CHAPTER 6 GENDER EMPOWERMENT: A CASE OF SYRIAN CHRISTIAN WOMEN IN KERALA

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 6 GENDER EMPOWERMENT: A CASE OF SYRIAN CHRISTIAN WOMEN IN KERALA The state of Kerala has been hailed as a model of development for other states to emulate due to its creditable achievements in terms of conventional indicators of gender development in the areas of demography and literacy such as age at marriage, sex ratio, life expectancy, fertility rate and educational attainment. At the same time, there are social, economic and political indicators which are not very gender positive and have failed to keep up with the high status credited to women in Kerala. So from the point of view of research it is necessary to understand whether the superior status accredited to Kerala women based on the conventional indicators of gender development have been translated into the empowerment. Keeping this in mind, this chapter takes into consideration, a section which examines the gender empowerment of women in Kerala based on some conventional and nonconventional indicators. In the next section, an attempt has been made to analyse the Syrian Christian women s responses to empowerment aspects based on some socio-economic factors. This attempt was done in order to know whether the respondents were empowered or sensitive towards gender issues and such an outlook could contribute and influence their understanding towards inheritance rights, which is the major focus of the study GENDER EMPOWERMENT IN KERALA This section on gender empowerment in Kerala attempts to portray the gender empowerment of women in Kerala by looking at socio-demographic indicators which have attributed a higher status to women in Kerala based on secondary sources such as official reports and research studies. The section brings out some grey areas which questions the higher status accorded women in Kerala. Kerala is one of the south Indian states with a population of 31.8 million and according to the 2001 census, the religious wise population data show that Hindus, Muslims and 107

2 Christians constitute 55 per cent, 26 per cent and 19 per cent respectively. Kerala has often been cited for having given the women a higher status based on some socio-demographic and health indicators such as educational attainment, age at marriage, sex ratio, life expectancy and fertility rate. Kerala is a leading state in terms of women s literacy according to the 2001 census which was per cent while that of India was per cent The state has always enjoyed a relatively higher age at marriage for women. The mean age at marriage was 22.2 years in 2001 with no significant rural urban difference, while the age at marriage of women in India was 19.8 years with some rural urban difference (19.4 in rural and 21.1 in urban). Kerala has exhibited a unique sex ratio among the Indian states as it is the only state with women outnumbering men consistently during the past century. Kerala has a femalemale ratio of 1058 as compared to 933 for rest of India according to the 2001 census. Life expectancy is yet another important health indicator which has shown a remarkable improvement in Kerala among both males and females. Now women in Kerala are expected to live close to 76 years which is approximately 13 years longer than the average life expectancy of women in India as a whole. The fertility rate in the State had declined to 1.6 in 2001, which is the lowest compared to any other Indian State. High female literacy rate, higher age at marriage, sustained family planning programmes, greater utilisation of contraceptive methods by women and successful implementation of maternal and child health programmes are reported to be some contributory factors towards the declining fertility rate in the state (Irudaya Rajan and Sreerupa 2007). The matrilineal culture which was very much in practice in Kerala till the turn of the 20 th century has also played a significant role in according a higher status to women in the state. According to the NFHS-3 (IIPS 2006), some of the gender empowerment indicators in Kerala were found to be positive. Among the working married women, who earned in cash, 90 per cent had the right to decide on how the earning should be spent, either by themselves or jointly with their husbands. With regard to independent decision making by women in the areas of health care, large and daily household purchases, visiting relatives or friends, per cent of currently married women participated in making decisions in each of these and

3 percent participated in making decisions in all four. Employed, urban women, those who belonged to nuclear households, Christian women were more likely than other women to participate in all the four areas of decision making. The proportion of women with money which they control was found to be higher among those who were widowed, separated, deserted or divorced, women with ten years of education, urban and Christian. The gender indicators discussed above definitely uphold the higher status of women of Kerala. However, the flip side of the development model of the state has a different reality. Despite the high level of female literacy, the state records low female labour force participation. Currently while over a quarter of female population has been recorded as economically active at the all India level, the proportion is about 23 per cent in the state (Kodoth and Eapen 2005 as cited in Bhaskaran 2006). While a large number of women remain outside the ambit of any employment sectors in the state, those women who are working, a good proportion is engaged in sectors like teaching, nursing and clerical sections which are considered typically `feminine and do not disturb male dominance in exclusive sectors like business and entrepreneurship. A differential wage structure exists between males and females despite powerful Trade Unions in the state. Work load and household responsibility is much higher for women due to the strict gender division of labour (Bahskaran 2006). As per the NFHS-3 (IIPS 2006), only 8 per cent of women have ever used microcredit programmes. A review of the past State Assembly elections revealed that the representation of women was very low (13,8,7) which is very small for a house of 140 legislators (Election (Gen.) Department, Government of Kerala 2006). A closer look at the lives of women revealed that Kerala women do not enjoy freedom of mobility. Mobility of women is severely constrained in the state in the sense that less than half (41%) have freedom to travel alone outside their community or village. Older women, employed, urban women, women from nuclear families, widowed, separated or divorced, Christian women, women belonging to the Scheduled Castes have more freedom of movement than most other women (IIPS 2006). After sunset, women rarely venture out due to fear of molestation. Kerala has one of the highest rates of recorded crime against women and also the highest incidence of domestic 109

