Disappearing Sea Ice Choices for the Arctic Student Worksheet

Transcription

1 1 Disappearing Sea Ice Choices for the Arctic Student Worksheet Introduction The CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent in the Arctic. Ed Hendrycks Canadian Museum of Nature The Arctic Ocean is an unusual and fascinating environment. During the winter much of it is covered with ice and snow. In summer, most of the annual sea ice melts leaving behind the older multi-year ice. And it is cold! We are all taught that water freezes at 0 C. That's true for fresh water, but the Arctic Ocean is salty, and dissolved salt affects freezing temperatures. The salt content causes the water to reach a temperature of about 1.8 C before freezing. On top of that, for half the year there is little sunlight; the further north you go, the less light there is during winter. The amount of sunlight, the temperature of the water and the presence of ice are just three examples of abiotic factors (non-living characteristics) of an ecosystem. They help influence the suitability of the environment for different species. Changing these factors changes the habitat. For example, Arctic animals such as the Arctic Cod have evolved to favour cold temperatures. Temperature is a very important limiting factor for them. As the ocean warms, Arctic Cod may leave their now warmer normal range in search of colder water. These new areas of cold water may not have the right kinds of food or habitat. The cod that stay in the warming water, on the other hand, may become stressed and more vulnerable to disease, or have less success reproducing. Polar bears the largest land carnivores in the world have also evolved to favour this cold environment. They are found throughout ice-covered waters of the circumpolar Arctic. Polar bears are considered to be mainly marine animals. They spend much more time on the sea ice than they do on land. They can swim several

2 2 hundred kilometres without resting and can dive under water for up to one minute. In many areas of the Arctic, polar bears remain on the ice year-round. It is only in areas where the ice melts in summer, such as Hudson Bay, that the bears are forced ashore until the ice refreezes in autumn. A polar bear (Ursus maritimus). Stewart McDonald Canadian Museum of Nature Polar bears prefer to remain on the sea ice all year because they depend on the frozen platform from which to hunt seals. Without ice, the bears are unable to reach their prey they seldom catch seals in open water. The Polar bear is an example of an animal that has evolved certain physical characteristics and behaviours that enable it to be well adapted to its environment. Its fur, teeth, and skull structure, for example, differ from that of the grizzly, which lives further south in warmer environments. Like many other animals, the polar bear's specialized adaptations are important to survival in its habitat. However, these adaptations may no longer be useful in a habitat changed by climate warming. Sea-ice communities represent another example of adaptation to the Arctic environment. Ice algae or protists, together with bacteria and small invertebrates grow inside and on the underside of sea-ice that is formed in autumn. This community lives in the ice over the winter and provides food for larger animals. Arctic Cod are quite dependant on this system and they in turn are a preferred food source for many marine mammals. The sea-ice community is especially adapted to living in channels of brine between the ice crystals. And, amphipods and krill feed directly on the under-ice algae. In spring, when the sea-ice melts, the sea-ice biota is released back into the water where they multiply and feed the animals in the water and on the sea floor. It is not known how these communities will fare as the Arctic sea ice melts. Questions Activity 1: A Unique Ecosystem Review the Sea-Ice Formation 3D animation, which shows how a unique ecosystem forms underneath Arctic sea ice, and then answer the questions below.

3 3 3D animation: Sea Ice Formation Consult the Disappearing Sea Ice Choices for the Arctic glossary if necessary for an explanation of the terms used. Glossary: Sea Ice Ecosystem Where does the congelation ice form and how thick can it grow in a season? 1.2 Describe how the brine exclusions are created during the ice formation process. 1.3 Why are drainage channels important to sea ice communities? 1.4 Name a biotic factor in a sea ice community that would affect ice algae. Explain how it would affect them. Ice algae in sea-ice drainage channels. Alex Tirabasso Canadian Museum of Nature

