PIGEON SUPERSTITION: THE VALUE OPERANT CONDITIONING IN GAMES

Transcription

1 PIGEON SUPERSTITION: THE VALUE OPERANT CONDITIONING IN GAMES MASTER OF INTERACTIVE TECHNOLOGY THESIS Demitrius Pennebaker Figure 1: Social Games Framework i

2 PIGEON SUPERSTITION: THE VALUE OF OPERANT CONDITIONING IN GAMES MASTER OF INTERACTIVE TECHNOLOGY THESIS PRESENTED BY DEMITRIUS PENNEBAKER Approved by: Professor Jonathan Skinner Supervisor Professor Mick Mancuso, MFA Advisor Professor George Heitzman, MBA Reader Date Date Date GARY BRUBAKER Director, Date The Guildhall at Southern Methodist University ii

3 PIGEON SUPERSTITION: THE VALUE OF OPERANT CONDITIONING IN GAMES A Thesis Presented to the Graduate Faculty of The Guildhall Southern Methodist University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Interactive Technology with a Specialization in Level Design by Demitrius Pennebaker B.F.A, Interactive Design and Game Development Savannah College of Art and Design iii

4 Pennebaker, Demitrius B.F.A., Savannah College of Art and Design, 2009 PIGEON SUPERSTITION: THE VALUE OF OPERANT CONDITIONING IN GAMES Supervisor: Professor Jonathan Skinner This thesis hypothesizes that operant conditioning in games is effective at engaging player interest. It uses a quasi-experimental 2D Flash game that tracks player actions, and provides qualitative data to show relationships between feedback schedules and player actions. This project serves as fundamental research on a single quantifiably effective method to engage players in a game experience. iv

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures... vii Chapter 1: Introduction... 1 Background of the Study... 1 Problem and Purpose Statement... 4 Research or Project Question... 4 Significance of the Study... 5 Overview of Methodology and Limitations... 5 Definitions... 7 Chapter 2: Literature and Field Review Literature Review Field Review Summary Chapter 3: Methodology Product and Development Process Data Collection and Procedures Test Description and Game Abstract Data Analysis Participant Selection Test Setting Summary Chapter 4: results Results: Overview Charts Results: Continuous Reinforcement v

6 Results: Fixed-ratio Schedule Results: Variable-ratio Schedule Results: Fixed-Interval Schedule Results: Variable-interval Schedule Chapter 5: Discussion Observations: Continuous Reinforcement Observations: Fixed-ratio Schedule Observations: Variable-ratio Schedule Observations: Fixed-Interval Schedule Observations: Variable-interval Schedule Other Observations Recommendations for Further Research References Image References Appendix A: Participation Consent Form vi

7 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Social Games Framework... i Figure 2: Classical versus Operant conditioning Figure 3: Table, "A Problem Solving Approach" Figure 4: A figure from "The Dynamics of Operant Condition Figure 5: Sample of results after testing speed of "attentional capture." Figure 6: The initial play space in Engemmed Figure 7: Players click on small gems for visual feedback and fill the big gem. 22 Figure 8: Players win by filling the central gem Figure 9: Bejeweled, visual reference for gem style Figure 10: A visual style reference for the background Figure 11: A visual style reference for the background Figure 12: Scale sample metrics. Actual scale depends on user screen size Figure 13: Key element identifications Figure 14: Feedback schedules per gem Figure 15: Overview of collected results, ALL gems, ALL demographics. Solid lines are Test A, dotted lines Test B Figure 16: Continuous reinforcement, red gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B vii

8 Figure 17: red gem chart, EXPLORERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B Figure 18: red gem chart, ACHIEVERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B Figure 19: red gem chart, AGE Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B Figure 20: purple gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B Figure 21: purple gem chart, FEMALE. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B Figure 22: purple gem chart, ACHIEVERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B Figure 23: purple gem chart, SOCIALIZERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B Figure 24: purple gem chart, AGE Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B Figure 25: blue gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B Figure 26: blue gem chart, FEMALE. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B Figure 27: blue gem chart, ACHIEVERS. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B viii

9 Figure 28: blue gem chart, SOCIALIZERS. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B Figure 29: blue gem chart, AGE Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B Figure 30: green gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B Figure 31: green gem chart, AGE Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B Figure 32: yellow gem chart, All TESTERS. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B Figure 33: yellow gem chart, FEMALE. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B Figure 34: yellow gem chart, SOCIALIZERS. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B ix

