CHAPTER 3. ANIMAL and PLANT. DISEASES and PESTS SOME SPECIFIC EXAMPLES

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 3 ANIMAL and PLANT DISEASES and PESTS SOME SPECIFIC EXAMPLES Some important animal diseases and plant diseases and pests will be described and illustrated in this chapter. There are numerous sources of additional information about these diseases (see Reference Section 3). 1

2 ANIMAL DISEASES Important animal diseases will be described and illustrated in this chapter. Some of the diseases mentioned here are the more common, everyday diseases for which producers, managers and regulators are constantly on the lookout. Since they are expected to occur in low numbers (endemic) they form the basis of most of our preventive laboratory tests and field inspections. Others are those diseases that instill fear literally! into private veterinarians, regulatory veterinarians/animal health officials, extension agents, livestock and poultry associations, producers, and public health officials. But all of these are important. What makes an animal disease "important"? Here are some factors: Costly interventions are needed to treat or manage sick animals Planned offspring are lost from reproductive diseases or abortions Entire herds/flocks are lost due to fatal disease or toxin exposure Narrow profit margins turn to net loss Humans can be affected (sickness or death possible) by the disease Disease is highly contagious and spreads quickly Agriculture-related industries fail in the state, region or US Markets are lost due to trade barriers Consumer fears cause a loss of markets Recovery to normal may take months to years The animal diseases that cause the greatest fears contain all of the above factors magnified to a national and international scale. Socioeconomic and/or human health effects caused by an outbreak of one of these diseases could be catastrophic; months to years of response and recovery efforts and costs well into the hundreds of millions will be necessary for eradication. A good term for this type of disease is high consequence. This high consequence animal disease list is comprised of more than 120 diseases that affect both domestic and wildlife species (Reference 3-6, Appendix 1). A shorter compilation of high consequence diseases is the following list from the USDA National Veterinary Stockpile planners. Some of these are foreign animal diseases (FADs) and others have been found in the US as well as in SC. The diseases highlighted in bold are described in more detail later in this chapter. 2

3 THE 17 MOST DANGEROUS ANIMAL DISEASE THREATS High Pathogenic Avian Influenza Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Rift Valley fever Exotic Newcastle Disease Nipah and Hendra Viruses Classical Swine Fever (former name Hog Cholera) African Swine Fever Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Rinderpest Japanese Encephalitis African Horse Sickness Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia Ehrlichia ruminantium (Heartwater) Eastern Equine Encephalitis Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) Akabane Virus Lists of diseases, pictures of affected animals, and short descriptions are helpful. They can lead to other resources that provide further information needed to be prepared or to solve disease problems. Perhaps a more efficient method is to search by clinical signs. A list of common diseases and conditions associated with these signs provides a quick rule-out list that may help to determine a cause and decide what interventions are possible. Alongside the more expected causes is a cross-comparison with reportable diseases and foreign animal diseases (FADs) the high consequence diseases. Even the slightest suspicion of a reportable disease and/or a FAD should prompt an immediate phone call to an extension agent or private, state or federal veterinarian to begin an urgent notification process. This process (further discussed in the Notification section) will be necessary to stop disease spread 3 as quickly as possible.

4 What follows are tables listing clinical signs and the corresponding disease rule outs for poultry, adult beef cattle, adult dairy cattle, swine, sheep, goats and equine. Animal diseases cannot be confirmed by observing clinical signs alone. Actually it is quite the opposite, since so many different types of diseases can look the same, proper disease investigation and laboratory testing is needed. Reportable Animal Diseases are those diseases that are to be reported immediately to the State Veterinarian's Office when diagnosed or suspected (Reference 3-8, Appendix 3). The names of foreign animal diseases (FADs) are in bold font in these charts. ADULT BEEF CATTLE DISEASES or CLINICAL SIGN CONDITIONS Blisters/ulcers in the Bovine Viral Diarrhea mouth (BVD) Slobbering/salivation Bluetongue Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease (White Tail Deer) Plant awn Diarrhea Change in diet Indigestion Johne s Salmonella BVD Poisonous plants (Buttercup) Winter Dysentery Neurological signs Ketosis (strange behavior, Listeriosis depression stumbling) Grass Tetany Lead poisoning Milk Fever REPORTABLE DISEASES &/or FADs Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Vesicular Stomatitis Bovine papular stomatitis Rinderpest Rinderpest Johne s Rabies Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy 4

5 Polioencephalomalacia Poor body condition Malnutrition Johne s Internal Abscess Acorn poisoning Fat Necrosis Sudden Death Clostridial diseases Peritonitis/Sepsis Anaplasmosis Choke Bloat Abomasal ulcers Milk Fever Grain overload Nitrate Prussic Acid Japanese Yew (taxus) Lameness Foot rot Vertical cracks (sand cracks) Digital dermatitis Laminitis Injury Tuberculosis (TB) Johne s Malignant Catarrhal Fever Anthrax FMD Malignant Catarrhal Fever Vesicular Stomatitis Bluetongue <<<<< >>>>> 5

6 ADULT DAIRY CATTLE Clinical Sign Common Diseases or Conditions Blisters/Ulcers in the BVD mouth Bluetongue Epizootic Slobbering/Salivation Hemorrhagic Disease (White Tail Deer) Poisonous plants (Buttercup) Diarrhea Change in diet Indigestion Johne s Salmonella BVD Winter Dysentery Neurological Signs Ketosis (strange behavior Listeriosis depression stumbling) Grass Tetany Lead poisoning Milk Fever Poor body condition Malnutrition Johne s Internal Abscess Sudden Death Clostridial diseases Peritonitis/Sepsis Anaplasmosis Choke Bloat Abomasal ulcers Milk Fever Grain overload Toxins Reportable Diseases &/or FADs Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Vesicular Stomatitis Bovine papular stomatitis Rinderpest Rinderpest Johne s Rabies Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy TB Johne s Malignant Catarrhal Fever Anthrax 6