4 4 Activity 2: Impacts of Climate Change Today and in the Future The impacts of climate warming in the Arctic are expected to be significant for northern ecosystems as well as for the people of the Arctic. There are however many questions about just what these impacts will be. An Arctic Biodiversity Symposium was held at the Canadian Museum of Nature on November 18, 2010, in order to identify precisely these types of questions. The goal of the symposium was to frame our current understanding of the rapidly evolving state of Arctic biodiversity. Various experts on the Arctic were invited to speak on issues related to changing environmental conditions. The gathering provided an opportunity for the scientific community, biodiversity stakeholders and decision-makers to identify the most urgent issues and priorities for future research. Melting Arctic sea ice. Ed Hendrycks Canadian Museum of Nature Below are three examples of issues that were explored: John C. Fyfe, a research scientist with the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis (Environment Canada), discussed one of the challenges facing climate scientists: Average Arctic temperatures have been rising at about twice the average global rate, and in a manner generally consistent with melting sea ice, decreasing terrestrial snow cover, thawing permafrost, and changing precipitation patterns, for example. While these unprecedented changes are clear and unequivocal in nature, they remain somewhat of a challenge to reproduce using climate models. Climate models are the main tool used by climate scientists to attribute and predict environmental change.

5 5 Steven Ferguson, a research scientist with Fisheries and Oceans Canada, presented certain predictions related to biodiversity: The extent, duration and mass of Arctic sea ice are diminishing. Predicted Arctic changes include an increase in marine mammal biodiversity as temperate species extend their distribution to occupy areas previously covered in annual ice. This greater biodiversity comes at a price as the ice-adapted whales and seals are undergoing demographic stress associated with the loss of their key habitat. Ice-adapted whales and seals have less of their preferred food and contend with new predators. Thus, the biodiversity paradox: a greater variety of species in the Arctic but a doubtful future for the original inhabitants...we need to better understand the demographic and evolutionary mechanisms of changes in distribution and abundance of whales and seals to predict and possibly mitigate or adapt to the effects of warming on Arctic biodiversity. Donald McLennan, an ecologist with the National Monitoring, Ecological Integrity Branch of the Parks Canada Agency, referred to the central Arctic as a hotspot of ecological change: A recent comprehensive modelling effort identified the central Canadian Arctic as a "global hotspot" of ecological change, and predicted 80% to 100% replacement of bird and mammal species in some areas over the next century. Canada's 10 Arctic national parks cover more than km 2 of the Canadian Arctic, and are at the centre of this change. These inevitable events present a complex and daunting challenge for Parks Canada managers, who are charged with "maintaining or restoring the ecological integrity" of Canada's national parks, on behalf of all Canadians. Based on the information above, answer the following questions: 2.1 What was the goal of the Arctic Biodiversity Symposium that was held at the Canadian Museum of Nature on November 18, 2010? 2.2 What is a primary tool used by climatologists to predict environmental change? Are climatologists certain about how the climate will change? 2.3 What area of the Arctic is considered a "global hotspot" of ecological change? What does this mean?

6 6 Activity 3: Arctic Biodiversity Research Ongoing concerns related to climate change have served to stimulate Arctic research in recent years. Scientists are studying how biodiversity and ecosystems may be affected by the warming Arctic climate. Of key importance is to understand what Arctic biodiversity consists of and how it interacts in ecosystems at present, so that we can recognize impacts and changes in the future. Below are two examples of large Arctic research projects in which the Canadian Museum of Nature is involved: Canada's Three Oceans (C3O) This Department of Fisheries and Oceans project was designed to record a large amount of information biotic and abiotic about Canada's three oceans. All the data collected will go towards creating a baseline from which future change can be measured. C3O aims to help understand the role that these interconnected oceans play in climate change. In order to carry out this research, teams of scientists travelled 15,000 kilometres across the Arctic. Their base of operations was one of two Canadian Coast Guard icebreakers, the Halifax-based CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent and the Victoria-based CCGS Sir Wilfrid Laurier. These ships were designed so that they can be quickly transformed into floating research platforms and they have been equipped with sophisticated laboratories. Ed Hendrycks aboard the Louis S. St-Laurent. Corinne Pomerleau Department of Fisheries and Oceans In 2007, Canadian Museum of Nature researcher Ed Hendrycks journeyed with other scientists aboard the Louis S. St. Laurent to conduct research as part of the Canada's Three Oceans project. From Halifax, Nova Scotia, the ship travelled up through the Gulf of St. Lawrence, through the Strait of Belle Isle, into the Labrador Sea, up to