10 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Social games are a new and powerful force in game development. A report by the Casual Games Association estimates that the social games market is growing beyond the $3.65 billion it earned in 2010 (Pepitone 2011). According to a CNN Money article, Zynga, often viewed as the frontrunner of the social games market, went public on December 16, 2011 (Peterson 2012). At the time, it was valued at $7 billion, and opened at $11 billion. Seeing opportunities, traditional and AAA developers continue to open free to play model studios, including Insomniac Games, Microsoft, and Firaxis to name a few. Critics often dismiss social games, and attack their manipulative advertisement and conditioning methods. Social game developers often track player activities through analytics, and adjust game balance in order to increase player spending and improve retention. In addition, buy it now buttons pervade, along with enticements to add friends for in-game rewards. They are free to play and social, which players respond to positively. Developers leverage the free to play business model and ubiquity of social platforms to attract the largest amount of potential paying customers. They use the genre s social nature to turn players into salespersons and spokespeople. 1

11 However, the use of operant conditioning in social games is often critics biggest target, and is widely misunderstood. Operant conditioning is the use of feedback (like food pellets) to condition or train voluntary behavior (for example pressing a lever) in an operant (such as a pigeon). To understand it, it is useful to note the key difference between classical and operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, uses feedback to condition an involuntary response, like Pavlov s dogs when they salivate at the sound of a bell rung each time they smell food. Dogs do not consciously decide to salivate. Operant Conditioning, also known as Skinnerian Conditioning, uses feedback to condition a voluntary response, like Skinner s pigeons when they peck at a lever to get a pellet. For a pigeon, pecking a lever is an actively chosen behavior. In games, operant feedback can be defined as any extrinsic (not inherent to the action) reward for performing an action. For example, when players defeat an enemy (the action) and powerups appear, there are two key reward components. In a well-designed and executed game, the act of defeating an enemy should be enjoyable and rewarding in itself (intrinsic). Players feel the natural, cathartic satisfaction of completing a task, overcoming an obstacle, or defeating a foe. The powerups that appear afterward which players can collect are additional, contrived, and extrinsic rewards. They can serve as additional reinforcement for the voluntary behavior of engaging in combat, which is part of playing the game. From one perspective, any game that fails to engage players is unsuccessful. Operant conditioning is another method to engage players or to get them to want play the game. 2

12 In truth, many revered franchises have historically employed operant conditioning to one degree or another, intentionally or otherwise. Early console games commonly used coins or other collectibles to guide and reward players for following paths, performing well, or exploring new areas. When players defeat enemies in 3D games, money, powerups, and experience points often spew, sometimes multiplying based on performance. Roleplaying video games tally hit points, experience points, collectible items, and other performance rewards after each battle in a visually stylish fashion, accompanied by victory music. Ignoring the historical use of operant conditioning, critics argue that without positive reinforcement on a variable schedule, some social games would fail. Currently, designers and players alike often misunderstand operant conditioning as it applies to game design. The commonly perceived controversy surrounding the social games genre only compounds the confusion. However, social games and operant conditioning are likely to be long-standing in game development of all types. It may be useful for designers and developers to understand operant conditioning and become familiar with its uses and methods for implementation. 3

13 PROBLEM AND PURPOSE STATEMENT This thesis addresses many issues in an attempt to study operant conditioning as it relates to games. A game that fails to engage players is unsuccessful. In-game rewards are noningestive (they are inedible, or not otherwise physically related to survival or other biological drives) so their effectiveness is questionable. This study intends to show that operant conditioning is effective at engaging players, and to evaluate how effective various feedback schedules are. Critics often call social games uninteresting on their own merit. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate to what extent operant conditioning methods engage players attention, and compare it with the effectiveness of progress towards game objectives when not accompanied by operant feedback. There are two categories of operant reinforcement schedules: continuous, and partial. There are four types of partial reinforcement: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixedinterval, and variable-interval schedules. This study intends to compare the effectiveness of various types of operant reinforcement Research or Project Question How effective is operant conditioning in games at engaging players? Can operant conditioning act as a primary method of engaging players? Which feedback/reinforcement schedules are most effective at engaging players? 4

14 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The prominence of social games bears research. As traditional 3D games studios join the fray and influence social game design and social games continue to earn impressive returns on their investments, game design increasingly benefits from a practical understanding of operant conditioning for all game types. An understanding of how they function, and their key design elements is important for game designers. Whether designers choose to use operant conditioning in their games; if it is effective at engaging players, it is useful to develop a practical understanding of how it works and how effective it is. OVERVIEW OF METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS The test includes a sample game with several similar, repetitive tasks and minimal thematic elements. Each time test subjects perform an action (clicks on something), the game provides feedback, depending on the feedback schedule tied to the particular task (or button the player can click on). Examples of feedback include colorful animations, pleasant sounds, particle effects, and/or a placebic indicator of game progress (an experience gauge/meter that appears to fill up). The feedback types match operant feedback schedules and placebic progress toward a solitary game objective, in this case leveling up. Positive reinforcers are auditory and visual. The game goal is to reach level three, however game objective progress is placebic. Each action advances player progress the same amount, however the specific amount of progress is ambiguous to the player. The test records quantitative results of the time each player spends on each task (and its concurrent feedback schedule), seeking trends and comparing averages. 5

