Chapter 6. Economic Growth: from Malthus to Solow
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1 Chapter 6 Economic Growth: from Malthus to Solow
2 Two Primary Phenomena that Macroeconomists study are: Economic Growth Business Cycle Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-2
3 Economic Growth is Important! If business cycles could be completely eliminated, the worst events we would able to avoid would be deviation from the trend of GDP by 5%. If changes in economic policy could cause the growth rate of real GDP to increase by 1% per year to 100 years, the GDP would be 2.7 times higher than it would otherwise have been. Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-3
4 Economic Growth Facts Pre-1800 (Industrial Revolution): constant per capita income across time and space, no improvement in standards of living. Post-1800: Sustained Growth in the Rich Countries. In the US, average growth rate of GDP per capita has been about 2% since Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-4
5 Figure 6.1 Natural Log of Real per Capita Income in the United States, Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-5
6 Economic Growth Facts Con d High Investment High Standard of Living High Population Growth Low Standard of Living Divergence of per capita Incomes: Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-6
7 Figure 6.2 Output per Worker vs. Investment Rate Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-7
8 Figure 6.3 Output per Worker vs. the Population Growth Rate Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-8
9 Economic Growth Facts Con d No conditional Convergence amongst all Countries (Weakly) Conditional Convergence amongst the Rich Countries No Conditional Convergence amongst the Poorest Countries Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-9
10 Figure 6.4 No Convergence Among All Countries Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-10
11 Figure 6.5 Convergence Among the Richest Countries Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-11
12 Figure 6.6 No Convergence Among the Poorest Countries Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-12
13 The Malthusian Model Idea was provided by Thomas Malthus in his highly influential book An Essay on the Principle of Population in He argued technological change improvement in standard living population growth reduce the average person to the subsistence level again Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-13
14 In the long run there would be no increase in the standard of living unless there were some limits on population growth. It is a pessimistic theory! Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-14
15 The Malthusian Economy Production technology Y zf( L, N) L is the fixed amount of land, N is the labor input. F has all the nice properties (Recall Chapter 4) No investment technology (no refrigerator, food perish) No government Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-15
16 No leisure in the utility function. UC ( ) C We normalize the labor endowment of each person to be 1, so N is both the population size and the labor input Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-16
17 Assume the population growth depends on the quantity of consumption per worker (standard of living) g N N is a increasing function ' g C ( ) N Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-17
18 Figure 6.7 Population Growth Depends on Consumption per Worker in the Malthusian Model Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-18
19 In equilibrium, we have Hence C Y C zf( L, N) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-19
20 N ' (, ) g( zf L N ) g( zf( L,1)) N N N Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-20
21 Steady State When N =N, we say the economy reaches the steady state (SS). In SS, N=N*, C*=zF(L,N*). Define variable in terms of per capita, for example, y=y/n, c=c/n, l=l/n. we have y=f(l) (f(l)=f(l,1)) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-21
22 In equilibrium, c=y. Hence we have c=zf(l) (1) Law of motion of population N /N=g(c) (2) (1) + (2) consist the dynamic economic system for this economy Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-22
23 In SS, N /N=1, this determines the SS value of consumption per capita c 1=g(c*) Then in equation (1), c* in turn determines l* through c*=zf(l*) Finally, the SS population size N* is determined by N*=L/l* Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-23
24 Figure 6.8 Determination of the Population in the Steady State Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-24
25 Figure 6.9 The Per-Worker Production Function Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-25
26 Figure 6.10 Determination of the Steady State in the Malthusian Model Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-26
27 The Effect of TFP on the SS Do not improve the standard of living c* in the long run ( c* is determined by 1=g(c*) ) Only increases the population (l*, N* ) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-27
28 Figure 6.11 The Effect of an Increase in z in the Malthusian Model Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-28
29 Figure 6.12 Adjustment to the Steady State in the Malthusian Model When z Increases Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-29
30 Policy Implication: Population Control Government directly controls the population growth: g(c) In SS, c 1 * c 2 *. Standard of living increases. The quantity of land per worker increases too, l 1 * l 2 *. That leads to the SS population size decreases N 1 * N 2 *. Theoretical foundation of Chinese One Child policy. Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-30
31 Figure 6.13 Population Control in the Malthusian Model Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-31
32 Evaluation of Malthusian Model Consistent with the growth facts before 1800: production was mainly agricultural, population grew over time, but no significant improvements in the average standard of living What did happen after 1800? Sustained growth in standards of living in the richest countries The richest countries also have experienced a large drop in birth rates Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-32
33 Malthus was wrong on these two dimensions He did not allow for the effect of increases in K on production. Capital can produce itself. He did not account for all of the effects of economic forces on population growth. As economy develops, the opportunity cost of raising a large family becomes large. Fertility rate decreases. We need a GROWTH theory! Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-33
34 Source: Fernandez-Villaverde (2001) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-34
35 Source: Fernandez-Villaverde (2001) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-35
36 Source: Bar and Leukhina (2005) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-36