4 violence along with a growing incidence of female foeticide. Almost one-sixth of ever married women in Kerala have experienced physical or sexual spousal violence (IIPS 2006; Irudaya Rajan and Sreerupa 2007). There are increasing reports of dowry related violence rape and other atrocities against women in Kerala (Centre for Development Studies 2006). The general health situation among women in Kerala shows that the prevalence of morbidity and chronic disease is higher among women than among men. Population control achieved through control of fertility is taking a severe toll on women s reproductive health. Over commercialisation and privatisation of health have affected women s health. There is also a rising male child ratio in the 0-6 population in Kerala, an indication of sex selective abortion. This is mainly due to the increasing trend towards the demand of dowry. The mental health of women is also at stake in the recent years. There has been a rise in the number of cases of depression found among the women in the state (Suchitra 2002 as cited in Bhaskaran 2006). The number of suicides and unnatural deaths due to escalating rate of dowry, consumerism, and indebtedness seem to be on the rise. Access to tangible and intangible resources is an important determinant in assessing the empowerment status of women. In Kerala, women own only per cent of the total area under operational holdings (Economic Review, Kerala State Planning Board 2001, as cited in Bhaskaran 2006). Even among those matrilineal communities in which women had property rights, they have been converted into dowry. As earnings of women are used for household expenses, family welfare and other recurring expenses, women are not in a position to acquire personal property or assets (Bhaskaran 2006). This poses a research question, how can such high levels of standard or conventional gender development indicators co-exist with women s powerlessness? Overcoming certain constrains in the socio-demographic sphere has not led to a situation in which women have a controlling space for challenging patriarchal attitudes. There is obviously an invisible crust within the public domain that operates in an obnoxious manner to keep women away from bargaining (in terms of power and influence) and also avoiding confrontation between men and women (Panda 2004). 110

5 6.2. GENDER EMPOWERMENT AMONG THE SYRIAN CHRISTIAN WOMEN IN KERALA The above discussion on gender empowerment of Kerala besides the conventional indicators of demography and literacy, was confirming the subordinate status of women. The researcher felt that it would be appropriate to know the responses of Syrian Christian women covered by the study towards some empowerment aspects, before inquiring about the core research issue of inheritance rights. This would provide an understanding regarding the empowerment and the sensitivity of Syrian Christian women towards issues which have been responsible for subordination of women. For this purpose, issues such as perceptions on education and employment of women, parental influence, perception on girl child, gender roles, decision making power, reservation for women, priesthood for women and participation in empowerment programmes were addressed. The researcher presumed that their outlook and participation in empowerment programmes aspects could contribute towards their approach towards inheritance rights. A cross analysis of these issues with the two Syrian Christian denominations, namely the Orthodox Syrian, and the Reformed Syrian, was carried out keeping these two independent variables constant throughout the analysis. Cross analysis was done in order to find out whether there could be any similarities or differences across the denominations with regard to respondents views towards gender empowerment Education and Allied Issues There exists a gender bias towards education of girls in our society and as a result girls are denied access and opportunity for education especially higher education which is one of the major components of empowerment of women. However, Kerala has been an exception as the educational status of women has always been very high. Nevertheless, the educational status of the Syrian Christian women of the study (discussed in Chapter 5 ) has shown a low level i.e., higher percentage of respondents having achieved only up to secondary level of education, though the Reformed Syrian fares better than the Orthodox Syrian. The researcher wanted to know how the respondents felt about their own education, parental 111