15 The test market consists of at least 20 SMU students and online game players. The test is limited in that subjects commonly consist of students and gamers. Each tester signs a consent form prior to participation. Key limitations include the possibility of a low number of participants, participants mostly consisting of Guildhall students, and the difficulty of separating progress toward objectives (intrinsic motivation) and operant feedback (extrinsic motivation) in a game environment. Subjects presented with a game tend to assume that there is a goal and positive feedback equates to progress towards goals. 6

16 DEFINITIONS Game In this context, an interactive digital system presented visually in which players may act to attempt to make progress towards achieving objectives within the system. Social Game Like Farmville or Mafia Wars, a game who s primary platform is social networking websites. Free-to-play A business model in which players can play for free, but may spend money to advance in the game at a faster rate or access additional content. Engagement The degree to which players actively and willingly participate in the game experience. Intrinsic Motivation In this context, reasons to act within the game for the enjoyment of the act itself. Extrinsic Motivation In this context, reasons to act within the game for an outcome resultant to the action, but not for enjoyment of the act itself. 7

17 Diegetic In this context, something which only exists in the game world, not in the physical real world outside of the software and computer systems. Non-Diegetic In this context, something which exists in the real world, outside of the software and computer systems. Ingestive Something you can eat or ingest. A typical reward used in operant conditioning like a pellet for pigeons when they peck a lever. Non-ingestive Something you cannot eat. Operant In this context, the test subject or player whose behavior the test tracks. Conditioning When a behavior becomes more frequent in response to feedback. 8

18 Operant Conditioning The use of feedback or reinforcement to condition a voluntary behavior from an operant. Feedback A response to an action such as a reinforcement or reward. Reinforcement Feedback that either rewards or punishes a behavior. Positive Reinforcers Feedback that rewards a behavior. Neutral Reinforcers Feedback that neither rewards nor punishes a behavior. Fixed-Ratio Schedules In this context, a feedback schedule in which the feedback is consistent with the action. For example, each time the player clicks a gem, the gem plays a spinning animation. Variable-Ratio Schedules In this context, a feedback schedule in which the feedback varies. For example, the gem may play a spinning animation, but only after the player clicks a gem between 3-5 times. 9

19 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE AND FIELD REVIEW Figure 2: Classical versus Operant conditioning In Chapter 1, this thesis introduced its background, the problems it addresses and purpose for the study, the research question, its significance, an overview of the methodologies, and key definitions. Chapter 2 reviews in detail the literature and resources used as an informational basis. The background of the study is the new and powerful trend of social games, in particular their use of operant conditioning to engage players and entice them to spend money on their free to play entertainment. The purpose of the study is to gain greater understanding of operant conditioning as it applies to interactive design. There are multiple questions. How effective is operant conditioning in games at engaging players? Can operant conditioning be a primary method of engaging players? Which reinforcement schedule is most effective at engaging players? 10

20 The study is significant to designers because they are competing with each other to engage patrons. Many studios view operant conditioning as effective and use it to that effect. The methodology consists of a test level, which offers players multiple options of similar activities to engage in, each using a different feedback schedule to determine which engage players most effectively. Critical definitions include game, diegetic, operant conditioning, types of reinforcers, and different conditioning schedules. Chapter 2 reviews five sources: the article A Problem Solving Approach to Teaching Operant Conditioning, a peer reviewed journal, The Dynamics of Operant Conditioning, the article Identifying a Default Visual Search Mode with Operant Conditioning, a peer reviewed journal Sensitization-Habituation May Occur During Operant Conditioning, and the game Empires and Allies (see References). LITERATURE REVIEW The literature reviewed comes largely from the field of psychology, specifically its study of operant conditioning, with an emphasis on providing a fundamental understanding of operant conditioning, traditional methods and practices for using it, and the various types of operant conditioning. The search strategy was to use internet database and search engines such as JSTOR to find primary academic sources. The article A Problem Solving Approach to Teaching Operant Conditioning addresses common misconceptions and sticking points for those teaching and learning operant conditioning. It includes tables on the characteristics of Skinner s most basic concepts with examples. 11