7 Lameness Sole ulcer digital dermatitis foot rot laminitis injury FMD Malignant Catarrhal Fever Vesicular Stomatitis Bluetongue <<<<< >>>>> 7

8 POULTRY Clinical Sign Respiratory Signs: (Sneezing, nose/eye discharge, swollen eyes, swollen sinuses, gasping for breath, dirty shoulders) Diarrhea weight loss Common Diseases or Conditions (only in C=chickens, T=turkeys, Q=quail, P=pigeon, PH=pheasant Newcastle Disease Infectious Bronchitis (C) Quail Bronchitis (Q) Fowl Pox Infectious Coryza (C) Fowl Cholera Mycoplasma Aspergillus Bordetella (T) Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) Ornibacterium (ORT) avian TB 2* infections (E. coli) gapeworm dust ammonia vaccine reaction Hemorrhagic Enteritis (T) Salmonella ulcerative enteritis (Q) necrotic enteritis E. coli Reportable Diseases &/or FADs Avian Influenza Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Infectious Laryngotracheitis (C) Pullorum Disease 8

9 Chlamydophila, internal parasites (worms, coccidia) histomonas trichimonas salt toxicity heavy metals Neurological Signs Marek s Disease (C) (strange behavior, avian depression, encephalomyelitis stumbling, paralysis, Botulism toxin twisting of head, Aspergillus tremors) Dactylaria fowl cholera Salmonella E. coli Chlamydophila Leucocytozoon Toxoplasmosis vitamin E deficiency riboflavin deficiency thiamine deficiency trauma salt toxicity Sudden Death Fowl Cholera yolk sac bacterial infections (chicks/poults) starve-outs insecticide/herbicide toxicity Decreased egg avian production encephalomyeilitis poor hatch rate Infectious Bronchitis Avian Influenza Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Avian Influenza Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Avian Influenza Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Pullorum Disease 9

10 shell quality problems Lameness (wingwalking, limping, swollen joints & foot pads) Skin symptoms (scabs, skin discoloration, nodules, feather loss, bugs) (C) Eastern Equine Encephalitis Infectious Coryza (C) Fowl Cholera E. coli ORT Chlamydophila Mycoplasma Salmonella species avian TB lice mites calcium/phosphorus imbalance vitamin E deficiency lighting Marek s Disease (C) viral arthritis E. coli Pasteurella Staphylococcus Salmonella Mycoplasma rickets ionophore toxicity (T) trauma cage layer fatigue Fowl pox Marek s disease (C) Erysipelas Gangrenous dermatitis Staphylococcus Fowl Typhoid Pullorum Disease Avian Influenza Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) 10

11 lice / mites cannibalism trauma neoplasia <<<<< >>>>> 11

12 EQUINE Clinical Sign Common Diseases Neurological Signs Equine herpes virus (decreased coordination, tetanus weakness, seizures, rigidity Hepatic encephalopathy of limbs, depression, head Botulism pressing, blindness) Equine protozoal myelitis Respiratory Signs Equine influenza (Mucopurulent nasal Equine herpes virus discharge, cough, fever, Strangles recent stress, rapid and Pneumonia shallow breathing) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Heart failure Trouble eating (drooling Choke saliva, dropping food, nasal Dental malocclusion discharge) /infected tooth root Blister beetle Toxicosis Grass seed awn injury Slobbers (slaframine toxicosis) botulism Reproductive tract infection Non-specific bacterial infection Reportable Diseases &/or FADs Rabies Encephalitides (EEE, WEE, VEE) West Nile Virus equine infectious anemia (other signs of EIA include: jaundice, anemia, and ventral edema) African horse sickness, Glanders Equine viral arteritis Vesicular Stomatitis Contagious equine metritis <<<<< >>>>> 12

13 SWINE DISEASES or CLINICAL SIGN CONDITIONS Blisters on snout Skin lesions (external parasites) Trauma Diarrhea TGE Porcine Circo Virus Associated Disease (PCVAD) Salmonella Leptospirosis Oesophagostomum Gastric ulceration Overdose: levamisole, dimetridazole, piperazine Toxoplasmosis Porcine intestinal adenomatosis Collibacillosis Lincomycin or tylosin (early) edema disease Ascaris suum A. pleuropneumonaiae Swine dysentery Trichuris suis Proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy Toxicities: ochratoxin REPORTABLE DISEASES &/or FADs Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Vesicular Stomatitis Vesicular Exanthema of Swine Swine Vesicular Disease Classical Swine Fever African Swine Fever (often bloody) Intestinal Anthrax 13

14 tricothecene, warfarin Vomiting (young) Hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis (HEV), encephalitic form TGE Pseudorabies Porcine epidemic diarrhea Hairballs, foreign bodies Toxicities: Vomitoxin, T-2, diacetoxyscirpenol Neurological signs Pseudorabies (strange behavior, (young) Edema disease severe depression, (young) Blue eye stumbling) paramyxovirus (young) HEV Salt poisoning (water deprivation) Meningitis (Streptococcus suis, Salmonella) Teschen disease Tetanus Listeriosois Rabies Toxicities: organic arsenical Nutritional deficiencies African Swine Fever Classical Swine Fever Anthrax Nipah Classical Swine Fever 14

