CHAPTER 1. Introduction. provided in most states but holders of such credentials were usually expected to complete a

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1 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction In the early 1980s few states had programs for certifying persons to teach who did not complete a course of study prescribed by a college or university. Emergency credentials were provided in most states but holders of such credentials were usually expected to complete a regular course of study at an approved teacher preparation program in order to be fully certified to teach. By 1990, 33 states provided for alternative teacher certification (Feistritzer, 1990). Teacher shortages, academic quality of individuals entering the teaching profession, and growing criticism of current traditional teacher education practices combined in the early 1980s to result in movement to alternative teacher certification (Dill, 1994; Feistritzer, 1998, Stoddart and Floden, 1995). In 1985, the National Center for Education Statistics projected that by 1992; the supply of new teacher graduates would be only two thirds of the demand. Teacher shortages have generally tended to occur for certain populations of students, such as urban, rural, poor, special education, and bilingual population. No matter how many teachers were being prepared nationally, there has always been a shortage of professionally educated teachers in urban areas (Haberman, 1986). Typical teacher education graduates prefer to teach in a suburban rather than urban school, leaving the urban schools to depend on uncertified teachers or those teaching outside their subject areas (Haberman, 1986,1988; Feistritzer, 1993). Subject areas such as math and science have suffered teacher shortages for two decades. Although there were many able scientists and mathematicians interested in teaching, they were unable to smoothly enter the field (Darling-Hammond, Hudson and Kirby, 1989, p. 107). Similarly, according to Rosenberg and Rock (1994), the field of special education has also done

2 2 poorly attracting teachers because of increasing numbers of students being identified with disabilities in today s public schools. This shortage has prompted educators to explore alternative means of preparing qualified special education teachers. Other studies identified the decline in minorities entering teaching. It was projected that by 2020 about 40 percent of K-12 students will be minority with little hope for an increase in the percentage of minority teachers to match this figure (Pallas, Natreillo, and McDill, 1989; Zeichner, 1993). The impact of this situation was reflected in the work of Middleton, Mason, Stilwell and Parker (1988), who found that the importance of teachers as a role model has long been recognized, thereby making this shortage of minority teachers an ever-growing detriment to the education of minority students. Concern about the quality of the teaching force has also led to support for alternative teacher certification. Studies conducted from the 1960s through the 1980s showed that teacher education students were among the least academically able of all college students (Stoddart and Floden, 1995, p. 19). In support of this finding was a study by Dill in 1996 also found teacher recruits lacking in quality. He found that undergraduate student education majors ranked at the bottom of the American College Testing Program (ACT) and Graduate Record Exam (GRE) scores. Dill (1996) by finding that during the 1970s there was declining interest among highability individuals to enter the field of teaching, and education was having a difficult time attracting and retaining academically able college students (Dill, 1996, p.933). Currently, growing criticism of traditional education practices has prompted the move to alternative teacher certification. According to Stoddart and Floden (1995), policy makers, relying on such national reports as A Nation at Risk (1983) tend to blame teacher education programs for failing to recruit academically superior candidates. Other studies, such as Duhon-

3 3 Haynes (1996), have found that colleges of education need to improve, the quality of their programs. These reports influenced opinion regarding the autonomy of college-based teacher education and the relative importance given to subject matter and subject area knowledge in teacher preparation and certification; and set the stage for the development of alternate certification programs (Feistritzer, 1993).. The Commonwealth of Virginia began the first alternative licensure program in 1982, followed by New Jersey, Texas and California (Dill, 1996; Feistritzer, 1998). Specific state programs define alternative certification and licensure. Within the Commonwealth of Virginia, teachers are licensed rather than certified. See Appendix O. The beginning of alternative certification programs caused controversy among teachers, educators and practitioners alike and ignited a new field of research regarding alternative teacher certification. In a 1983 study Schlechty and Vance were among the first to introduce major alternative certification research goals that included concerns about the quality of preparation offered by traditional and alternative programs, recruitment of a demographically representative teaching force, quality of candidates recruited, and issues of retention. Schlecty and Vance s (1983) study covered the period from 1950 through During the first 10 years of this period, there were no shortages of teachers. There was a significant growth in colleges of education along with extended certification requirements, and teacher turnover was very high. The 1970s saw a declining interest in teaching careers among brighter, more capable individuals. Related to be due to poor conditions in the workplace, lack of career advancement opportunities, increasing numbers of viable options for those most likely to pursue teaching, and lack of strong university commitment to college of education (Schlecty and