21 Figure 3: Table, "A Problem Solving Approach" The peer reviewed journal, The Dynamics of Operant Conditioning suggests that operant learning is driven by both local and global processes. The authors account for short and long-term learning, and so can provide information useful for player retention and effective conditioning over multiple play sessions if the hypothesis is true and the methods are effective when designers apply them to games. The authors base their theory on the principles of response competition, short term and long-term memory traces, learning expectancy and expectancy difference driving operant response, and consolidated long-term memory. 12

22 Figure 4: A figure from "The Dynamics of Operant Condition The article Identifying a Default Visual Search Mode with Operant Conditioning studies human behavior in regards to visual searching. Operant conditioning in games relies primarily on visual cues and feedback, followed by audio cues and feedback as it relates to player tactile input. Any other operant feedback in games is diegetic and/or implied. It is critical for effective conditioning to tie feedback to the proper stimulus, known as attentional capture. Games include multiple competing visual stimuli, so directing player attention is crucial to successfully implementing this study. 13

23 Figure 5: Sample of results after testing speed of "attentional capture." The journal Sensitization-Habituation May Occur During Operant Conditioning, observes a phenomenon of reduced effectiveness in operant feedback during short sessions in both ingestive and noningestive stimuli, and hypothesizes that the cause is repeated and prolonged exposure to the same feedback, accentuated by exposure to testing conditions or environment. The reduction in effectiveness and possible methods for prevention are critical to retaining player engagement. 14

24 FIELD REVIEW Empires and Allies is a Facebook social game created by Zynga, released on June 1 st, A prime example of social games that use operant conditioning, it rewards players on a variable schedule using primarily visual cues. Players must gather and create resources to expand their empires and build armies in order to defend and attack others. Each time players take a progress advancing action, animated icons at exactly that location immediately pop out, even though the increase in XP, for example, already records to the on-screen user interface. Even more, players can interact with it by clicking on the icon. If the player earns multiple iconic rewards and clicks on them in succession, the game rewards the player with bonuses, creating a self-directed, compounded focus on the positive feedback. Empires and Allies uses operant conditioning, and though its success may not be attributable to operant conditioning alone, it is clear the developers believe in its effectiveness. This thesis attempts to gauge the validity of operant conditioning as an effective motivator for games like these. SUMMARY A Problem Solving Approach to Teaching Operant Conditioning provides a clear fundamental understanding of the basic concepts of operant conditioning. The Dynamics of Operant Conditioning takes a holistic view of how to drive and sustain the effectiveness of operant conditioning in single and multiple sessions, and directly addresses non-ingestive feedback as an accepted method. Identifying a Default Visual Search Mode with Operant Conditioning, points to key considerations when directing operant attention. 15

25 In games, which are often rich with competing visual stimuli, applying the methods recommended therein helps to ensure players direct their attention to the visual feedback, increasing the feedback s effectiveness. Sensitization-Habituation May Occur During Operant Conditioning, addresses a trend of diminishing effectiveness when implementing operant conditioning, and suggests methods to increase its effectiveness in both the long and short term. Empires and Allies is a recent example of operant conditioning applied to a successful social game, created by the most notable social games developer. These sources provide a comprehensive background of study for the thesis (see References). 16

26 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Social games, which make heavy use of operant conditioning, are a controversial new game category, and represent one of the biggest areas of game development in terms of sales. Commercial games in any category are unsuccessful if they fail to engage players. Operant conditioning is one possible effective method to engage players, and often misunderstood among developers. Any developer whose goal is to engage players should understand operant conditioning as it relates to game design and development. Literature referenced in this study includes articles on commonly misunderstood concepts related to operant conditioning, basic and in-depth studies of operant conditioning, and how players filter visual stimulus. The field-reviewed artifact is Zynga s Empires and Allies, a popular social game that applies operant conditioning. This thesis attempts to answer the following questions: How effective is operant conditioning in games at engaging players? If so, does it produce similar results to those seen in traditional tests? Which feedback/reinforcement schedules are most effective at engaging players? 17

27 The research design incorporates various feedback schedules and distinguishes operant reinforcement from game objective completion to create an ideal environment to gauge the effectiveness of various feedback schedules. The artifact is a Flash game for PC and Macintosh that tracks player actions with tags, and compiles results in a spreadsheet, and quantitative and qualitative data such as demographics and subject reactions to the test. The test administrator observes player reactions, seeks trends and correlation in the frequency of actions taken, its related feedback schedule, and subject demographics. Preand post-test qualitative data supplements interpretation of quantitative data. PRODUCT AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS The product is a simple Flash game developed with original art made in Maya, and scripting in Action Script 3. The producer develops the game using the spiral lifecycle development method. It consists of an appropriate number of uniquely colored gems surrounding the center of the screen on a neutral background. When a player clicks a gem with the left mouse button, feedback occurs immediately based on the correlating feedback schedule for that gem. Placebic game progress, pleasing sounds, and visual effects act as diegetic, non-ingestive positive feedback as appropriate. Tags track the number of clicks for each feedback type. 18