6 support towards their education, and educational status of women of their locality and perception on girls education. The findings of these aspects are presented in this section. (1) Self Assessment regarding Educational Attainment In order to get an understanding of what the respondents thought about their own educational attainment, they were asked to express their view points regarding their educational attainment and were. The Table 6.1 shows the percentage distribution of respondents with reference to their perceptions regarding their educational attainment. Table (6.1) Percentage Distribution of Respondents according to Assessment on Educational Attainment by Denominations Assessment regarding Educational Attainment Orthodox Syrian ( N = 136) Reformed Syrian (N= 164) Total (N = 300) Satisfied 22.1 (30) 32.9 (54) 28.0 (84) Not satisfied 36.0 (49) 41.5 (68) 39.0 (117) Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied 41.9 (57) 25.6 (42) 33.0 (99) Chi-square = df = 2 p =.008 (The figures in parenthesis correspond to the actual number of respondents) It was noticed that women who were not satisfied with their education were comparatively at a higher (39.0%) level irrespective of the denominations. Denomination wise data shows that non-satisfaction among the Reformed Syrian was noticed to be at a slightly higher level (41.5%), when compared to those among the Orthodox Syrian (36.0%). Those who were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with their educational attainment comprised per cent. In this category, 41.9 per cent was from the Orthodox Syrian and 25.6 per cent was from the Reformed Syrian. Those who replied saying that they were 112

7 satisfied with their education constituted 28.0 per cent. A higher percentage (32.9%) was from the Reformed Syrian group whereas for the Orthodox Syrian it was very low (22.1%). Higher satisfaction of educational attainment among the Reformed Syrian denomination was due to the representation of women of CSI denomination who were able to go beyond the secondary level of education. Among those who were not satisfied with the educational attainment, a few of them wanted to pursue higher studies but had family responsibilities, besides coming from a not so economically sound background, they could not go further. However, among those who were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with the educational attainment, there were quite a few who did not think much about their educational background. Some of them did not come out openly to express their views, besides, there were other responses such as, not good in studies and hence did not want to pursue, got married very early and had to stop studies, failed in secondary or higher secondary level and after that did not want to pursue with education There is found to be a significant association (0.01 level) between the denominations and women s perception on their educational attainment. Non-satisfaction about one s educational level was evident among the Syrian Christian women irrespective of their denominations, though a higher percentage was noticed among the Reformed Syrian. This indicated the respondents aspiration for higher education which was a positive factor towards gender empowerment. Family background, economic constraints were found to be limiting factors for many to fulfill their aspirations towards higher education. Satisfaction about one s education was more from Reformed Syrians and representation of women of CSI denomination was the contributing factor. (2) Parental Attitude towards Respondents Education Parental attitude towards the education of respondents is an important factor. Very traditional or orthodox parents of respondents might not have given much consideration for their daughters education and would have given priority to their sons education. If the parents were supportive towards the girls education, then there were greater chances of the respondents higher education. In order to have an understanding about the parental attitude 113

8 towards the education of the respondents, their opinions were sought and the percentage distribution of the same has been reported. Table (6.2) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to their Parental Attitudes towards their Education by Denominations Parental Attitude towards Education Orthodox Syrian (N = 136) Reformed Syrian (N = 164) Total (N = 300) Favorable 41.9 (57) 54.9 (90) 49.0 (147) Neither favorable nor unfavuorable 33.1 (45) 25.0 (41) 28.7 (86) No comment 25.0 (34) 20.1 (33) 22.3 (67) Chi-square = df = 2 p = Nearly a half (49.0%) of the respondents were of the opinion that parents were in favour of their education. Among the denominations, a higher percentage (54.9%) of Reformed Syrians had reported that their parents had favorable attitudes towards their education while for the Orthodox Syrians, parents in favour constituted 41.9 per cent. Those who responded saying that parents were neither favourable nor unfavourable towards their education comprised 28.7 per cent. Denominational difference was not much per cent of Orthodox Syrian and 25.0 per cent of Reformed Syrian. Those who did not comment were per cent. Those who belonged to neither favourable nor unfavourable category, had different responses - parents passed away when they were young, for those who were from a poor economic background it was difficult to pursue their studies even if the parents wanted to give them education. In some cases, because of ill-health, parents could not support the education of the respondents. Women in the older age group, had more than four or five siblings and the parents were from a poor economic background. Those who had a large family with very limited resources again did not receive much support from their parents. 114