4 4 Vance, 1983, p. 477). Based on these conclusions, they recommended alternative teacher certification to remedy these problems. Other studies similar to Schlecty and Vance suggested that a baccalaureate degree should be a prerequisite for admission to a site-based program (Darling- Hammond, and Berry, 1990). Researchers predicted that such a system could double the number of teacher candidates which had been available in 1950 and would save money and improve retention. As states faced growing shortages of teachers some states saw alternative routes as a quick way to certify more teachers. This rationale for alternative teacher certification drew heavy criticism from the education community and threatened to give alternative teacher certification a bad name (Feistritzer, 1994). A later study by Stoddart and Floden (1995) found that few educators understood the fact that many states were not only seeking ways to ward off projected shortages of teachers but also to find better routes for preparing and licensing teachers than traditional college-approved program routes designed primarily for persons trying to gain an undergraduate degree. Historically, emergency certificates have been a means of bringing individuals quickly into teaching. Several states desired an alternative to such emergency routes (Feistritzer, 1994). In 1984 New Jersey enacted legislation for alternative certification of teachers. Its reason was to come up with a better solution for bringing non-traditional candidates into teaching rather than by issuing emergency certificates. New Jersey designed a new program to actively recruit liberal arts graduates and certify them through a school-based program, in collaboration with a mentor teacher. The candidates teach while taking formal instruction. New Jersey s alternative teacher certification program produced 42 percent of new teachers hired in its state in 1992 (Schechter, 1987).

5 5 In 1985 Texas implemented a single alternative teacher certification program in the Houston Independent School District and justified the program on teacher shortage projections. The state no longer requires actual teacher shortages as a prerequisite for certification. As of 1987, Texas had 38 alternative teacher certification programs throughout the state, which now produce one quarter of all new teachers hired in Texas (Martin, and Shoho, 1999). There are many reasons alternative certification programs have gained so many supporters, but two of these seem to influence current policy more than the others. The movement toward alternative certification programs in the 1980s was given initial impetus by concern over the long-term shortages of math and science teachers. A number of reports called for non-traditional routes to teaching as one way to deal with this problem (Stoddart, 1990). Teacher shortages not limited to math and science. Many urban and rural areas have persistent problems recruiting and retaining teachers and shortages of traditionally certified teachers were common in such specialties as special education and bilingual education. This case for alternative certification appear to come from the fact that teacher shortages, which were greater in schools serving minority and disadvantages children, usually met by filling positions with persons with emergency certificates and little training (Cagapang &Guthrie, 1988; Darling- Hammond, et al. 1989, Roth, 1986). If other job markets were depressed and non-traditionally prepared personnel were allowed to enter teaching at less cost, then allowing teacher candidates to bypass the professional preparation program would increase the size of the teacher pool. There could be a similar effect if alternative candidates perceived intrinsic rewards of teaching as a career to be high. If liberal arts graduates were more able as a group than those who chose teaching (Darling-Hammond,

6 6 1990; Schlecty & Vance, 1981), it would follow that the quality of the teachers would be increased as well. As interest and participation in alternative certification programs continued to grow, state education agencies and teacher education institutions have responded to the alternative routes to teaching, established by policy makers. Some have viewed these alternatives as positive means of attracting talented candidates to careers in teaching. The public, teachers, and educators have questioned these contentions. It was to this end that this study was oriented. Statement of the Problem In most professions a governing agency ensures that individuals meet minimum standards before they are allowed to practice. Over the last decade, there have been a growing number of educational policy changes that have affected teacher certification requirements nationwide (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988). In the traditional route, the minimum competency evaluation for initial certification was contingent upon completion of a four-year college degree program, comprised of academic and professional curricula, and the demonstration of competencies in subject-matter areas through performance on written examinations, as required by each state or school district. To ensure that these requirements are met, national, state, and local regulatory agencies and accreditation bodies implement licensure and certification regulations as a means of education quality control (AACTE, 1991). Recent legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act 2001 (NCLB), have added enhanced requirements to these efforts. Alternative certification processes on the other hand, generally include holding a bachelors degree in the subject to be taught achieving a passing score on a certification test, undergoing brief, intensive teacher training and completing a supervised teaching internship,

7 7 after which certification was recommended by the employing school district. It is a process designed to certify candidates who have subject-matter competencies without going through formal teacher preparation programs. Alternative certification or licensure programs have been adopted or experimented in 41 states, with the general goals of attracting talented people and career changers to the teaching profession and averting teacher shortages where they existed. Feistritzer and Chester (1991) identified 91 alternative routes to certification with varying programmatic characteristics. Alternative teacher certification and licensure programs vary by state and are designed to achieve different goals and objectives. Some evaluative studies that compare traditional and alternative certification routes have yielded inconclusive results, which can have far-reaching policy implications for effective teaching and the quality of education. If subject-matter competency combined with pedagogical training is the determining factor of effective instruction, then the traditional certification route is the most effective policy to assure education quality. However, if subject-matter competency without pedagogical training is equally determinant of effective instruction, then alternative certification is an equally viable policy (Roth, 1986; Shulman, 1986). The question of whether those traditionally trained or those alternatively certified are the more qualified to teach may remain unanswered for several years to come and will have a profound effect on public education. Evaluation and research are needed to test these alternative certification and licensure programs and to answer such questions as the following: 1. What is the relationship between knowing one s subject and their ability to teach it? 2. Should pedagogical content knowledge be developed before individuals begin full-time teaching, or can it be developed as they teach?