28 This experimental method consists of: Independent variables Feedback schedules Dependent variable Frequency of clicks per feedback schedule in the allotted time The milestone schedule consists of two-week milestones with supervisor meetings: Final Proposal: Final Draft: Defense: Final Thesis: Friday, May 4 th Monday, October 29 th Monday/Tuesday, November 5 th and 6 th Friday, December 7 th DATA COLLECTION AND PROCEDURES In this quasi-experimental test, subjects play a simple computer game. The test administers measurement tools and methods in sessions with subjects, who use a computer to receive the intervention. Differences between observation groups are minimal and random, and only occur to reduce interference. Game software stores tagged player action data, and compiles it into spreadsheets (artifacts) individually, by demographic, and cumulatively. The test administrator observes player reactions during the session. Pre- and post-tests include demographics and subject impressions of the session. Feedback schedule types are the independent variables and percentages of clicks per type during each session is the dependent variable. 19

29 Test Description and Game Abstract The test market consists of at least 20 SMU students and online game players. No minors may participate in testing, and each tester completes a consent form and verification of legal and ethical appropriateness prior to participation. The first group of subjects pilot the test. Pre-Test Pre-test interviews collect basic demographic data and assign a tester identification number. Information collected includes: Test Age Gender Gamer/Non-Gamer self-identification Preferred game genres Disliked game genres Hours spent playing games Gamer type The test includes a sample game with several similar tasks and neutral thematic elements. Each time test subjects act on a task, a response occurs immediately. The response depends on the type of feedback tied to the particular task. The response types match feedback schedules and placebic progress toward the game objective, in this case completing an objective in the given time frame. Positive reinforcers are auditory and visual, and include a placebic game progress meter. The game goal is to fill the center gem. Each action progresses the player the same amount, however the specific amount of progress is ambiguous to the player. 20

30 During testing, the software collects a unique and anonymous subject identification number, and ties it to session data. The test records quantitative frequency of actions subjects take on each task (and its concurrent feedback schedule). The game automatically compiles the frequency of actions subjects take on each task (and its concurrent feedback schedule) with time-stamps, and records it into Excel spreadsheets. Key test data collected includes percentage and number of clicks per operant conditioning feedback schedule and observations of player engagement recorded by the administrator during testing. Product Abstract Quick Summary o Engine/Game Flash, original game o Gameplay style Puzzle/Strategy o Setting None o Player character None o Major objectives Fill the central gem before time runs out o Max players 1 21

31 Gameplay Overview General Game Flow Figure 6: The initial play space in Engemmed Figure 7: Players click on small gems for visual feedback and fill the big gem. 22

32 Figure 8: Players win by filling the central gem. In the game (called Engemmed), players fill a central gem with a fluid called Gem Force. There are two types of gems. The first are smaller gems, which the player clicks on to fill the central gem. Clicking on smaller gems fills up the second gem type, which is large and in the center. For the purposes of the thesis, each small gem fills the central gem the same amount, but provides visual feedback (reinforcement) which varies depending on the schedule associate with that gem. The large gem begins half full. It will empty slightly each time a click do not result in feedback, and fill slightly each time a click results in feedback. The goal is to fill the center gem before time runs out. Major Elements The major feature is that the player must experiment to discover which small gems get the best results to fill up the central gem. Cool visual elements including 3D animations, particle effects, and audio feedback help to encourage the player to choose certain gems. 23

33 Major Objectives To complete the game, players must fill the large central gem before the three minute timer runs out. A lose state occurs if the gem becomes completely empty, or time runs out before the central gem is full. Players can determine what they believe is the best strategy for filling up the large gem by watching visual cues and how full the large gem is. 24

34 Technical Overview Difficulty On a scale of 1 to 10; 10 being the hardest, Engemmed is medium-easy at a 3.5. The difficulty does not change through the game. Metrics Play Time (minutes) o Max 3 minutes Visual Themes o Only one visual theme exists. It is a subtle paisley background with toonstyled gems in the foreground. Details Theme/Mood The theme is simple yet polished, consisting of a black background with a subtle paisley watermark on a gradient, contrasted by brightly colored, saturated, toon-styled gems in the foreground. The mood is of refined simplicity, rich luxury, and light fun. Gameplay Mechanics Prerequisite Skills o Use of a mouse pointer and left-clicking Skills Learned o Visual recognition o Perceived strategies for leveling up 25