9 With reference to a few, their parents wanted them to opt for vocational education which would enable them to acquire some sort of job after secondary school or HSC level rather than pursue with further education. Parental support towards the education of respondents was found to be favourable which was slightly higher among the Reformed Syrians. Once again the higher economic background of CSI denomination of Reformed Syrians had an influencing effect. Lack of parental support for respondents education was mainly due to circumstantial limitations and not because of the conservative attitudes of parents towards girls education. (3 ) Educational Attainment of Women in their Locality The responses regarding the educational achievements of the respondents and parental attitude towards education of respondents showed a positive outlook towards education. Respondents understanding of the educational attainment of women in their locality, and those belonging to other communities contributed to the assessment of the educational status of women in the field area. Table (6.3) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Views on Educational Attainment of Women in their Locality by Denominations Educational Attainment of Women in their Locality Orthodox Syrian (N = 136) Reformed. Syrian (N = 164) Total (N = 300) Low level of education 90.4 (123) 69.5 (114) 79.0 (237) High level of education 9.6 (13) 30.5 (50) 21.0 (63) Chi-square = df = 1 p =.000 Regarding respondents opinion on educational attainment of women in their locality, it was found that a large proportion (79.0%) of respondents felt that majority of the women had a low level of education that was up to the secondary level. As per each denomination, 90.4 per cent of Orthodox Syrian denomination gave this response, while the same response was given by 69.5 per cent from the Reformed Syrian denomination. 115

10 However, 21.0 per cent respondents conveyed that there were women who had gone beyond secondary level of education to HSC and college level and even up to post graduation and professional degrees. Some of the respondents were of the opinion that these days girls are very academically oriented and strive to achieve professional degrees in medicines, engineering, law, etc., and similar degrees in various other fields so that they can be economically independent. From both denominations they aired similar responses regarding education of women in their locality, which was sounded more from the Reformed Syrians i.e., 30.5 per cent and only 9.6 per cent from Orthodox Syrians. Reformed Syrians responding higher level of educational attainment of women of their locality was because the residents of their locality in the town area were from higher class so that the higher education was affordable to many of the women. Besides having formal education, respondents also felt that women also go for vocational courses like, nursing, para medical training like lab technicians. B.Ed, TTC (Teachers Training Course), Nursery Training which could provide more job opportunities. Association between the denomination and the awareness on the educational level of women residing in the locality was observed to be highly significant (0.001 level). Low level of education of women of their locality was reported in the study area. Greater responses regarding higher level of education of women of locality was from CSI group of Reformed Syrian and the higher economic background of residents of town area was contributory towards higher education of women in the locality. (4) Perception about Education of Girls Responses of Syrian Christian women about their own education and parental support towards their education were indicative of a positive approach towards higher education of girls even though a large percentage of them were not able to achieve higher education due to family backgrounds. In order to gather their views on education of girls, the respondents were asked to comment on the extent of education be given to girls. 116

11 Table (6.4) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Perception on Education of Girls by Denominations Perception on Education of Girls Orthodox Syrian (N = 136) Reformed Syrian (N = 164) Total (N = 300) Girls should be given maximum higher education 89.0 (121) 91.5 (150) 90.3 (271) Up to college level education 11.0 (15) 8.5 (14) 9.7 (29) Chi-square =.529 df = 1 p =. 467 An overwhelming majority (90.3%) of respondents have expressed that girls should be given maximum higher education, which could be beyond college level, or professional education as per their aptitude. The same level of response was voiced by women from each denomination and it was found more or less the same, i,e., 91.5 per cent from the Reformed Syrian and 89.0 per cent from the Orthodox Syrian. Many women felt that higher education for women was a source to build a career, to acquire knowledge, to achieve higher positions in their employment sectors, to become self- confident and economically self- reliant. Some women were of the opinion that if women have higher education, they could impart the knowledge to their children. Women who had a low level of education (up to school level) desired their daughters to achieve higher levels in education so that their daughters would not be confined at home like them. They felt that they should not be deprived of building a career to earn and be economically independent for their own good and also for the benefit of the family. Around 9.7 per cent of the respondents have, expressed that girls education up to college level to obtain a degree or post graduate degree was useful. Some of them voiced that opting for any vocational or job oriented course after HSC education would be a better option considering the job opportunity rather than continue with higher education which did not guarantee any employment as per their qualifications. A few were not much in favour of girls going for higher education as they felt it may pose difficulty in getting a suitable partner 117

12 in marriage thereafter. Though there was a positive attitude towards girls education, many felt that the financial conditions of the families played a very important role in this regard. There had to be sound resources to translate their desire into action, otherwise it would be difficult for the families to meet the educational expenses. There existed a strong positive attitude towards girls higher education and this was found to be true among both the denominations without much variations. This approach also points towards women s empowerment. Economic independence through higher education was found to be a motivating factor as majority of them did not have the opportunity to study and to earn to be economically independent Views on Employment and Allied Issues (1) Job Satisfaction Like education, employment is also an important agent of empowerment. Higher education and employment could facilitate economic independence and enhance women s role in decision making processes. Though women in Kerala excelled in terms of educational status, the employment status was found to be low. The employment status of Syrian Christian women of the study was also found to be quite low as majority were house wives. However, the researcher attempted to know the views of employed women regarding work satisfaction and perception about their employment.. 118