8 8 3. Is there an effect from maturity and work experience on teaching effectiveness? 4. What effect do different teacher preparation programs have on student learning? 5. Do alternative certification and licensure programs provide an effective teacher? In states and locales where large numbers of individuals are entering teaching through alternative routes, effects must be determined and evaluated. Ultimately each alternative certification policy must be assessed locally for input into state procedures because each may have different effects in different contexts (Zumwalt, 1996) and on the student population as a whole. Major policy decisions continue to be made in support of alternative certification and licensure programs, and the need for quality research to assess effects of those programs is urgent. Research is needed which will provide valid evaluation of these programs in providing feasible options for filling predicted teacher shortfalls over the next decade and in determining effectiveness of alternative certification solution. Purpose and Significance of the Study Due to increasing teacher shortages across the country, the search for alternative routes of certification and licensure has generated ideological debates revolving around teacher quality and the potential for alternative means of teacher procurement. Supporters of traditional teacher certification argue that in order to improve the quality of education it is imperative to ensure that both professional knowledge and subject-matter competence are grounded in a solid foundation of pedagogical training (Roth, 1986; Shulman, 1986) and they fear that other teacher certification programs will not meet these requirements. Supporters of alternative certification maintain that talented candidates with subjectmatter competence can improve educational quality by the application of in-depth subject-matter knowledge to teaching, without necessarily going through the traditional route (Lutz & Hutton,

9 9 1989). Others, such as Zumwalt (1991), suggest that alternative certification programs are context-specific experiments designed to meet policy goals, such as attracting talented career changers or filling teacher shortages, but are not necessarily substitutes or competitors of traditional preparation. In light of these arguments and myriad number of alternative programs existing in education today, it appears imperative to review the status of effective preparation programs in alternative instruction as compared to traditional or classic instruction. To this end, it is the purpose of this study to compare the perceptions of effectiveness of these alternative certification and licensure programs, in the Hampton Roads, Virginia, area and to compare effectiveness of individuals who have gained licensure from these programs and traditionally licensed teachers. Theoretical Framework for Alternative Certification and Licensure Programs The Human Capital Theory provides a dynamic economic structure for examining interest in the results of alternative teacher certification and licensure programs for college graduates who do not choose a traditional teacher preparation program. Theodore Schultz (1971) proposed that skills and knowledge, which were acquired as a result of a deliberate investment in education, are a specific form of human capital that is important in economic development. Individuals increase their stock of human capital through formal schooling, formal vocational education, and on-the-job training or staff development. In keeping with this notion, at any given time, the value of someone s stock of human capital depends on whether it has been properly used, on its age, on the depreciation and obsolescence to which it has been subject, and on the extent to which it contains mal-distributions for reason of supply and demand (Schultz, 1970, pp ) Schultz proposed that people invest in themselves through education in order to have more choices, higher earnings, and greater satisfaction. Those investments can be expensive. In

10 10 addition to actual educational costs, earnings lost by not directly entering the job market and career flexibility lost by early specialization must be considered. If economy and employment conditions are changing and the movement is common from one career to another, long-term returns on investments in human capital are difficult to project. Under those conditions, Schultz suggested, staying with general education longer than would be warranted if there were no uncertainty with respect to future earnings from investment in education. (Schultz, 1971, p. 168). Individuals enter the teacher labor market with unique sets of attributes and acquired knowledge and skills (Schultz, 1971). Evidence that the teacher labor market continues to decline in size and quality has been explained in several different ways within this study, and were proposed solutions. Weaver (1984) argued that lowered standards for entry into traditional teacher education, a response to shrinking enrollments, were responsible for the declining quality of the teaching labor pool. Schlecty and Vance (1981, 1983) felt that teaching was no longer an attractive career choice for talented individuals, and Levin (1984) pointed to the single salary schedule that failed to recognize each teacher s unique stock of human capital and its value in the labor market. Human Capital Theory provides another possible explanation for the decline in quality of the teacher labor pool. It appears that individuals who complete a liberal arts education before pursuing teacher education may possess more human capital than those who pursued specialized undergraduate teacher education. Liberal arts graduates pursued a broader course of study that could facilitate their career mobility over a lifetime. Both groups, graduates of traditional teacher preparation programs and graduates of liberal arts programs, have invested in four years of education to increase their stocks of human capital. Both groups expect future choices, earnings,