15 Reproductive problems (abortion, stillbirth, mummification Middle ear infection Brain/spinal cord injury Brucellosis Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome PRRS Nutritional: overunder-feeding, mineral deficiencies, vitamin deficiencies Septicemia (various agents) Porcine parvovirus Pseudorabies Swine Influenza Virus (housed with cattle) BVD Virus Toxoplasmosis Ingestion of molds (Claviceps purpura, T2, Zearalenone) Blue eye disease Japanese B encephalitis Entero-adeno-reocytomegalo-viruses Leptospirosis Eperythrozoonosis Environmental factors (heat prostration, cold, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide) Classical Swine Fever African Swine Fever Foot and Mouth Disease Vesicular Stomatitis Vesicular exanthema of Swine 15

16 Trauma Fatigue Porcine stress syndrome Toxicities Uterine infection (various bacterial spp) Poor body condition, PCVAD anorexia, depression, Salmonella huddling, fever Erysipelas Toxicities: aflatoxin, citrinin or ochratoxin Haemophilus parasuis (young) Mycoplasma hyorhinitis (PRRS) Malnutrition Porcine stress syndrome Heat prostration Eperythrozoonosis Porcine Dermatitis and Nephropathy Syndrome (PDNS) Sudden Death (young) Edema disease (young) Acute pneumonias (young) VitaminE/selenium deficiency PCVAD Salt poisoning (water Classical Swine Fever African Swine Fever Nipah Vesicular Stomatitis Foot and Mouth Disease Swine Vesicular Disease Vesicular Exanthema of Swine Anthrax Nipah 16

17 Respiratory Signs (sneezing, coughing, labored breathing) deprivation) Gastric ulceration Erysipelas Gastric volvulus Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome Porcine Stress Syndrome PDNS Toxicities Electrocution Clostridium novyi (heavy) Cardiac insufficiency Asphyxiation PRRS Bacterial pneumonias Mycoplasma pneumonias Fumonisin Ascaris suum Swine influenza virus Porcine stress syndrome Heat prostration Pseudorabies Toxoplasmosis (young) barking-piglet syndrome Environmental contaminants (ammonia, dust) Atrophic rhinitis Blue eye Nipah 17

18 paramyxovirus Lameness Trauma Laminitis Foot Rot Chronic suppurative arthritis (various bacterial spp) Erysipelas Osteochondrosis Osteoarthrosis/DJD Brucellosis Leg weakness syndrome FMD Vesicular Stomatitis <<<<< >>>>> 18

19 SHEEP and GOATS DISEASES or CLINICAL SIGN CONDITIONS Slobbering/salivation Soremouth/ orf/ Blisters/ulcers in the contagious ecthyma mouth Bluetongue or Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease (White Tail Deer) primarily in sheep Plant awn Organophosphate or carbamate poisoning Slobbers (fungus on red clover) Diarrhea Internal parasites (worms, coccidia or cryptosporidia) Change in diet/ Indigestion Clostridium perfringens Johne s Salmonella Poisonous plants Parelaphostrongylus tenuis Neurological signs: Polioencephalomalacia strange behavior, Ketosis (pregnancy tremors, depression, toxemia) circling, stumbling, or Listeriosis seizures Milk Fever Caprine arthritis & REPORTABLE DISEASES &/or FADs Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Goat pox Peste des pestis ruminants Rinderpest Vesicular stomatitis Johne s Peste des pestis ruminants Pseudorabies Rinderpest Borna disease Rabies Scrapie 19

20 encephalitis (CAE) Tetanus Poisonous plants Enzootic ataxia (copper deficiency) Poor body condition Malnutritiondeficiency of feed, energy, cobalt, copper Johne s Internal Abscess (caseous lymphadenitis) CAE Chronic pneumonia Internal parasites Sudden Death Barber pole (Haemonchosis) Enterotoxemia Polioencephalomalacia Bloat Choke Grain overloadacidosis Pregnancy toxemia Lameness Foot scald Foot rot CAE Laminitis Abortion Enzootic abortion (chlamydia) Toxoplasmosis Campylobacter Border disease Caprine herpesvirus Johne s Tuberculosis (TB) Anthrax Heartwater Bluetongue FMD Vesicular stomatitis Akabane virus Brucellosis Nairobi sheep disease Peste des Petits Ruminants Rift Valley Fever 20

21 Q fever Leptospira Listeria ILLUSTRATED ANIMAL DISEASES FOREIGN ANIMAL DISEASES Specific Examples For geographical distribution of these diseases and any other related information, see Reference Section 3. African Horse Sickness (AHS) Description AHS is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus. Mortality in horses and mules is extremely high, up to 95% depending on the strain of disease. There are mild, pulmonary, cardiac, and mixed pulmonary-cardiac forms. The incubation period is about 3-9 days. Signs Some animals with the mild forms recover and develop immunity to the disease. Fever, loss of appetite, swelling at upper eyelids and face and neck and shoulders, rapid and difficult breathing, profuse sweating, coughing, and sudden death with frothy nasal discharge may be observed. 21

22 Horse with ASF showing depression and swelling of head and eyes Frothy discharge from the nose in a horse that died from ASF. Transmission ASF is not contagious between animals but is transmitted from one horse to another by an insect vector, usually Culicoides midges. The highest risk of introducing the disease into the US comes from animals imported from countries where the disease is endemic. For this reason a quarantine period is observed (under insect vectorprotected conditions) for horses brought into the US from these countries. Control In a suspected outbreak of AHS in endemic areas, strict control measures, (including movement controls) are put in place. Equine species are stabled in barns from dusk till dawn and sprayed with insect repellents and insecticides. If the diagnosis is confirmed, vaccination of all susceptible animals in the surrounding areas may also be undertaken. An outbreak of AHS in the US would involve an eradication program that might include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, as well as a prolonged surveillance period before the country could be declared free of disease. Horse owners in unaffected areas would employ biosecurity procedures and vectorcontrol measures to protect their animals. Human Disease Humans are not affected by this disease. 22