13 Table (6.5) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Job Satisfaction by Denominations Job Satisfaction Orthodox Syrian Reformed Syrian Total (N = 136) (N = 164) (N = 300) Satisfied 17.6 (24) 35.4 (58) 27.3 (82) Not applicable 82.4 (112) 64.6 (106) 72.7 (218) Chi-square = df = 1 p =.001 It was observed that for almost three-fourths of the respondents (72.7%) the question was not applicable mainly as they were not employed. Denomination wise it was noticed that 35.4 per cent of the respondents were from the Reformed Syrian, while 17.6 per cent of respondents were Orthodox Syrian. Work satisfaction was reported more from the Reformed Syrian mainly because of the larger employment participation by Reformed Syrian, especially women from CSI background, who were teachers in schools and colleges, and very few professionals like doctors. Even the Marthoma Syrian women from the village were found to be employed more in services like teaching in schools, nursing professions or in small firms compared to Orthodox Syrian women. A marginal percentage of those who were working did express non-satisfaction, lack of job security, less pay and so on. The association between the job satisfaction and denominations was found to be very significant (at level). As majority of the women were not employed, the rate of job satisfaction was low. Reformed Syrian was found to have a higher job satisfaction as compared to the Orthodox Syrian. Greater work participation of CSI women of Reformed Syrian was a contributory factor. 119

14 (2) Parental Attitude towards Employment of Respondents Women seeking careers were not encouraged as it was considered that women should be family centered and not career oriented. Parents who believed that women should be only homemakers would not have given much support to the respondents career. But if the parents wanted their daughters to be economically independent, then they would have encouraged them to take up jobs. Table (6.6) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Parental Attitude towards their Employment by Denominations Parental Attitude towards Employment Orthodox Syrian ( N = 136) Reformed Syrian (N = 164) Total ( N = 300) Supportive 12.5 (17) 36.0 (59) 25.3 (76) Neither supportive nor nonsupportive 11.8 (16) 7.3 (12) 9.3 (28) Not applicable 75.7 (103) 56.7 (93) 65.3 (196) Chi-square = df = 2 p =.000 Regarding parental support towards the employment of the respondents, it was found that, 25.3 per cent were of the view that their parents were supportive towards their employment. Among the denominations, 36.0 per cent of the Reformed Syrian stated that their parents have been supportive of their employment as against 12.5 per cent of Orthodox Syrian. About 9.3 per cent responded saying that their parents were neither supportive nor nonsupportive in this regard. There were no distinct differences between the two denominations. They mentioned that some parents specially those who were in the older generation, i.e., (60+ years) wanted to get them married. As some of the respondents parents had died quite early, they could not experience parental support with regard to the employment. Those who were in the non-applicable category due to the non-employment status were found to be the highest (65.3%). In this category, respondents from the Orthodox Syrian were higher with 120

15 75.7 per cent while that of Reformed Syrian was 56.7 per cent. The association between the parental support and the denominations was found to be highly significant (at.001level) Parental attitude towards employment of the respondents could not bring out much response due to the non-employment status of a substantial proportion of the respondents. It was evident that the Reformed Syrian parents were more supportive towards the employment of respondents than the Orthodox Syrian parents. (3) Husbands and In-Laws Attitudes towards Employment of the Respondents Support of husbands and in-laws play a significant role as far as married employed women are concerned. Unless there is cooperation and support from husbands and in-laws, it is difficult for married women to pursue their career. Many women respondents might not have got the support of their spouses or in-laws with regard to their jobs. Table (6.7) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Husbands and In-laws Attitudes towards Their Employment by Denominations Husband and In-laws Attitude towards Employment Orthodox Syrian (N = 136) Reformed Syrian ( N = 164) Total ( N = 300) Supportive 11.8 (16) 32.3 (53) 23.0 (69) Neither supportive nor nonsupportive 10.3 (14) 9.1 (15) 9.7 (29) Not applicable 77.9 (106) 58.5 (96) 67.3 (202) Chi-square = df = 2 p =.000 Women whose husbands and in-laws were supportive towards their employment were found to be 23.0 per cent. Nearly 32.3 per cent of the Reformed Syrians said their spouse and inlaws were supportive as compared to 11.8 per cent of the Orthodox Syrian. Majority belonged to the category of not applicable (67.3%) due to their non-employed status. Those 121