11 11 and satisfaction. Both groups incurred educational costs and lost earnings as a function of the time outside the labor market enrolled in their undergraduate programs. If one program is more interesting or satisfying than the other, those costs and lost earnings are compounded as a function of the time outside the labor market while they are enrolled in their undergraduate programs. If one program is more interesting or satisfying than the other, those costs or rewards should also be considered. Teacher education graduates have pursued a specialized course of study designed to develop professional knowledge and skills that they expect to be valued and rewarded in their chosen profession. In contrast, liberal arts graduates have added to their stock of human capital the valued of extended general education. Upon graduation, with the increasing availability of alternative certification programs, members of either group may enter teaching. If financial rewards are identical for both groups, they fail to recognize the traditionally prepared teacher s specialized stock of professional training and skill. Education is not an open market, and its monetary benefits are relatively low. Teacher salaries are influenced more by fluctuations in student populations, the state legislature s sense of teacher worth, and program priorities within each state by supply and demand forces (Anthony, 1987). In such a depressed market, Human Capital Theory predicts that simply opening alternative routes to teacher certification will not improve the quality of the teacher labor pool. Not only will the specialized stock of human capital inherent in teacher education programs be less valuable, but also the low, undifferentiated salaries will fail to attract higher quality labor. Research Questions The research questions of this study were: (1) Is there a difference between teachers certified and licensed through an alternative

12 12 program and teachers certified and licensed through traditional program with regard to subject area knowledge? (2) Is there a difference between teachers certified and licensed through an alternative program and teachers certified and licensed through traditional programs with regard to classroom management, discipline and instruction? (3) Is there a difference between teachers certified and licensed through an alternative program and teachers certified and licensed through traditional programs with regard to instructional planning procedures, knowledge and methods? (4) Is there a difference between teachers certified and licensed through an alternative program and teachers certified and licensed through traditional programs with regard to human relations skills? (5) Is there a difference between teachers certified and licensed through an alternative program and teachers certified and licensed through traditional programs with regard to professionalism? Program Content Definitions Bradshaw (1996), Brown, D. (1989) and Feistritzer, (1993) assist in establishing critical definitions to be used in this study. Further definition of these terms will be discussed in Chapter 2. Program content definitions are shown in Table 1 and Variable Definitions are shown in Table 2.

13 13 Table 1 Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Program Content Terms Variable Constitutive definition Operational definition Alternative Certification Alternative Certification Program Emergency Certification Licensure A process by which an individual may acquire a regular or traditional certificate through a nontraditional certification program. Emergency certification does not fall within this definition A teacher preparation program established as a result of state alternative certification provision that offers a nontraditional route to regular certification.. A temporary certification given to a degreed or nondegreed individual to fill a position for which no regular certified teacher can be found. It is expected that a person granted emergency Certification will obtain the necessary credentials for regular certification or be replaced by a regular certified teacher. A legal process, which permits a person to practice a trade or profession once they has met licensure standards Any teacher certification programs other than traditionally or college based. Programs such as Career Switchers, Old Dominion University Military Career Transition Program, Troops to Teachers Program and the Marymount College Alternate Teacher Program. All programs used to allow non- certified individuals to teach on a temporary basis, generally up to two years. Those regulations and policy within the Commonwealth of Virginia certify an individual to teach.

14 14 Table 1 (Continued) Variable Constitutive definition Operational definition Providers Teacher Certification Traditional or Classic Teacher Certification Secondary School Any institution, local, state or national, which provides supervision for designing and operating an alternative certification program. A process which ensures that persons entering teaching have met minimum standards of competence, thus being recommended for licensure by the state An approved teacher training program in a college or institution of higher learning requiring coursework and student teaching and offering an undergraduate degree in education In many states this term refers high schools Principals, mentors, department chairpersons, and evaluators of military alternative certification teachers Those specific regulations and policies within the Commonwealth of Virginia certify an individual to teach Programs within the Commonwealth of Virginia or reciprocal programs based on collegiate educational degree, which certify individuals to teach In the Commonwealth of Virginia this term refers to both middle and high schools