23 African Swine Fever (ASF) Description ASF is a highly contagious viral disease that is often fatal. The incubation period ranges from about 4-15 days. Signs Depending on the strain of virus, animals with ASF may show no signs (subclinical) to sudden death. Signs in chronic disease include abortion and weight loss. More severe strains often cause listlessness, fever, reddening of the skin, breathing distress, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, incoordination, and death. Pigs infected with ASF often experience bloody diarrhea. (APHIS photo by Karen Apicelli) Reddening (hemorrhage) of the skin in ASF. Transmission ASF is spread via ticks or by direct or indirect contact with infected pigs, their blood and secretions. This disease can be introduced by feeding infected pork products to domestic pigs. The virus remains infectious for 3-6 months in products such as sausage, chorizo, filet and dry hams. Control There is no effective vaccine or treatment. Prevention requires effective trade regulations and good biosecurity. To eradicate the disease in an area, tick control and disinfection procedures are required. An outbreak of ASF in the US would involve an eradication program that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, cleaning and disinfection protocols as well as a prolonged surveillance period before producers could return to business. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate highlevel biosecurity procedures and proof-of-negative diagnostic laboratory testing in order to be permitted to trade. 23

24 Looks Like Classical Swine Fever (CSF); septicemia (from salmonella and other causes) Human Disease ASF is not a human disease. Avian Influenza (AI) Description AI is a viral disease that affects many avian species, including chickens, turkeys, game birds, ratites, waterfowl and wild birds; but is primarily a disease problem in poultry-type birds. Signs can vary depending on the viral subtype (H1, H5, H7, etc.) and the ability to produce disease (low or high pathogenicity) of the AI strain. Low pathogenic viruses have the potential to mutate into the severe high pathogenic form (H5 and H7). High pathogenic AI can cause sudden death, at times with no clinical signs, in large numbers of birds. The incubation period is about 1-7 days. Signs Low pathogenic AI strains can show no signs in the birds, or respiratory signs, sudden small drops in egg production and a low death rate. High pathogenic AI strains show severe signs, including depression, respiratory signs, neurologic signs, big drops in egg production, swollen wattles and combs, diarrhea, and a high death rate. HPAI-infected chicken on the left has a cyanotic (blue/purple) comb compared to the normal chicken on the right with red comb Fluid accumulation (edema) of head and neck, very characteristic of avian influenza 24

25 Comb and wattles with cyanosis and edema (blue coloring and swelling) due to HPAI infection. Hemorrhage along leg is very characteristic of HPAI Transmission The virus is found in nasal secretions and feces of infected birds. The virus is then spread through movement of infected birds or movement of virus contaminated coops, equipment, vehicles, personnel boots, etc. that can infect new birds. Wild waterfowl and shore birds, are natural reservoirs of AI which can spread the low pathogenic viruses to domesticated poultry. Control An outbreak of high pathogenic AI in the US would involve an eradication program that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, cleaning and disinfection protocols as well as a prolonged surveillance period to enable producers to return to business. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate high-level biosecurity procedures and proof-of-negative diagnostic laboratory testing in order to be permitted to trade. Even low pathogenic H5 or H7 strains of AI require some of the above control measures in order to continue bird movement and trade between states and international countries. Looks Like Exotic Newcastle Disease (END) Human Disease People have been infected with both low and high pathogenic AI strains when having close contact with infected sick or dead birds. Humans are still considered to be resistant to AI viruses. 25

26 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Mad Cow Disease NOTE: BSE has been found in the US in recent years. Therefore it doesn t technically meet the foreign animal disease category. However, BSE is a very important disease for which we maintain surveillance in the US. Description BSE is a chronic, degenerative disease that affects the nervous system and leads to death. It is one of the prion diseases (others include chronic wasting disease, scrapie). The incubation period ranges from 2-8 years; cattle up to 30 months of age are considered to be free of the disease. BSE is not contagious from animal to animal. BSE was first diagnosed in 1986 in the United Kingdom (UK). The UK has 95% of the total cases found thus far. Signs Depression, nervousness, aggression, hyperactivity, staggering, hyper-activity, and death are seen. (. Anyone got any pictures?) Transmission BSE is transmitted through ingestion of contaminated feedstuffs with recycled (rendered) protein sources from infected cattle. Control Many measures have been put in place to stop the spread of this disease, including import controls, feed bans, and the removal of specified risk material from animals entering the feed chain. Looks Like Central nervous system diseases Human Disease It is accepted that human cases of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vcjd) have been caused by ingestion of BSE-contaminated beef. 26

27 Classical Swine Fever (CSF) (former name Hog Cholera) Description CSF is a highly contagious and often fatal viral disease. The forms are acute, subacute, chronic, and congenital. Depending on the form the incubation period can range from 2 to 14 days but is usually 3 4 days. Older animals may recover from the subacute and chronic forms. Signs Affected pigs will often pile up or huddle up together. Depending on the form, the following may be seen: abortion and stillbirths, fever, depression, hunched appearance, crusty eyelid discharge (conjunctivitis), reddened areas on the skin, vomiting, diarrhea, incoordination, and rear limb weakness, seizures, and death. Transmission Affected pigs often huddle together. pork scraps is another means of transmission. Affected pigs are depressed, and may have reddened areas on the skin. Direct (pig to pig) is the most common route of transmission of infective bodily fluids. The virus is also easily spread by inanimate objects (fomites) such as boots and vehicles, and may be spread through air in highly concentrated areas. Garbage feeding of raw, contaminated, Swine with the congenital form acquire it pre-natally and become persistently infected. These pigs and those with subacute and chronic forms may become carriers without showing any signs of the disease. If allowed to enter the US they could silently and rapidly spread this disease into our herds. Control Swine imported in the US from CSF-affected countries are quarantined before entry. An outbreak of CSF in the US would involve an eradication program that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, cleaning and disinfection protocols as well as a prolonged 27