35 Visual References Visual theme and style references Figure 9: Bejeweled, visual reference for gem style Figure 10: A visual style reference for the background 26

36 Figure 11: A visual style reference for the background 27

37 Draft Layout and Example Schedule Explanations Figure 12: Scale sample metrics. Actual scale depends on user screen size. Figure 13: Key element identifications 28

38 Figure 14: Feedback schedules per gem Explanation of Feedback Schedules Please note that the player does not see the above labels, and does not know which feedback schedule belongs to which gem. In the example above, if the player clicks on the small, orange gem to the bottomleft, he receives no feedback. If the player clicks the blue gem to the top-right, he receives feedback on a Variable-Ratio Schedule. Feedback occurs after an unpredictable number of clicks (in this case, between 1-3 clicks). Feedback in this test consists of visual and auditory cues; the gem the player clicked on grows, pulses, glows, flashes, emits a sparkly particle effect, and/or plays a pleasant sound depending on the intensity of the intended feedback. 29

39 If the player clicks the purple gem, he receives feedback on a Fixed-Ratio Schedule. Feedback occurs after a specified number of clicks, in this case every third click. If the player clicks on the green gem to the top-left, he receives feedback on a Fixed-Interval Schedule. Feedback occurs only after a specified amount of time passes, in this case every 10 seconds. If the player clicks on the yellow gem, he receives feedback on a Variable- Interval Schedule. Feedback occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, in this case a randomized number of seconds between 0 and 10. If the player clicks on the red gem to the bottom-right, he receives feedback each time he clicks on that gem. This is Continuous Reinforcement. 30

40 Post-Test Post-test interviews collect qualitative player game enjoyment scores, why players enjoyed the test or not, perception of why they took actions, which gem they thought was most effective at increasing the experience gauge, and opinions on the game s overall addictiveness. Data Analysis The test administrator reviews spreadsheet data, player feedback, to discover trends and compare averages. Key data and inferences include: Total number of clicks Total clicks per subject Average clicks per subject Median clicks per subject Mean clicks per subject Total clicks per feedback schedule Average clicks per feedback schedule Median clicks per feedback schedule Mean clicks per feedback schedule Total clicks per feedback schedule per subject Average clicks per feedback schedule per subject Median clicks per feedback schedule per subject Mean clicks per feedback schedule per subject The experimenter records any correlations or trends including differences between demographic groups, and compares the results with the original hypothesis. Participant Selection Convenience-based sampling only verifies legal and ethical appropriateness of participation, and seeks 20 or more applicants. 31

41 Test Setting Test occurs at the Guildhall and on main campus. SUMMARY To test the hypotheses that operant conditioning is effective and engaging, the quantitative quasi-experiment consists of a simple 2D game built to test and analyze subject response to operant conditioning. Automated data collection in combination with pre- and post-test data and subject observation provides a comprehensive analysis of data. 32

42 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS RESULTS: OVERVIEW CHARTS Figure 15: Overview of collected results, ALL gems, ALL demographics. Dotted lines are Test A, solid lines are Test B. 33

43 RESULTS: CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT Test A Red and Test B Red (Comparison) # of Clicks Red A Red B Linear (Red A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red A) Linear (Red B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red B) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 16: Continuous reinforcement, red gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B. The red gem, which administered a continuous reinforcement schedule, was by far the most popular gem. However, the number of clicks dropped off during the second play through more than any other gem. 34

44 Test A Red and Test B Red (Comparison) Red A Red B Linear (Red A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red A) Linear (Red B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 17: red gem chart, EXPLORERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B. Explorers had the least difference between play throughs for the red gem. Test A Red and Test B Red (Comparison) Red A Red B Linear (Red A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red A) Linear (Red B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red B) 30 # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 18: red gem chart, ACHIEVERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B. Achievers showed the biggest drop in use of the red gem between play throughs. 35

45 Test A Red and Test B Red (Comparison) 40 Red A Red B Linear (Red A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red A) Linear (Red B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Red B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 19: red gem chart, AGE Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and diamonds are Test B. play through. Age group showed the biggest drop in use of the red gem during the second 36

46 RESULTS: FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE Test A and B Purple (Comparison) Purple A Purple B Linear (Purple A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Purple A) Linear (Purple B) Linear (Purple B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 20: purple gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B. The purple gem, which administers partial reinforcement schedule known as a fixed-interval schedule, was the most stable, slightly more than the blue gem, which administers a variable-ratio schedule. As seen above, it was most stable during the first test, Test A. 37