15 15 Table 2 Constitutive and Operational Definitions of the Variables in This Study Variable Constitutive definition Operational definition Content area knowledge Classroom management and instruction Human relation skills Professionalism Formal instructional content knowledge directly related to classroom instruction and it s planning. The subject competence and skills required being successful in the classroom. Functions, techniques and management procedures by which a classroom instructor accomplishes instruction to include techniques by which a that instructor controls and manages the classroom group dynamics of students. The instructors philosophical and professional approach/ techniques toward personal and professional interactions and communication, both oral and written, with students, peers and superiors. The conduct and behavior of an instructor as related to the teaching professions goals, practices, principles, policies, ethics and procedures. Perceptions will be identified through the responses from evaluators to Competency Statement 1in the finalized survey. Survey questions are in Appendix K. Perceptions will be identified through the responses from evaluators to Competency Statements 15-20, and 40 in the finalized survey. Survey questions are in Appendix K Perceptions will be identified through the responses from evaluators to Competency Statements 3-6, 34, in the finalized survey. Survey questions are in Appendix K. Perceptions will be identified through the responses from evaluators to Competency Statements 2,21,22,30-33, 35-39, in the finalized survey. Survey questions are in Appendix K

16 16 Limitations/ Delimitations As with many other studies, this study was not without its limitations. An inquiry into alternatively certified teacher comparative effectiveness would increase knowledge of the potential of alternative programs. Several of the studies limitations were: (a) perceptions gained in this study were those of Hampton Roads Virginia principals and are limited to the alternatively certified programs within their region. It cannot be assumed to reflect statewide or national perceptions. (b) alternatively certified personnel evaluated by principals in this study might have been products of area specific programs which reflected area requirements and recruiting. Determinations derived from this data could not be assumed to reflect national data. In this same regard, there were also several delimitations, which this study imposed upon itself. These are: (a) Due to the resource limitations of this study, data collected from principals in the area addressed alternatively certified teachers and did not address specific individual programs consequently generalizations could not be applied to any one program. (b) The study was limited to the 11 school districts of the Hampton Roads area and data derived cannot necessarily be applied to the Commonwealth of Virginia. (c) This study surveyed principals only in the Hampton Roads area. Other administrators and teachers also evaluated alternatively certified teachers. Data reflected in this survey could not be assumed to reflect the most knowledgeable individual s perceptions in specific. There were few recent comparative studies, which explored the impact of alternatively certified teachers on the public teaching force. This study was be conducted to overcome some of

17 17 these limitations and to contribute to knowledge of effectiveness of alternatively certified teachers. Organization of the Study This study was divided into five chapters, which are included in this paper. Chapter 1 contained the introduction to the study. It also includes the purpose of the study, research questions, definitions, limitations/delimitations and organization of the study. Chapter 2 presented a review of the literature related to alternative certification. Rationales for alternative certification, arguments for and against alternative certification, and brief descriptions of the major alternative licensure programs within the Commonwealth of Virginia were provided. Chapter 3 contained the methodology used for conducting the research for this study. It discussed the description of the setting, population, sample, instrumentation, domains, validation, survey administration and reliability of the survey. Chapter 4 discussed the results of the study s research using inferential and descriptive statistics to determine data derived from respondent survey results. It described research which reflected the demographic data of the results of the study s competency statements comparing teachers certified through traditional teacher programs as compared to teachers certified through alternative certification and licensure program in the study s five domains. Chapter 5 contains the study s conclusions of the data derived from it s research, a summary of the findings of the study, what the implications of the study might reflect at a local, state and national level and recommendations of the study related to it s findings. In addition it discusses suggestions for future studies related to those findings and the researcher s general reflections concerning the studies research and findings.

18 18 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Overview This chapter provided a synopsized review of the scope and nature of existing literature, which described applicable and relative studies and academic efforts pertaining to alternative and traditional certification and licensure. Teacher shortages and public discussion about the quality of teacher education have been catalysts for the implementation of many alternative routes to teacher certification and licensure for several states. Specific state programs define alternative certification and licensure. Within the Commonwealth of Virginia, teachers are licensed rather than certified. This review described past and current initiatives within the educational and political community. To this end, a brief description of alternative teacher licensure, traditional teacher licensure and the state s responsibility towards both, were provided. A synopsized comparative listing of major studies related to alternative certification was presented in Table 3. What is teacher certification? According to Koff, Florio, and Cronin (1976), in general it is a process designed to ensure that individuals who enter teaching meet minimum standards for competence. These minimum standards for initial entry are set by each state and by the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEC) which produces a manual containing these certification requirements. As noted further in this study, these requirements include specific numbers of undergraduate hours from institutions of higher education in subject matter, in professional studies and in student teaching. Universities and colleges certify that their graduates have met these minimum credit hour standards as part of the state teacher licensure process. In some states, certificates are issued at graduation; in others, certificates are issued after a probationary teaching period.