28 surveillance period before producers could return to business. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate highlevel biosecurity procedures and proof-of-negative diagnostic laboratory testing in order to be permitted to trade. Looks Like African Swine Fever (ASF); septicemia (salmonella and other causes) Human Disease CSF does not affect humans. "Exotic" Newcastle Disease (END) Description A deadly viral disease that affects many avian species, including chickens, turkeys, game birds, ratites, waterfowl, pigeons, pet birds and wild birds. The incubation period varies from 2-15 days. Severe outbreaks in the US including the CA, NV and AZ outbreaks serve as a sharp reminder of the damage this diseases causes when introduced. Signs Sudden death loss or increase in losses, gasping for air, coughing, sneezing, green watery diarrhea, depression, loss of appetite, droopy wings, twisting of the head and neck, circling, egg production loss, paralysis, and muscle spasms. Birds may die quickly without showing any of these lesions as well. The death rate can approach 100%. Bleeding (hemorrhage) of the lower eyelid is often seen in Newcastle infection. A chicken with Newcastle is depressed, head twisted and has diarrhea. 28

29 Tansmission The virus is found in nasal secretions and feces of infected birds. The virus is then spread through movement of infected birds or movement of virus contaminated coops, equipment, vehicles, personnel boots, etc. that can infect new birds. Control An outbreak of END in the US would involve an eradication program that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, cleaning and disinfection protocols as well as a prolonged surveillance period to enable producers to return to business. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate highlevel biosecurity procedures and proof-of-negative diagnostic laboratory testing in order to be permitted to trade. Looks Like High Pathogenic Avian Influenza Human Disease People can get a mild conjunctivitis when handling infected birds. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Description Foot and Mouth Disease is considered the most contagious animal disease and is the most dreaded FAD for the US. FMD affects several species (cattle, swine, sheep, goats, deer, and all other cloven-hoofed species). The virus remains viable in the environment and in meat from infected animals, depending on factors such as humidity and ph. The incubation period is about 3 5 days. The disease occurs in many other parts of the world. Signs Early signs are fever and reduced appetite. The most consistent sign is the formation of blisters (called vesicles) inside or around the mouth, hooves and teats. These blisters rupture and cause severe, localized pain which leads to excessive salivation and lameness. Death may occur in the very young. Adult animals, following healing of 29

30 mouth and hoof lesions, remain poor doers with such problems as breathing difficulties, weight loss, reproductive problems, and loss in milk production. Excess salivation in FMD Sloughing of bovine tongue A blister (vesicle) on a pig s snout. Hoof lesions in swine can lead to sloughing of the claw Transmission Foot and Mouth Disease can be transmitted via direct, indirect and airborne (distances of more than 25 miles are suspected) routes. The virus can survive in soil, feces, hay, equipment, and meat products. FMD could be introduced into the US through an infected animal, animal products or biologicals, and via inanimate objects (boots, vehicles, equipment). Recent travelers from FMD-endemic areas are advised to stay off any US livestock facility where susceptible animals are located for several days, because humans can harbor the FMD virus temporarily in the back of the throat. Control Strict controls are in place to prevent the entry of FMD into the US. For example, garbage from ships must be collected and destroyed at ports of entry. An outbreak of FMD in the US would involve an eradication program 30

31 that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, cleaning and disinfection protocols, and a prolonged surveillance period before producers could return to business. Vaccination protocols may be used, especially if development of DIVA vaccines is complete. These vaccines can D-differentiate I- infected from V-vaccinated A-animals. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate highlevel biosecurity procedures and would participate in diagnostic proof-of- negative testing in order to be permitted to trade. LOOKS LIKE Vesicular stomatitis, Rinderpest (early nasal and ocular discharge and skin erosions), bluetongue in sheep, (painful hoof erosions) IBR, BVD (early respiratory signs), Orf/contagious ecthyma (lesions in sheep and goats), foot rot, trauma, chemical burns Human Disease Reports of humans being infected with foot and mouth disease through contact with infected animals are extremely rare. The few cases seen worldwide have had these symptoms: malaise, fever, vomiting, red erosive spots in the mouth and on the skin. It is not the same virus as human Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease. 31

32 Heartwater Description Heartwater is an infectious, non-contagious disease caused by a protozoal agent (Ehrlichia sp) which is transmitted by ticks. The disease affects ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, deer, antelope, etc.), with some species and breeds more resistant than others. The incubation period is about days. There are peracute, acute (most common), sub acute (rare) and mild forms, with mortality in the severe forms as high as 80%. A definitive diagnosis of heartwater is made by microscopic examination and observation of in a brain tissue smear. The disease is named for one of the post-mortem findings: accumulation of fluid in the heart sac. Signs In animals with no protective immunity (as US animals would be) signs include fever, loss of appetite, respiratory distress, nervous signs (high-stepping, teeth grinding, stupor, convulsions) or sudden death (peracute form). In the acute form, death usually occurs within a week. A heavy infestation of the bont tick on a cow's dewlap. Tropical bont tick (male), one of the ticks that can transmit the heartwater agent. Transmission Ticks that are carried by infested animals transmit the disease. There may also be some passage to offspring during pregnancy and possibly through ingestion of infected colostrum. The disease passes between animals in the Caribbean Islands (such as St. Croix) during cattle trading and there is concern that cattle egrets may be capable of transmitting the tick vector to the US from these areas. Many species of animals are imported into Florida from these islands daily. Animals may recover from disease but become carriers of the infection; imported 32