16 who responded saying that their husbands and in-laws were neither supportive nor nonsupportive were 9.7 per cent. This comprised those whose husbands were not in favour at the beginning but did not mind later on, a few started working after the death of their husbands. For some, in-laws did not express their feelings and quite a number of them have been staying separately, so the in-laws attitude did not come into the picture. The association between the attitude of husbands and in-laws and denominations was found to be highly significant (at level). It is evident from the data that the Reformed Syrian respondents enjoyed more support from husbands and in-laws compared to the Orthodox Syrian respondents. (4) Respondents Control over their Earnings Control over one s resources, especially the earnings, is an important factor for the empowerment of women. Being a patriarchal society, barring some cases, cultural practice has been that employed women hardly have any right over their own earnings and invariably it was the husbands who took control over their earnings. However, the data based on NFHS- 3 (IIPS 2006), among the married working women in Kerala, who earned in cash, 90 per cent had the right to decide on how the earning should be spent, either by themselves or jointly with their husbands. To get an understanding on the control over ones earnings, respondents views were collected and the findings are presented in Table 6.8. Table (6.8) Percentage Distribution of Respondents according to Control over their Earnings by Denominations Control over their own Earnings Orthodox Syrian ( N = 136) Reformed Syrian ( N = 164) Total ( N = 300) Jointly by respondents and husbands 7.4 (10) 23.2 (38) 16.0 (48) Independently by respondents 12.5 (17) 15.9 (26) 14.3 (43) Not applicable 80.1 (109) 61.0 (100) 69.7 (209) Chi-square = df = 2 p =

17 Those who replied that both respondents and their husbands had control over their earnings were 16.0 per cent irrespective of denominations. It was observed that 23.2 per cent of Reformed Syrians had joint control over their earnings as compared to 7.4 per cent of Orthodox Syrians. Those who responded that earnings were controlled independently by them were 14.3 per cent. A slight increase in percentage was noticed among the Reformed Syrian (15.9%) compared to the Orthodox Syrian (12.5%). In this case, some respondents husbands have been working outside (either within India or abroad mostly in the Middle East) and hence these women had the freedom to have control on their earnings. Some of them had a meagre salary, and so there was hardly anything to have control over. Widowed or separated employed respondents had their own right over their earnings. A majority of those women who had their right over their earnings emphatically said that their spending was very family centered in the sense that whatever they spent was mainly for family welfare and they never indulged in any extravagance. This kind of family centred spending categorized as welfare effect, has been cited as one of the advantages of women having independent right over resources by Agarwal (1994) in her argument on empowerment of women being critically linked with control over resources. Having access and control over resources also promotes the efficiency effect i.e., respondents direct ownership to resources that can increase access to credit and also promote equality and empowerment which could help greater participation in the social arena. So it could be assumed that Syrian Christian women s effective control over the resources would have a positive effect on household nutrition, mortality and morbidity, access to credit and also greater participation in women s empowerment programmes. For majority (69.7%) of the respondents, control over their resources was not applicable due to their unemployment status. The association between the control over one s earnings and denominations were found to be highly significant (at.001level). As majority of the women were not employed, percentage of women who had control over their earnings was low. Joint and independent control over earnings was more among the Reformed Syrian as compared to the Orthodox Syrian. This was because more Reformed Syrian women were employed compared to Orthodox Syrian women and there was higher chances of promotion of welfare effect among the families of Reformed Syrian. 123

18 (5) Perception regarding Working Women s Control over their Earnings Independent control over the resource was practiced by a marginal percentage of Syrian Christian women of the study as majority of respondents was not employed. In order to know whether the respondents, irrespective of their employment status had indicated positive attitude towards women s access and control over the economic resources such as their income, their responses were obtained. Table (6.9) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Opinions on Women s Control over their Earnings by Denominations Control over Women s Earnings Orthodox Syrian ( N = 136) Reformed Syrian ( N = 164) Total ( N = 300) The employed woman should have the control over their earnings 75.7 (103) 84.1 (138) 80.3 (241) Control should be jointly by husbands and wives 24.3 (33) 15.9 (26) 19.7 (59) Chi-square = df = 1 p =.068 More than three-fourths (80.3%) of the respondents preferred employed women to have control over their earnings irrespective of the denominational differences. It was noted that the Reformed Syrian had more representation (84.1%) than that of the Orthodox Syrian (75.7%) in this aspect. Elaborating on women s control over their income, some of them said that, in our society majority of employed women hardly exercise any right over their salary as it usually went straight into the hands of husbands who at their discretion gave some amount to the wives for their personal expenses. About 19.7 per cent of respondents were of the view that control over the women s earnings should be exercised jointly by husbands and wives. Many of the respondents felt that having a joint control over the salary would keep the family in harmony and such practice should be followed when the husbands were very caring, loving and family oriented. Some of them were of the opinion that if the husbands were uncaring and not interested in the welfare of the family, then the women should exercise complete authority over their earnings. 124