37 The Solow Model: Exogenous Consumers Growth Utility function: U(C)=C Budget Constraint: C+S=Y (Why?) Consumers have to make consumptionsaving decisions We assume the consumers consume a constant fraction of income in each period C=(1-s)Y, S=sY Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-37
38 Firm Production function Y=zF(K,N) It has all of the properties we discussed in Chapter 4 (CRS, increasing, concave, ) We can rewrite everything in terms of per capita variables Y K zf (,1) N N y z f ( k ) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-38
39 The capital stock evolves according to K =(1-d)K+I I is the investment. 0<d<1 is the depreciation rate. Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-39
40 Figure 6.14 The Per-Worker Production Function Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-40
41 Competitive Equilibrium In equilibrium, S=I So we have Y=C+I Y=(1-s)Y+K -(1-d)K K =sy+(1-d)k K /N=szF(K,N)/N+(1-d)K/N (K /N )(N /N)=szF(K/N,1)+(1-d)K/N Assume the population growth rate is n. We have N =(1+n)N Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-41
42 szf () k (1 d) k k ' 1 n 1 n When k =k, we reach the steady state (SS). Solow model predicts that eventually k will converge to SS value k* Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-42
43 Figure 6.15 Determination of the Steady State Quantity of Capital per Worker Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-43
44 Model Prediction There is no long run economic growth in per capita variables. But there is a long run economic growth rate in aggregate variables. (If n,s,z are constant.) K=k*N, K =k*n K /K=N /N=1+n, so (K -K)/K=n Y=y*N=zf(k*)N Y /Y=1+n Since S=I=sY S /S=1+n Same as C Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-44
45 All aggregate variables grow at the rate n! This is the reason why Solow model is an exogenous growth model. The longrun growth is determined by exogenous labor force growth. Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-45
46 Analysis of the Steady State In SS, k =k=k*. So we have szf ( k*) (1 d ) k * k * 1 n 1 n or szf ( k*) ( n d ) k * Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-46
47 Figure 6.16 Determination of the Steady State Quantity of Capital per Worker Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-47
48 Experiment: The Effect of s in SS The SS level of per capita capital stock k* will increase. Hence c*,y* also increase. It predicts a positive relation b/w s (investment rate) and y (GDP per capita). Confirmed by data! But there is no change in the growth rates of the aggregate variables (still n). Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-48
49 Figure 6.17 Effect of an Increase in the Savings Rate on the Steady State Quantity of Capital per Worker Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-49
50 Figure 6.18 Effect of an Increase in the Savings Rate at Time T Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-50
51 Consumption per Worker and Golden Rule In SS, the consumption per worker is c=(1-s)zf(k*)=zf(k*)-(n+d)k* The golden rule quantity of capital per worker k * gr is k such that c is maximized MPk=n+d Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-51
52 Figure 6.19 Steady State Consumption per Worker Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-52
53 Figure 6.20 The Golden Rule Quantity of Capital per Worker Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-53
54 Experiment: The Effect of n in SS The SS quantity of capital per worker (k*) decreases. y* and c* also decrease. Hence n (population growth rate) is negatively correlated with y. Confirmed by data But the aggregate variables Y, K, C all grow at higher rate Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-54
55 Figure 6.21 Steady State Effects of an Increase in the Labor Force Growth Rate Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-55
56 The prediction of Solow Model Solow model predicts saving rate (investment rate) y, and n y It is consistent with the data (recall it) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-56
57 Experiment: The Effects of TFP To make y continuously, we need s and n continuously. But sooner or later, they will hit the boundary. To make an unbounded long run growth, we need TFP (or z) TFP k, hence y, c Now recall what Malthus model says about the TFP, we can have long-run growth now with Solow model Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-57
58 Figure 6.22 Increases in Total Factor Productivity in the Solow Growth Model Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-58
59 Growth Accounting Typically, growing economies are experiencing growth in factors of production and in TFP. A natural question is can we measure how much of the growth in Y is accounted for by growth in each of the inputs to production and by increases in TFP. Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-59
60 We call this exercise is Growth Accounting. Start from aggregate production function Y zk ( N) 1 Profit maximization implies MP (1 ) zk ( N) w N 1 wn (1 ) zk ( N) (1 ) Y Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-60
61 (1-a) is the share of labor incomes in GDP. In postwar US data, it is Similarly, a=0.36 is the capital share in national income. Hence the production function is Y zk 0.36 ( N) 0.64 Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-61
62 The z, called Solow residual, is measured from the production z K Y 0.36 ( N) 0.64 Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-62
63 Table 6.1 Average Annual Growth Rates in the Solow Residual Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-63
64 Figure 6.23 Natural Log of the Solow Residual, Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-64
65 Figure 6.24 Percentage Deviations from Trend in Real GDP (black line)and the Solow Residual (colored line), Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-65
66 Growth Accounting Decomposition Take a natural log on aggregate production function lny ln z 0.36ln K 0.64ln N Take first order derivatives w.r.t. time t on both sides.... Y z 0.36 K 0.64 N Y z K N Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-66
67 Growth rate of output = Growth rate of TFP * Growth rate of capital * Growth rate of labor Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-67
68 Table 6.2 Measured GDP, Capital Stock, Employment, and Solow Residual Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-68
69 Table 6.3 Average Annual Growth Rates Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-69
70 An Example: East Asian Miracles Alwyn Young did a growth accounting exercise for Four Little Dragons Found high rates of GDP growth in these countries were mainly due to high growth rates in factor inputs. Implication: East Asian Miracle is probably not sustainable over a longer period. (Japan recession in 1990s, South Korea Financial Crisis ) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-70
71 Table 6.4 East Asian Growth Miracles (Average Annual Growth Rates) Copyright 2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 6-71
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