7 7 Baffin Island and then to Resolute on Cornwallis Island, Nunavut. Hendrycks's goal was to collect samples of marine invertebrates from the sea floor up to 800 metres deep. To get his specimens, he employed a box-like shovel device, known as a Van Veen grab, to dig up chunks of sediment from the ocean floor. The specimens in the mud were sieved out, popped into plastic sandwich bags, then preserved and transported to the museum's research labs in Gatineau, Quebec, for identification. ArcticNet Research Project A sample taken from the Arctic sea floor. Ed Hendrycks Canadian Museum of Nature ArcticNet brings together more than 100 researchers from across Canada and around the world. They work directly with Northerners and other partners to address questions relating to climate change in the Arctic. The main objective is to develop and share knowledge needed to help plan for issues related to climate change and globalization in the Arctic. Their research falls under the four broad themes of coastal marine ecosystems, costal terrestrial ecosystems, Inuit health and adaptation and industrial development in the North. Michel Poulin, a Research Scientist at the Canadian Museum of Nature, has been involved with ArcticNet since 2005, investigating Arctic marine protists. These organisms include phytoplankton, which live in the upper water column of coastal and oceanic regions, and sea-ice communities in the bottom layers of polar sea ice. Although phytoplankton and sea-ice protists have been described since the first Arctic expeditions up to the early 20th century, no current inventory provides the exact number and species composition at a pan-arctic scale. Poulin's research is contributing to answers to the question of how these important cogs in the food web will be affected by global warming. Based on the information above, answer the following questions:

8 8 3.1 What is of primary importance for scientists to understand so that they can recognize future changes in Arctic ecosystems? 3.2 Both C3O and ArcticNet involved collaborations between many scientists. Do you think that this is important? Why? 3.3 What is the subject of Michel Poulin's research with ArcticNet? Michel Poulin. Bernard Leblanc Canadian Museum of Nature Activity 4: Public Consultation on Oil and Gas Exploration in the Arctic Background Melting sea ice in the Arctic is not only going to have an impact on biodiversity in and of itself, but is likely to create increasing interest in industrial and economic activity. Public consultation is an important step in the process of balancing the interests of all stakeholders.

9 9 There are many things to consider. The decision of whether or not to drill for oil in the Arctic has serious implications for the ecosystem, the oil industry and the economy in general. But there is even more to think about. Increasing development could mean more jobs, and increased health care and education opportunities for people of the Arctic. On the other hand, it could also have serious repercussions on traditional lifestyles, aspirations and community structures. There is also the issue of who has the right to make these decisions? Who owns this land? Does the global community have any say about how Canada as a nation handles the development of its Arctic lands and waters? The decisions about how Canada approaches development in the Arctic are highly complex, and they are being made now in this decade and beyond. They have the potential to affect all of us. 4.1 Position Paper Your task is to research the question of whether or not oil and gas drilling should be permitted in the central Canadian Arctic. You will be assigned to one of four groups and prepare a position paper from this perspective. The report must be three to four pages long and include an overview of the situation, supporting arguments for your position and a list of references. This assignment should be completed independently before the mock public hearing that will take place in class (see below). The groups are: Oil and Gas Industry: Your group is interested in promoting the benefits of the oil and gas industry. Your team may have the most challenging position to argue. Keep in mind, however, that while many Canadians may not like the idea of drilling for oil, most of them depend on it to heat their houses or fuel their transportation needs. Inuit: Your group is concerned about how the protection-versus-development debate will affect the lives of people living in the North. Conservationists: Your group is interested in protecting the Arctic marine environment using National Marine Conservation Area designations and other means. Hearing Panel: Your group will moderate the hearing, listen to the positions and ask questions at the end of each group presentation. Your group will prepare your position papers after the public hearing. 4.2 Public Hearing Once you have submitted your position paper you will work together with others in your group to prepare a 10- minute presentation that outlines your position and supporting arguments. The first three groups will present their position at a mock public hearing in class.

10 10 The hearing panel group will moderate, take notes and ask questions. Each member of the hearing panel will prepare a report based on what they have heard and present their findings to the class on another day. The purpose of the hearing is: To learn the opinions of the public on whether oil and gas drilling should be permitted in the central Canadian Arctic, and if so, under what conditions. To begin a dialogue between the different stakeholders in order to come up with recommendations for the government. You should begin by reviewing the background information provided below and the example web resources provided for your group. Keep in mind that the example web resources are intended only to provide you with some ideas; you are encouraged to find and explore other resources as well. Resources Group 1 Oil and Gas Industry In addition to ecosystem changes brought about directly by warming temperatures, the disappearing sea ice may lead to an increased human footprint in the region. Less ice means that it will be easier to travel and therefore develop and transport natural resources in the North. There are a number of different stakeholders and different perspectives on this, and also on the impacts it may bring. The oil and gas industry, for example, has been active in the Arctic for decades, but their interest in the North has increased in recent years. The threat of dwindling fossil-fuel supplies, the prospect of easier travel, and the lure of potential profits have all played a role. And it isn't just happening in Canada all countries with a stake in the Arctic are increasingly interested in the fossil fuels that lie beneath its icy water. The possible impacts of oil and gas development on Arctic ecosystems are being examined by scientists of Arctic nations around the world. Governments are in the midst of making decisions about policies that will govern how much oil and gas activity happens, and how it will be regulated. An offshore oil platform. istockphoto.com/brasil2