19 19 Table 3 Synopsis of Significant studies comparing alternative certification and traditional certification programs and/or teachers Type Author/s Year n Synopsis Finds Support For AC Equal TC Qual Wash & Lovedahl, Surveyed state technology supervisors about X - - & Paige AC and TC programs. Quant Lohmeier Study made an evaluative comparison of AC and TC - X - certified teachers. Qual Rogers Interviewed AC and TC teachers and principals X - - concerning effectiveness. Quant Turley & Nakai Surveyed students of AC teachers. X - - Quant Ackley, Balaban Alternatively and AC teachers are equal - X - & Pascarelli with relation to teacher efficacy. Quant Martin & Shoho Compared classroom management styles of AC and TC X - - teachers. Quant Bradley 1998 unk Troops to Teachers were equal or better than TC X - - teachers. Qual Bradshaw 1996 unk Compared AC and TC programs. - X - Mix Feistritzer 1998 na Reviewed four comparative AC versus TC programs - X - Quant Groves Study administered Teacher Efficacy Scale to AC teachers. - X -

20 20 Table 3 (Continued) Type Author/s Year n Synopsis Finds Support For AC Equal TC Qual Ladd Interviewed AC interns concern AC programs. - X - Quant Miller & McKenna Compared AC and TC teachers via their supervisors. X - - & Mckenna Quant Shen Compared AC and TC teacher academic preparations, - - X demographics, gender, ethnicity and age. Qual Norton & Anderson 1997 unk Studied motivation of AC and TC teachers, efficiency. - X - Quant Jelmberg Compared AC and TC teacher preparation programs. - - X Qual Ebert & Risacher Compared AC and TC pedagological knowledge. - - X Qual Meisgeier & Studied attitudes of AC teacher candidates. X - - Richardson Qual Dill 1994 unk Review the Texas AC and TC teacher applicant X - - screening process. Qual Hawley 1994 n/a Compared three AC programs X - - Qual Dial & Stevens Interviewed AC and TC teachers. - X - Quant Adams & Dial Study did a Cox Regression model of AC retention. - - X

21 21 Table 3 (Continued) Type Author/s Year n Synopsis Finds Support For AC Equal TC Qual Feistritzer 1993 unk Assessment of AC teachers. Noted high retention. X - - Quant Houston,, Marshall, Compared problems of new AC and TC teachers. - X - & McDavid Qual Galney Interviewed AC teachers to determine quality. X - - Qual Dixon and Isher 1992 na Poses arguments against AC programs from 3 studies. - - X Quant Natriello & Compared AC and TC teachers in a New Jersey system. - X - Zumwalt Qual Otuya 1992 unk Assessed knowledge base of AC and TC teachers. - X - Qual Sandlin, Young, Surveyed AC and TC teachers concerning - X - & Karge their development. Quant Guyton & Sisk Compared AC and TC teacher attitudes and performance - X - Qual Ball & Wilson 1990 unk Compared Mathematics knowledge and instructional - X - practices of AC and TC teachers

22 22 Table 3 (Continued) Type Author/s Year n Synopsis Finds Support For AC Equal TC Quant Marchant 1990 unk Interviewed AC and TC teachers. - - X Quant Stoddart Evaluated AC teachers in the Los Angles United School X - - District. Qual Brown Study compared AC, TC and Emergency Permit programs. - X - Qual Lutz & Hutton 1989 unk Assessed AC and TC teachers effectiveness via X - - Supervisors. Qual Fox Interviewed supervisors of AC teachers concerning - X - effectiveness

23 23 Teacher certification is defined as a process that formally acknowledges that an individual is qualified to supervise the learning experiences of children. It verifies that a person has met the requirements for a state certificate and confirms that only a properly trained individual is permitted to teach. It is generally assumed that satisfactory completion of courses and experiences specified in a state s certification requirements gives evidence of a person s ability to teach (Sikula & Roth, 1984). According to Dejnozka & Kapel (1982), the states have the legal authority to certify qualified teachers. Nationally, requirements for certification generally are: 1. Completion of a degree program containing prescribed courses, or a total state approved teacher-training program. 2. Citizenship, age, legal and moral requirements. 3. Completing specific courses required by a state. Within the Commonwealth of Virginia the basic requirements for obtaining a regular renewable license are (Commonwealth of Virginia Department of Education, 2001): 1. A Bachelor s degree in a content area meeting the endorsement requirements as defined in the licensure regulations. 2. Completion of methods coursework, not to exceed 24 hours. 3. Completion of pre-and-post-clinical experiences. 4. Satisfaction of teacher testing requirements of Praxis I (reading, writing, mathematics) and Praxis II in the subject area. In addition, most states require passage of some form of teacher competency testing. Common requirements in state approved teacher education programs include completion of a