19 There was greater consensus for women s control over their earnings expressed by both denominations and such an attitude was found to be more among the Reformed Syrian denominations. The higher work participation by the Reformed Syrian women seems to have contributed to their outlooks. (6) Perception on Family Life and Employment Majority of respondents of the study were not employed. However, their non-employment status need not necessarily create an unfavourable attitude towards married women being employed. Women respondents were asked to come out with their responses regarding married women having a career, which has been reported in Table 6.10 Table (6.10) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Opinions on Family Life and Employment by Denominations Opinion on Family Life and, Employment Orthodox Syrian Reformed Syrian Total (N = Chi-square 136) =.470 ( N = df 164) = 1 p =.493 ( N = 300) A married employed woman can efficiently manage both job and family 91.2 (124) 93.3 (153) 92.3 (277) A married employed woman cannot manage both job and family 8.8 (12) 6.7 (11) 7.7 (23) Chi-square =.470 df = 1 p =.493 Respondents irrespective of their denominational affiliations had a similar attitude towards married working women. An overwhelming percentage (92.3%) of respondents felt that employed women were capable of managing both their job and family life. A very close representation from both the denominations was observed, i.e., 93.3 per cent from the Reformed Syrian and 91.2 per cent from the Orthodox Syrian. Only 7.7% of the respondents were of the opinion that married women would not be able to manage both family life and job and the differences in responses of women between the denominations were not much. While expressing their own views, many respondents felt that it was difficult for married 125

20 women to manage both their work outside and family life and that is possible if the women had a positive attitude, confidence and support from family members namely husbands, inlaws, parents and children. Jobs which involved shifts could cause some practical difficulties for women as they have to organise their household chores accordingly along with child care if the children were small. It was also opined that ability to manage both family life and job could be developed if women started working outside. There was a clear verdict without denominational differences that married women could manage both family life and career efficiently. Support from family members was crucial. (7) Gender Division of Labour Culturally household chores are meant for women, while men are not expected to share household chores as it is not considered their domain. What the women respondents thought about gender division of labour, their views were sought. Table (6.11) Percentage Distribution of Respondents according to Opinions on Gender Division of Labour at Home by Denominations Gender Division of Labour at Home Orthodox Syrian (N = 136) Reformed Syrian ( N = 164) Total (N = 300) Husband and wife should share household responsibilities 97.1 (132) 98.2 (161) 97.7 (293) Husbands sharing should be voluntary 2.9 (4) 1.8 (3) 2.3 (7) Chi-square =.403 df = 1 p =.525 When the respondents were asked the question whether both husband and wife should share the household chores, the responses were unanimous from both the denominations, where 97.7 per cent vehemently expressed their views for equal division of labour at home by both husband and wife. Denomination wise there was hardly any difference in their views, 98.2 per cent from Reformed Syrian and 97.1 per cent from Orthodox Syrian respectively. This is indicative of the fact that women from both denominations had a very positive approach towards gender empowerment. A common response was that there 126

21 should not be sexual division of labour especially in those households where both husbands and wives were employed. This view was an indication of the fact that women irrespective of their denominational affiliations, wanted to shed the culturally defined gender roles that household work was purely designated for women. It has been reported that the work load and household responsibility was much higher for women in Kerala due to the strict gender division of labour (Bhaskaran 2006). Translating this kind of attitude of Syrian Christian women into practice could reduce the work load of their household responsibilities. Women who tend to differ were found to be very marginal (2.3%). They maintained that, one could not force domestic work upon husbands especially when they were very traditional and gender stereotyped. Men should realise it themselves and work on their own, otherwise it would create disharmony at home. A change in mind set was reflected from the data regarding the gender roles defined by society and such a feminist attitude exhibited by both denomination is contributory towards gender empowerment. (8) Gender Parity in Employment Sectors There exists a gender division of labour in the employment sector and because of that women face many professional hurdles at their work place. Many core areas of decision making in different sectors tend to be dominated by men, giving women very limited scope to utilise their potentials. In order to gauge what respondents thought about the gender parity in employment sectors, they were asked to comment and the percentage distribution showing their attitudes has been presented in Table