11 11 Oil and gas fields are found in several regions of the Arctic, including under the Bering and Beaufort Seas, Baffin Bay, and off the coast of Labrador. By some estimates, almost one-fourth of the world's undiscovered oil and gas deposits are located in the Arctic. It is extracted from marine environments by drills that are anchored to the bottom of the ocean. Many activities associated with oil and gas have the potential to affect the Arctic environment: exploration involves drilling shorelines are mined to provide material to build drill platforms traffic is increased as oil and gas and workers are transported pipelines are sometimes built to transport the fuels migration routes may be disrupted there is a constant risk of oil leakage and contamination of the environment by pollutants, including those caused by the increase in traffic the opening of the environment can invite further development, more people, more activity, more pollution. The industry, while acknowledging that there are risks, would argue that these need to be balanced with other considerations. New technologies and safeguards are constantly being developed to reduce environmental risks. There is also the consideration that our economy and society "run on oil", at least at present. Many argue that the instability of global oil supplies makes it important for us to be more self-sufficient in this area. The worry about declining fossil fuels in other regions could also support this argument. Finally, there are those who believe that increasing industry could mean more jobs, increased health care and improved education for the people of the North. Example Web Resources Offshore Drilling Review Oil, Water and Chocolate Mousse Canadian Arctic Energy Security Group 2 Inuit Communities Climate change has already begun to affect the Arctic and the Inuit way of life. In order to have a fuller understanding of climate change and its impacts, it is important to include the perspective and experiences of the indigenous peoples of the North. The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) is an international non-government organization that represents Inuit from Canada, Denmark, the United States and Russia. What follows is an excerpt from a speech by ICC Chair Jim

12 12 Stotts at the Arctic Leaders Summit in It will provide you with important background information and new insights as you prepare for the final activity. [D]espite having its roots in prehistoric times, present day Inuit culture is quite modern. Inuit have no desire to end up as an exhibition in some museum as just another extinct culture. We intend to leave our children and grandchildren a better life. We will be involved in everything that goes on in our homeland, including what goes on in our ocean. As the first inhabitants and stewards of the Arctic we have the responsibility and right to ensure the protection of our environment and culture. We accept this responsibility for the benefit of all mankind. An Inuit man with his dog sled team. Steward MacDonald Canadian Museum of Nature Without global climate change there would be no development in the Arctic Ocean. Before the advent of global warming it was not possible to seriously consider moving into the Arctic Ocean to pursue resources, marine shipping or commercial fishing. Weather and ice prohibited these activities. It was cost prohibitive. Global warming changed all of that with warmer temperatures resulting in a thinning icepack. It appears this trend will continue unless there is a planet-wide effort to reverse global climate change. Prospects for this to happen anytime soon appear to be slim. Let's recall what happened during the COP15 in Copenhagen. Nothing, nothing happened, nothing happened to address this global crisis. Inuit and other Arctic indigenous peoples find themselves in the crossfire of the debate over industrial development in the Arctic Ocean. On one side are the resource developers claiming to have the technology and means to develop offshore resources in a safe, prudent and sustainable manner. On the other side are the environmental organizations that want to stop resource development at any cost. Both sides are powerful and well funded. In our opinion, both sides are wrong. Both sides profess to have the best interest of indigenous peoples at heart; frankly neither side is very convincing. Inuit often feel like pawns in a chess game in this ideological struggle. Inuit history contains painful memories caused by people from the outside. Inuit society has been disrespected and ignored by outside societies. Trust is a big issue for us. Our experience with the outside world has taught us to have a strong healthy distrust of outside intentions. [A]re Inuit prepared to sacrifice their culture and identity for the sake of solving global climate change? The response was no, they are not. If I were to ask the same question regarding offshore