24 24 prescribed number of credit hours in professional studies and student teaching in a designated subject area. Accreditation by the National Council for Accreditation of National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) or by NASDTEC is granted to those individuals who complete a state approved program at an institution, which is accredited by one of these associations (Mitzel, 1982). Reciprocity agreements do exist among many states with like standards though each state may have its own specific certification requirements or standards developed by NCATE and NASDTEC. A status of alternative certification by state may be found at Appendix A (National Center for Education Information, 2001). Oliver and McKibbin (1985) defined alternative teacher certification as any significant departure from the traditional undergraduate route through teacher education programs in universities and colleges. These definitions vary, however, according to each particular state s definition of certification. Based on a survey conducted by Smith and others, (1985) of several alternative certification programs, the authors found that: An alternative model is designed for a different population from the usual 18- to 24 year old undergraduate population. The fundamental differences (from traditional certification) are in the target audience, the training design, and the length of training, not in program content, rigor or expected outcomes. Alternative teacher certification can be distinguished from other certification processes, which ignore training in professional studies, such as emergency certification, which carries the expectation that the teacher will obtain the necessary credentials or be replaced eventually by traditionally certified person. Several studies have shown that some of the reasons behind alternative certification programs include: an effort to reduce the number of emergency certificates issued (Sandlin,Young and Karge, 1992), increase the pool of mathematics, science, special education,

25 25 and minority teachers (U.S. Department of Education, 1991; Zumwalt, 1991), to increase the number of teachers in rural and urban areas, and attract a more diverse group of candidates (e.g., minorities, males, second career people) (Zumwalt, 1991) and provide opportunities for college graduates to begin careers in teaching without completing extended teacher certification programs (Fenstermacher, 1990). Finally there appears to be a need to find new sources of prospective teachers to meet growing demands created by an increasing school-age population of learners (Darling-Hammond, 1990). Simply put, alternative certification refers to programs designed to facilitate the entry of college graduates with appropriate subject-matter expertise into classroom teaching or administrative positions in schools. Alternative certification programs allow arts and sciences graduates to participate in intensified programs which do not require the typical accumulation of credit hours, to demonstrate competency requirements, and or to gain the necessary expertise through field-based experiences while holding a teaching position (Cornett 1990). While alternative certification programs differ significantly from state to state, their overall intent is to offer an alternative route to teacher certification by reducing the time and expense required by state education agencies to fulfill certification requirements. Zumwalt (1991) found considerable differences existed in admission standards established for alternative certification programs. Alternative certification programs generally seek to attract college-educated graduates with subject-matter competencies. In a survey of several state certification administrators, he found that some alternative programs made a determined effort to recruit persons from minority backgrounds as well as women whose careers had been interrupted by family or work responsibilities. Likewise, highly selective admission criteria have placed emphasis on strong interpersonal communication skills and a firm

26 26 commitment to teach (Bennett, 1991). Finally effective alternative certification programs include special efforts to admit high-quality applicants and populations with college degrees who do not wish to spend two to three years in full- time academic work. To establish a general understanding of alternative and traditional program and hiring routes, a generalized visual depiction is at Figure 1. Components of alternative programs recommended by American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) include (a) admission standards including a baccalaureate degree and assessment of subject matter competency, personal characteristics, and communication skills, (b) a curriculum that provides knowledge and skills essential to the beginning teacher, (c) a supervised internship, and (d) an examination which evaluates competency in the subject field and in professional studies (Smith, Nystrand, and Carlson, 1985). Milestone Alternative Certification Programs Many alternative certification programs existing in the United States today in different forms. These programs are diverse and reflect of the specific requirements they are established to fulfill. A synopsized listing of major alternative certification programs is presented at Table 4. One of the first programs, highlighted by Oliver and McKibbin (1985), described the Teacher Trainee Certificate Program (TTCP) established by the California Hughes-Hart Educational Reform Act. This program allows local school districts to prepare teacher trainees over a two to three year period and also allows the state to issue a teaching credential to the trainees just as it has to those recommended from traditional programs. The program is designed for teacher trainees in grades 9-12 or 6-8 in junior high schools departmentalized by subject. Requirements to enter the teacher trainee certificate program include (a) a baccalaureate degree in the subject to be taught, (b) a passing score on the California Basic Educational Skills Test, and (c) a passing