33 carrier animals could allow our capable US tick species to transmit this protozoal agent. Our US ruminant populations, being totally naïve, would likely show the most severe forms of heartwater disease. Control Dips and other methods of tick control have been employed in endemic areas, but techniques to build animal immunity (such as vaccines that reduce disease signs) have had better success. Early treatment with tetracycline can reduce animal losses. Programs are in place to attempt to eradicate heartwater disease from the islands in the Caribbean. Imported animals from these areas undergo thorough examination for ticks before entering the US. An outbreak of heartwater in the US would involve eradication and/or control efforts. Looks Like Rabies, tetanus, meningitis, encephalitis, toxicities. Human Disease There have been reports of a few possible cases of heartwater in humans in South Africa. Hendra Virus Description Hendra virus is an emerging disease', with the causative viral agent discovered in Australia in This disease of horses has a fatal outcome. The incubation period is about 5 to 10 days. There have been several Hendra outbreaks in Australia since the first one in Several human deaths have also occurred. Signs Fever, increased respiration, lethargy, profuse, frothy, nasal discharge, and trembling for several days, leading to death. The disease course is usually only two days. An Australian racehorse that was infected with the Hendra virus. 33

34 Transmission It is currently accepted that fruit bats are the reservoir of the virus; spread occurs from contact with bat urine and other fluids and by close contact with fluids of infected horses. Control Humane euthanasia of infected horses and biosecurity protocols for unaffected animals have been utilized. Australia has been the only country with cases of Hendra virus. The fruit bat species reservoir is not present in the US. Human Disease Hendra affects humans and is usually fatal. Nipah Virus Description This viral disease of pigs is an example of an emerging disease. The virus was unknown when it first appeared in the late 1990 s. An eight month outbreak of Nipah in Malaysia during this time led to the loss of over a million pigs, 900 farms, and killed 38% of the humans who became infected (108 deaths). The incubation period in pigs is 7-14 days. The Nipah and Hendra viruses are in the same viral family. Signs Fever, harsh non-productive cough ( barking ), forced respiration, head pressing, agitation, twitching, and death were noted in pigs in the Malaysia outbreak. (. Anyone got any pictures?) 34

35 Transmission The fruit bat is a suspected reservoir, though the epidemiology of this disease is still undergoing study. Pigs appear to become infected through direct contact, and through contact with infected bat fluids that may have dropped from the fruit trees above the pens. Direct, close contact with pigs, especially sick ones, was the common risk factor for the human cases. Control In endemic areas, affected pigs are depopulated and biosecurity measures are put in place for unaffected animals. If Nipah occurred in the US, extreme eradication measures by animal health officials and public health specialists would be initiated. Looks Like Encephalitis Human Disease Nipah affects humans and may be fatal. 35

36 Peste Des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Description The name means plague of small ruminants. PPR is a highly contagious viral disease in goats, sheep and wild ruminants, with subacute and acute forms. Goats appear to be more susceptible than sheep. Cattle and swine may become infected but do not show signs of disease and do not spread the virus. The death rate can be as high as 100%. The incubation period is about 4 6 days. Signs Fever, loss of appetite thick nasal discharge, sneezing, breathing difficulty, eyelids matted shut, erosions in the mouth, lesions in the mouth and tongue, diarrhea, dehydration, emaciation and death usually within 5 to 10 days. PPR Crusty nasal discharge and eye discharge. Goat kid with erosions around mouth and nose typical of PPR Transmission Close contact with secretions of infected animals and through spread via sneezing and coughing is required to transmit the virus.. Control An outbreak of PPR would involve an eradication program that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, cleaning and disinfection protocols. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate high-level biosecurity procedures and proof-of-negative diagnostic laboratory testing during a prolonged surveillance period. 36

37 Looks Like Sheep and Goat Pox, Orf (contagious ecthema) Human Disease PPR does not affect humans. Rift Valley Fever Description Rift Valley Fever is caused by an arthropod-borne virus that affects a wide range of animal species, including humans. It primarily affects sheep, goats and sometimes cattle by causing a severe and often fatal liver disease. The incubation varies by species and may range from a few days to a week. Signs Depending on the host susceptibility and the presence of insect vectors, sickness ranges from low levels up to including the entire herd. Signs include abortion, fever, weakness, loss of appetite, increased breathing, nasal discharge, diarrhea. Death occurs (70 100%) more frequently in young animals, especially kids and lambs. (. Anyone got any pictures?) Transmission Rift Valley Fever is called an arbovirus because it is transmitted by arthropod (insect) vectors. Outbreaks are often tied to climatic conditions that increase mosquito species. Transmission is through mosquitoes and other biting insects, also through close contact with blood and tissues of infected animals. Humans can become infected by exposure to infected animals and by mosquito bites. Control Measures include movement control and vector control. Various vaccines are used in affected geographical areas. Looks Like 37

38 Any disease that causes abortion or liver disease Human Disease Rapid onset of flu-like symptoms, 1% develops ocular disease that can lead to blindness. Death rate for people is low, as 1-5% of those who become ill may die, but liver involvement causes death in 50% of cases. Rift Valley Fever does not spread from person to person. Rinderpest Description Rinderpest, also called cattle plague, is a contagious viral disease of all cloven-hoofed species but cattle and buffalo are most often affected. It is one of the most deadly animal diseases with mortality nearly 100%. The incubation period ranges from 3-15 days. Signs Fever, restlessness, loss of appetite, depression, decreased milk production, dark-colored gums and shallow oral lesions, eye and nasal discharge, profuse diarrhea +/- blood, dehydration, weakness, recumbency and death. Cow with Rinderpest showing diarrheastained hindquarters. 38

