurance test. Success at this exercise was measured by the length of time the weight was held. Table 2.1 below shows the average times for group 1 (who did the exercise alone) and group 2 (who did the exercise in the presence of an audience). Table 2.1 time for a weight hold endurance test group 1 no audience group 2 with audience average time held in seconds a) What effect (if any) did the audience have on the performance of the exercise? 1 mark The audience had the effect of improving performance. b) How would you account for this effect (or lack of effect)? 4 marks Social facilitation. The mere presence of an audience has a positive effect on a well-learned skill. The group wants to impress the audience or is worried by not impressing the audience. Adrenaline (or hormonal effects) induced by the presence of the audience would have a positive effect. Positive effects are attributed to presence of an evaluative audience. An audience has an effect on level of and thus increases a performance up to the optimum level. Distraction by the audience may have a negative effect. c) The audience in this exercise (for group 2) was not known to the participants. Explain any effect you think there would be if the audience was known to the group. 6 marks Cottrell s evaluation effect. The group might perceive the evaluation by the audience as being greater than if the audience was unknown. Subjects may not wish to perform well in front of friends. Subjects may seek praise from friends or fear ridicule from friends. Subjects may lose concentration due to presence of an audience known to them. Performance might be increased by an atmosphere of competition within the group. The subjects may have the motive to do well (achieve) or avoid failure in front of this audience. 13) Using examples from sport, explain what is meant by evaluation apprehension and outline the causes of it. 3 marks Fear of judgement or perceived judgement. For example, feeling anxious because there is a talent scout watching the football game that you are involved in. Caused by lack of confidence or self efficacy. High or anxiety caused by A-Trait. Previous experiences may have been failing ones. Learned helplessness. Lack of positive reinforcement and support from others. Chapter 2 13