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28 28 Table 4 Synopsis of Significant Alternative Certification Programs Name of Program Program Description Teacher Trainee Certificate Program (TTCP) State of New Jersey State Education Agency Alternative Certification Program Project Partner Fast Track Program Troops to Teachers A California program which allows local school districts to prepare teacher trainees over a 2-3 year period. Designed for grades 6-8 and Requires baccalaureate degree and passing of state skills test and subject matter test. A New Jersey program, which certifies a teacher with a baccalaureate degree, 30 credits in subject field, passing a subject matter examination, an offer of employment and 200 clock hours of training in a regional teacher center. An Arizona alternative certification program in which school districts cooperating with high tech industries implement a 15 month program for individuals with baccalaureate degrees in mathematics, science or foreign language. An alternative certification program in which San Diego schools and the U.S. government collaborated. Navy officers near retirement with degrees in engineering, mathematics, or the physical sciences were targeted for certification based on an as needed teacher requirement. A federal program oriented at retiring military personnel who possess baccalaureate degrees which assists them to obtain their teaching credentials by providing partial salary subsidies and tuition assistance towards specified alternative certification programs. A later addition to this program assisted retiring military

29 29 Table 4 (Continued) Name of Program Program Description personnel holding Associate degrees to train as teacher assistants. The Military Career Transition Program (MCTP) The Virginia Career Switcher Program An alternative certification program established by Old Dominion University (Virginia) oriented at training retiring military personnel to become teachers. This program focuses on the career experience of these individuals and provides extensive formalized educational training towards state certification. A two phased Commonwealth of Virginia initiative to provide an alternative route for individuals who have not completed teacher preparation curriculum but have considerable life experience and career achievements. Applicant must have a bachelor s degree, 5 years of verifiable work experience, successfully complete a 3-5 week summer intensive preparation program (Phase I) and complete five seminars during the first year of employment( Phase II).

30 30 score on state-approved subject matter examination. Requirements for the school district to establish a teacher trainee program include (a) verification that fully credentialed teachers are not available, (b) implementation of a professional development plan for teacher trainees, including an annual evaluation, description of courses to be taken, and plans for any pre-service activities including student teaching, (c) consultation with an institution of higher education that has a state-approved program of professional preparation, and (d) mentor teachers who are employed by the school district and who have certificates (Oliver & McKibbin, 1985). A second major forerunner in alternative certification was implemented by the State Education Agency of New Jersey in This program implemented an alternative system that requires (a) a baccalaureate degree, (b) 30 credits in the field to be taught for five years experience, (c) a passing score on a subject examination (d) an offer for employment in a school district, and (e) 200 clock-hours in training at regional teacher centers. These centers are operated through contracts with local schools and colleges of education. In Delaware, individuals with bachelors degrees in subjects designated as critical shortage areas may take one to three years to complete a state-approved program to receive a standard certificate and most programs are cooperatively run by the three Delaware institutions of higher education that prepare teachers (Zumwalt 1991). Project Partner in Arizona, created in 1984, has eight to ten school districts cooperating with 15 high technology industries to implement a 15-month program for individuals with bachelor s degrees in mathematics, science, or foreign language. The program has since expanded to include all of the liberal arts and social sciences (AACTE, 1991). A final and significant series of programs, particularly in Virginia, involves several alternative certification programs focused on military personnel. These are the Navy Fast Track

31 31 Program, the Troops to Teachers Program, the Teaching as a New Career for Military Personnel Program, the Military Career Transition Program and the Career Switchers Program. These programs were created to meet a shortage of teachers existing in many areas and to assist in alleviating a severe under-representation of minorities in teacher preparation by supplying urban schools with needed personnel (Taylor, 1994). Post- career military personnel represented a prospective pool of alternative teacher recruits to address ever growing urban teacher shortages. Considered as a group, post-career military personnel possess characteristics such as the belief that all can learn, the ability to function under stressful conditions, a strong sense of dedication to community, pride and self-confidence, and a desire to excel (Taylor, 1994). Because of these factors and a desire to utilize a potential teacher resource pool, the formulation of a national teacher certification policy applied to veterans was deemed to be potentially beneficial. There had been interest in such a policy on the part of government agencies, in the public domain, and in professional circles. At the same time, had been issues regarding certification (McGee, 1993). Based upon critical shortages of math and science teachers in San Diego public schools and the necessary revision of the teacher preparation process to provide flexibility in expediting entry into the classroom of candidates with strong academic math/science backgrounds, San Diego and the United States government established the Navy Fast Track Program (FTP). U.S. Navy officers near retirement who have completed degrees in engineering, mathematics, or the physical sciences were the potential candidates (John, 1992). The program encourages the active collaboration of many institutional partners (the United States Navy, San Diego State University, and San Diego Unified Public Schools) as well as three academic divisions at San Diego State University. The project altered the current teacher preparation program by focusing much of the