39 Transmission Transmitted via direct and indirect contact with secretions and excretions. Control The Global Rinderpest Eradication Program is underway with the goal of eradicating the disease worldwide. An outbreak of Rinderpest in the US would initiate an eradication program that would include stop movement orders, destruction and disposal of affected animals, as well as a prolonged surveillance period before producers could return to business. Producers in unaffected areas would initiate high-level biosecurity procedures and testing in order to be permitted to trade. Looks Like Diarrheal diseases Human Disease Rinderpest does not affect humans. Vesicular Stomatitis (VS) NOTE: Vesicular stomatitis is a disease has been found in the US in recent years. Therefore it doesn t technically meet the foreign animal disease category. VS is a look-alike for FMD and for that reason is a very important disease for which we maintain surveillance in the US. The signs in animals with VS appear identical to those with Foot and Mouth Disease and laboratory sampling is necessary to distinguish VS from FMD. Description This viral disease can affect equine species, cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, camels and some wild animal species. It is transmitted by insects and is expected to have seasonal occurrence. There are a few different strains of the 39

40 virus. Incubation period is 1-3 days. One clear difference between VS and FMD, is that VS virus does affect equine species and FMD virus does not. Signs Blister-like lesions (vesicles) form in the mouth (tongue, lips, gums),snout, nostrils, hooves, and teats and cause localized pain that leads to lack of appetite, salivation, and lameness.. Animals recover, though Weight loss and production losses occur. Cow with painful vesicles inside the mouth causing excessive salivation. Horse with mouth lesions from VS.. Transmission Transmission is mainly by black flies. Many wild animal species are believed to serve as reservoirs. Viral spread can occur through inanimate objects (fomites) such as milking machines. Control In an outbreak, insect control measures are employed (such as stabling animals indoors for a period of time until the last blister lesion has healed) and any equipment (such as milking machines) should be used last on affected, recovering animals, and then cleaned and disinfected before next use. Looks Like FMD and other vesicular diseases (e.g., swine vesicular disease, vesicular exanthema of swine), migrating oral foreign bodies, or Orf (contagious ecthema). Human Disease 40

41 Humans may be affected with a transient flu-like illness from VS. Most cases have occurred in laboratory workers. It is transmitted from person to person. ILLUSTRATED PLANT DISEASES / PESTS Specific Examples The list below contains numerous examples of the insects, pathogens (viruses, bacteria and fungi), nematodes, snails and weeds that are of most concern to South Carolina plant/crop/forest producers, managers and regulators. The names highlighted in bold are described in more detail following this list. SOUTH CAROLINA TOP PESTS OF CONCERN Insects: Africanized honey bee Ambrosia Red Bay beetle, Xyleborus glabratus Asian gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar European gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar Exotic weevil Fruit fly complex Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Light Brown Apple Moth, Epiphyas postvittana Pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutis Sirex noctilio Wood boring bark beetle complex 41

42 Pathogens: Apple proliferation, Phytoplasma Chrysanthemum white rust, Puccinia horiana Cotton bacterial blight, Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum Downy mildew, Peronosclerospora maydis Gladiolus rust, Uromyces transversalis Karnal blunt, Tilletia indica Soybean Dwarf Virus, Luteovirus Sudden Oak Death, Phytophthora ramorum Tomato Black Ring Virus, Nepovirus Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus, Bigeminivirus Wheat stem rust, Puccinia graminis Nematodes: Corn cyst nematode, Heterodera zeae Snails: Brown garden snail White garden snail Weeds: Benghal dayflower, Commelina benghalensis Cogongrass, Imperata cylindrica Giant water fern, Salvinia molesta Inula spp. Orbanche spp. Tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum Witchweed, Striga asiatica 42

43 PLANT DISEASES / PATHOGENS Some Illustrations and Descriptions Citrus greening (CG, also Huanglongbing and HLB) was confirmed in Charleston and Beaufort Counties in 2009 by PPQ-APHIS on residential citrus trees. CG ruins the fruit and eventually kills the tree. The disease is caused by the bacterial pathogen Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. Citrus greening is spread by its vector, the Asian Citrus Psyllid, as the insect bores into leaves of citrus trees creating lesions for bacteria to enter. APHIS is already working with SC to prevent the movement of host plants and plant material from the affected counties, and to establish county quarantine areas for the insect and the bacteria involved. There is no cure or effective control after infection, so the only method for containment or eradication is tree removal. Thus, maintaining strict biosecurity measures to prevent introduction is of utmost importance. The Tomato Spotted Wilt Disease Virus (TSWV) infects a large number of different hosts and has become increasingly widespread in SC and other southern states. The virus spreads rapidly across tomato, peanut, tobacco, pepper and potato fields by an insect vector called thrips. This costly pathogen is responsible for millions of dollars in crop damage and severe yield losses over the last ten years. South Carolina tobacco producers have seen losses of 30-70% of their crop, while some ornamental crops have also sustained high losses. Management of the disease with the use of a product called Actigard, in combination with Admire or Platinum can reduce losses by 50-60%. Sudden oak death, SOD or Ramorum Blight, is a fungus pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) that infects bark and foliage on oaks and other plants, resulting in death of mature trees within one to a few years. Discovered in central California in 1995, sudden oak death has so far been confined to California and Oregon. Because the pathogen has the ability to infect many species of oaks as well as other hosts, introduction of the pathogen to hardwood forests in the eastern US is a significant risk. 43