47 Test A and B Purple (Comparison) Purple A Purple B # of Clicks Linear (Purple A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Purple A) Linear (Purple B) Linear (Purple B) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 21: purple gem chart, FEMALE. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B. Female testers showed the most even use during Test A. Test A and B Purple (Comparison) Purple A Purple B Linear (Purple A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Purple A) Linear (Purple B) Linear (Purple B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 22: purple gem chart, ACHIEVERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B. Achievers were also very even during Test A. 38

48 Test A and B Purple (Comparison) # of Clicks Purple A Purple B Linear (Purple A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Purple A) Linear (Purple B) Linear (Purple B) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 23: purple gem chart, SOCIALIZERS. Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B. Socializers were the third most even during Test A. Test A and B Purple (Comparison) 40 Purple A Purple B Linear (Purple A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Purple A) Linear (Purple B) Linear (Purple B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 24: purple gem chart, AGE Solid line and triangles are Test A, dotted line and squares are Test B. Ages 25-35, Test B was the only case in which usage increased over time. 39

49 RESULTS: VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE Test A Blue and Test B Blue (Comparison) # of Clicks Blue A Blue B Linear (Blue A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue A) Linear (Blue B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue B) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 25: blue gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B. The blue gem, which administers partial reinforcement schedule known as a variable-interval schedule, was the second most stable, slightly less than the purple gem, which administers a fixed-ratio schedule. As seen above, it was most stable during the first test. 40

50 Test A Blue and Test B Blue (Comparison) Blue A Blue B Linear (Blue A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue A) Linear (Blue B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 26: blue gem chart, FEMALE. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B. Female testers were the most even during Test A. Test A Blue and Test B Blue (Comparison) Blue A Blue B Linear (Blue A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue A) Linear (Blue B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 27: blue gem chart, ACHIEVERS. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B. 41

51 Achievers were also notably even during Test A. Test A Blue and Test B Blue (Comparison) # of Clicks Blue Blue Linear (Blue) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue) Linear (Blue) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 28: blue gem chart, SOCIALIZERS. Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B. Socializers were another even group during Test A. Test A Blue and Test B Blue (Comparison) # of Clicks Blue Blue Linear (Blue) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue) Linear (Blue) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Blue) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 29: blue gem chart, AGE Solid line and squares are Test A, dotted line and triangles are Test B. Age were the last notably even group during Test A. 42

52 RESULTS: FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE Test A and B Green (Comparison) Green A Green B Linear (Green A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Green A) Linear (Green B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Green B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 30: green gem chart, ALL TESTERS. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B. The green gem administers partial reinforcement on a fixed-ratio schedule. Test A and B Green (Comparison) Green A Green B Linear (Green A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Green A) Linear (Green B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Green B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 31: green gem chart, AGE Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B. Ages used the green gem least. 43

53 RESULTS: VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE Test A and B Yellow (Comparison) # of Clicks Yellow A Yellow B Linear (Yellow A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Yellow A) Linear (Yellow B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Yellow B) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 32: yellow gem chart, All TESTERS. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B. The yellow gem administers partial reinforcement on a variable-ratio schedule. Test A and B Yellow (Comparison) # of Clicks Yellow A Yellow B Linear (Yellow A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Yellow A) Linear (Yellow B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Yellow B) Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 33: yellow gem chart, FEMALE. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B. Females responded low-moderately to the yellow gem. 44

54 Test A and B Yellow (Comparison) 15 Yellow A Yellow B Linear (Yellow A) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Yellow A) Linear (Yellow B) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Yellow B) # of Clicks Time (10 Second Intervals) Figure 34: yellow gem chart, SOCIALIZERS. Solid line and dark squares are Test A, dotted line and light squares are Test B. Socializers responded low-moderately to the yellow gem. 45

55 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION The results lend themselves best to comparative observation. This section notes clear examples of trends that relate to the thesis questions. Does operant conditioning work in games? If so, does it affect players the same way as it would test subjects in traditional studies? How does this information help us make games that are more engaging? It begins with general information, and then notes interesting similarities or differences by key demographics: gamer type ( Bartle type ), gender, and age range. It is important to note that although the gems in Engemmed all provided feedback on different schedules, they provided an equivalent gameplay reward with the exception of the orange gem (the control) which provided no gameplay reward and no feedback other than a confirmation that the button works. For example, if a tester were to click only the red gems continuously throughout the game, then play again and click only the yellow gem continuously, the outcome would be nearly identical. The intention to make each gem s actual gameplay value equivalent was to help ensure that tester s actions were a result of their reaction to the feedback: lights, colors, and sounds. One important shortcoming of the final test: the test lasts a maximum of 3 minutes. Most players finished the test before that time, so there is less and less data as the three minutes progress. This also makes it impossible to observe tester behavior for extended periods. The observations here then, are short term, which explains the resultant favor given to the continuous reinforcement schedule. 46