13 13 development I'm sure the answer would again be no, they are not. This does not mean Inuit are against development per se. This means Inuit are concerned about how development will proceed. Inuit believe in responsible sustainable development. This includes cultural sustainability. Inuit are fighting to survive as a distinct culture. Resolute Bay, near Lancaster Sound, Nunavut. Kathy Conlan Canadian Museum of Nature First, it's no secret that pollution or environmental mishaps are more serious in water than on land. Pollution in rivers, lakes, oceans or the water table spread further and is much harder to contain than pollution on land. It's even worse in ice-covered waters. In particular, oil spills caused by oil and gas development or marine transport activities are of major concern to Inuit. A major oil spill in the Arctic Ocean is the single largest threat to the marine environment. Second, Inuit are coastal people and rely heavily on resources from the ocean for nutritional and cultural survival. It's no secret that Inuit are a hunting society and are extremely concerned about the health of the Arctic Ocean ecosystem for the sake of those animals that need a clean and healthy habitat. Hunting defines Inuit as a people and we make no apologies to anyone for this fact. We are opposed to the animal rights groups that aim to stop all hunting at any cost. We consider these groups to be out of touch with nature. Inuit are fighting to survive as a distinct culture. Example Web Resources The entire speech (excerpted above) from ICC Chair Jim Stotts at the Arctic Leaders Summit, Moscow, April 2010: The Arctic Offshore (Who Gets to Decide?) (82,3 Kb PDF) Arctic Leaders: Lancaster Sound Plans in Conflict Info Supports Lancaster Sound's Importance

14 14 Inuit Recommend Changes to Canadian Environmental Protection Act Group 3 Conservation Groups Many conservationists are interested in protecting the Arctic from oil and gas development. Of particular concern is the damage that an offshore oil spill might cause. The remote location and icy environment would make a clean-up extremely complicated. It may be difficult to get the proper equipment to an isolated spill site in a timely manner. The current infrastructure in the Arctic is not adequate to cover such a large geographic area. There are also many who argue that the technology and expertise to conduct an effective clean-up in an ocean filled with ice simply do not exist at this time. The darkness of winter would make a spill during that time of year especially challenging, and response time could be significantly increased by extreme weather. Workers cleaning oil from the Exxon Valdez spill. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Public domain Conservationists often dismiss as insufficient the industry arguments about their sector having strict environmental standards and regulations. Perhaps the most famous example of damage to the Arctic is the spill of the oil tanker the Exxon Valdez, which resulted in at least 41.5 million litres of oil being released in the Arctic Ocean and the deaths of an estimated birds. The more recent oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico has again strengthened calls for even higher industry standards. Many conservationists advocate using the precautionary principle. One of the most accepted definitions of this originates from the United Nation's Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which was proclaimed after the 1992 Earth Summit. Principle 15 of this declaration states: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full

15 15 scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. There are a number of programs that are part of Canada's Federal marine protected areas network. The National Marine Conservation Areas System, administered by Parks Canada, is one example. National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCAs) are created in order to protect marine regions that are representative of the country's natural and cultural heritage. They are managed for sustainable use. NMCAs are seen by many as an important way to help conserve important ecological areas. They improve the ability of an ecosystem to tolerate stress. In the Arctic, where ecosystems are already under stress from climate change, this may be especially important. While resource use is not banned in NMCAs, federal law does prohibit dumping in oceans, mining, energy exploration and overfishing in a these areas. Management of NMCAs requires that regional stakeholders to work together to find a balance between protection and use. The advantages of protecting specific marine regions go beyond conserving biodiversity and ecosystems: they can also include social, economic and cultural benefits. National Marine Conservation Areas of Canada The Canadian government recently announced an NMCA will be created in Lancaster Sound a very productive and biologically diverse area. This is seen as a victory by many Inuit and conservationists alike. Others argue that it does not go far enough. For example, it would not necessarily remove threats from international shipping or from an oil spill from a drilling platform outside the NMCA. There are also concerns regarding international disagreements about who actually owns the energy resources in the area. Some believe that Canada should work to toward having Lancaster Sound designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This would help bolster Canada's claim to the area and provide a greater degree of protection to the site. Example Web Resources Federal Marine Protected Areas Strategy Disaster Fuels Fears in Arctic Feds Investigate Oil Resources in Arctic Region "Teeming with Wildlife" vestigate+resources+arctic+region+teeming+with+wildlife/ /story.html