44 The pathogen infects most oak species and other hardwood trees. Rhododendron, viburnum, and huckleberry are also susceptible hosts, and each may serve as a source of infection of oaks. The organism was isolated in 1993 from rhododendrons in Germany and the Netherlands. Visual signs vary from host to host. On oaks and tanoaks, cankers oozing dark red to black sap may be visible on the bark. The tissue beneath cankers often show necrotic patches surrounded by dark zone lines. Most other hosts show only foliar symptoms, such as drooping foliage, tip dieback, necrotic leaf spots, stem cankers, and rapid decline of the plant. The disease may be spread by infected plants (including nursery stock), soil, and water. Spores may also be transported by wind. There is no known control of this pathogen. Laurel wilt is a deadly disease of redbay (Persea borbonia) and other tree species in the Laurel family (Lauraceae). The disease is caused by a fungus (Raffaelea lauricola) that is introduced into host trees by a nonnative insect, the redbay ambrosia beetle (Xyleborus glabratus). The fungus plugs the water-conducting cells of an affected tree and causes it to wilt. Laurel wilt has caused widespread and severe levels of redbay mortality in the Southeastern coastal plain. INSECTS Some Descriptions Imported fire ants (IFA, Solenopsis invicta ) came to the US in soil used as ballast in cargo ships. The insects are a threat to public health due to their nasty sting. They also are an agricultural pest as they will feed on wheat, corn and sorgham seed and even dry cotton and soybean seeds. Planting and harvesting crops becomes difficult due to the large mounds they build on farms. IFA now infest more than 350 million acres in SC and the rest of the Southeast, and there is a Federal Quarantine in place to prevent their movement by people. A management treatment involves drenching mounds as well as setting out insecticide baits. Light brown apple moth, (LBAM, Epiphyas postvittana) attacks more than 150 host genera including fruits, vegetables, trees, and ornamentals. A risk assessment conducted by USDA APHIS PPQ has designated that SC is at high risk for introduction and establishment of light brown apple moth due 44

45 to its favorable climate, presence of host crops, and importation of nursery stock from California. This pest was first detected in California in The SC Department of Plant Industry (DPI) has collaborated with USDA APHIS PPQ in a national LBAM survey by locating placement sites for traps. Over 350 LBAM traps were located in and around nurseries, susceptible crops, and natural areas to determine if LBAM is here. The survey has been repeated for several years, and there has been no evidence that the pest is present in this state. In addition, DPI has been trapping for LBAM in South Carolina peach orchards. No LBAM has been found in over two years of trapping in the highly susceptible peach crop. If you are contacted for permission to place an LBAM trap at your business or on your property, please assist by allowing traps to be placed as requested. You will be making an important contribution toward protecting South Carolina s important agricultural industries. Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar) The gypsy moth is one of North America's most devastating forest pests. It feeds on the foliage of hundreds of species of plants in North America, while its most common hosts are oaks and aspen. Isolated populations may be eradicated with pesticide spray. Its spread is due in part to the actions of people as well as the habits of the insect. The female moth lays her eggs on stationary objects such as tree trunks, but also firewood, campers, ships, trucks, and other objects that humans move from place to place. During the past 20 years, millions of acres of forest have been sprayed, but the population is expected to continue to spread. Emerald Ash Borer (EAB, Agrilus planipennis) This insect pest has destroyed millions of ash trees and spread to thirteen states since its detection in Michigan in Signs of the beetle are jagged holes made by woodpecker feeding, D-shaped exit holes on the trunk or branches, and S-shaped feeding tunnels filled with fine, saw-dust excrement under the bark. Symptoms include canopy dieback, cracks in the bark 2-5 inches long, and sprouting from the tree trunk. Although this beetle has not been found in SC, there is a risk that it can enter our state through movement of infected nursery stock, unprocessed ash products, and firewood. Statewide surveys are being conducted by the SC Forestry Commission and the Clemson University Department of Plant Industry to monitor for this pest and prevent it from invading our forests. 45

46 Ambrosia beetle - A breech of biosecurity may have led to the ambrosia beetle being imported to South Carolina. Wood packing material from an overseas cargo ship is suspected to have been infested with these beetles, and they have since thrived. Southern pine beetles (SPB, Dendroctonus frontalis) are the most destructive forest insects in South Carolina, causing pine timber losses of $125 million annually. The holes they bore and the blue fungus that grows in the holes prevent water conduction which kills the trees. These beetles are often described as the most feared insect of southern forest managers and timber landowners and they are indigenous in South Carolina. Periodically the SPB population expands to epidemic proportions, killing stands of timber that may be hundreds of acres in size. Nobody knows what causes the huge outbreaks. A coordinated effort was undertaken by the Insect and Disease Section of the SC Forestry Commission to prevent the spread of these two types of beetles. For instance, healthy pines stands were established, and thinning operations were carried out to make them more resistant to the beetles. WEEDS / INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES Invasive species displace native plants along with the birds and other small animals that use those plants for foraging and shelter. Characteristics of invasive species include rapid growth and high reproduction potential since the pests and pathogens that regulated their growth in the native environment are not present in the new one, allowing unimpeded spread in the new landscape. Typically, invasive species are introduced accidentally as hitchhikers on animals, humans, vehicles, or in commercial shipments. They may also be introduced intentionally as landscape or erosion-control plants, forage, or biological control agents. Many invasive plant species in the US originated in China and Japan, as evidenced by endings such as chinensis and japonica in their scientific names. 46