56 However, testers played the game twice: once after reading only general gameplay rules, and once with more specifics about the mechanics. This increases the maximum possible time to 6 minutes. OBSERVATIONS: CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT The red gem in Engemmed delivered a continuous reinforcement schedule: feedback occurred each time the tester clicked this gem. This type of reinforcement is similar to collecting health or manna tokens in games. If operant conditioning in games is effective, we would expect the tester to click this gem more often near the beginning of the test, and less as time progresses. Accounting for the short length of the test, tester s actions strongly correspond to the expected behavior. In addition, though testers clicked the red gem more than any other gem through both play sessions, the variation in clicks between Test A and Test B were most notable with the red gem, specifically in that they decreased more than any other gem, which further corresponds to the expected behavior. Explorers behavior changed the least between the two tests, hinting at the possibility that the feedback affected them least. Achievers decreased their use of red the most between the two tests. Testers age 25 to 35 decreased their clicks most during the second test. All demographics followed the expected behavior for the continuous reinforcement schedule, showing strong correspondence. 47

57 OBSERVATIONS: FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE The purple gem in Engemmed delivered partial reinforcement known as a fixedratio schedule: feedback occurred after a specific number of times the tester clicked this gem, in this case every third time. This type of reinforcement is similar to collecting coins or other currency in games towards an end goal of purchasing items or gaining extra lives. If operant conditioning in games is effective, we would expect the tester to click this gem often, at a constant interval. Testers clicked this gem less often than about half of the other gems, however the rate was the most steady for the purple gem, which indicates partial correspondence to the expected behavior. Rate of clicks was most steady during Test A, among female testers (for which it was almost perfectly flat during Test A), and most notably for achievers and socializers. Interestingly, during Test A the rate of clicks actually increased among testers aged 25-35, the only time that this occurs, indicating this ratio may increase in interest to that group early on. It appears that fixed-ratio schedules are most effective for female players, achievers, and socializers, and consistently effective at achieving a steady rate of the occurrence of the desired behavior. As previously stated, this at least partially corresponds to the expected result. 48

58 OBSERVATIONS: VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE The blue gem in Engemmed delivered partial reinforcement known as a variableratio schedule: feedback occurred after an unpredictable number of times the tester clicked this gem. In this case, it was a random number between one and four, randomized again after each time the click resulted in a ding. This type of reinforcement is similar to getting kills in a shooter in which some shots miss and the effectiveness of shots is uncertain, based on the accuracy of the shot for example. If operant conditioning in games is effective, we would also expect the tester to click this gem often, at a steady rate. However, the player would click this button twice in a row without a pause less often than in a fixed-ratio schedule. Testers clicked this gem less often than about half of the other gems, however the rate was the most nearly as steady as the purple gem, and otherwise behaved very similarly to the purple gem. Testers clicked the blue gem multiple times in a row 25% less often than the purple gem, all of which indicates strong correspondence to the expected behavior. Rate of clicks was most steady during Test A, among female testers (for which it was almost perfectly flat during Test A), for achievers and socializers, and testers aged All of this reaffirms the similarities in behavior that resulted from the purple fixed-ratio schedule. As with the fixed-ratio schedule, it appears that fixed-ratio schedules are most effective for female players, achievers, and socializers, and consistently effective at achieving a steady rate of the occurrence of the desired behavior. The variable-ratio schedule adds testers aged as a very effective group, though this group did show notable interest in the fixed-ratio schedule as well. As previously stated, this strongly corresponds to the expected result. 49

59 OBSERVATIONS: FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE The green gem in Engemmed delivered partial reinforcement known as a fixedinterval schedule: feedback occurred after a fixed amount of time after the tester last received feedback (a ding) last, in this case after ten seconds. This type of reinforcement is similar to waiting for respawning powerups in games. If operant conditioning in games is effective, we would expect the tester to click this gem most often near the ten second interval, and then a pause after feedback (a ding) occurs. Testers clicked this gem more than blue and purple, and less than red. However, the grouping of clicks was consistently irregular, which results in inconclusive correspondence to the expected behavior. Rate of clicks was very steady, similarly to the yellow variable-interval gem for most groups, least of which was ages The inconclusive result may be attributable to the short test length. We can still draw a useful inference that the fixed ratio schedule may be least interesting over time to this age grouping. 50