22 Table (6.12) Percentage Distribution of Respondents according to Opinion on Gender Parity in Employment by Denominations Gender Parity in Employment Orthodox Syrian (N = 136) Reformed Syrian (N = 164) Total (N = 300) There should be gender parity in employment sectors 77.9 (106) 76.8 (126) 77.3 (232) There need not be gender parity in employment sectors 22.1 (30) 23.2 (38) 22.7 (68) Chi-square =.052 df = 1 p =.819 It was observed that a majority (77.3%) of the respondents believed in having gender parity in employment sectors in terms of job recruitment, remuneration and other entitlements. Denomination wise, there was not much of difference of opinion noticed in this view, 77.9 per cent from the Orthodox Syrian and 76.8 per cent from the Reformed Syrian. It shows that women from both denominations wanted gender parity at work the place. Women who felt that there need not be any gender parity in employment sectors were 22.7 per cent. There were not much variations, as the representation was found to be almost equal in both denominations. Respondents in this category were of the opinion that, if women took up jobs which were normally men s occupations, then men would have fewer opportunities for employment. Some women felt that considering the health aspect there were jobs that were not suitable for women like mining, building construction and similar jobs which were strenuous. It was evident that women wanted gender parity in employment sectors irrespective of denominational differences. A similar attitude by women of both denominations was explicit from their responses. (9) Type of Jobs suitable for Women There has been a cultural pattern regarding the kind of professions women chose like teaching and nursing as such professions are considered as feminine. It was reported that in 128

23 Kerala a good proportion of women who were employed were engaged in sectors like teaching, nursing and clerical sections which are considered typically as `feminine and do not disturb male dominance in the exclusive sectors like business and entrepreneurship. The respondents were asked whether they considered that women should take up professions traditionally assigned for women such as teaching and nursing or that they could opt for any profession. Table (6.13) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Opinions on Type of Jobs Suitable for Women by Denominations Type of Jobs Suitable for Women Orthodox Syrian ( N = 136) Reformed Syrian. ( N = 164) Total ( N = 300) Teaching 29.4 (40) 39.0 (64) 34.7 (104) Nursing (38) (20) (58) Any Profession 42.6 (58) 48.8 (80) 46.0 (138) Chi-square = df = 2 p =.002 Responding to the query regarding the type of jobs suited for women, a comparatively higher proportion (46.0%) of women irrespective of their denominations voiced that women could be employed in any kind of profession. Across the denominations, this view was aired by 48.8 per cent of the Reformed Syrian and 42.6 per cent of the Orthodox Syrian. This attitude was closely followed by the view that teaching was the profession suited for women as expressed by 34.7 per cent. In this category, more responses (39.0%) were from the Reformed Syrian than from the Orthodox Syrian (29.4%). Preference for the nursing profession was found to be the next category with 19.3 per cent. In this category, denominationally, a higher representation was from the Orthodox Syrian (27.9%) in comparison with 12.2 per cent from the Reformed Syrian. 129

24 The respondents were asked about the reasons for their preference of jobs. Those who thought that women could take up any job, felt that gender should not be the criterion in the professional front. They reiterated this opinion by citing some examples of women drivers, police personnel, tree climbers in Kerala which testified that women could do any job. There was nothing like a `feminine` profession but the choice of a profession depends on each one s aptitude and will power. Those who felt teaching was the profession suitable for women supported their view by saying that the teaching profession provided more time for married women for their families, vacation, and had flexible time schedule. Moreover, for some it was a noble profession as the teachers could impart knowledge and could play a major role in building good personalities among the students. They could mould their character, train them in learning skills and so on. Those who were teachers themselves liked the profession and had also expressed similar feelings. It has to be noted that many of the employed women of the Reformed Syrian were teachers and this could also be a contributory factor for their greater representation for teaching as compared to the Orthodox Syrian. Those who preferred the nursing profession stated that in this profession, women were always in demand and had a lot of job opportunities to work within and outside India. So unemployment would not be a problem. One limitation of this job was that it required night shifts which could cause some inconvenience for married women with small children. For some the nursing profession stood for a noble cause which went beyond material benefits. There was also mention about bank jobs though this was not strongly. Preference for nursing came more from the Orthodox Syrian because it did not require higher educational qualifications and was possible even after HSC. Many of the Orthodox Syrians having low economic status compared to Reformed Syrians especially the CSI, preferred a job oriented course like nursing rather than higher education. The association between the views on type of jobs and denominations was observed to be significant (at 0.01 level). A higher proportion of women under the study were of the view that women could take up any jobs irrespective of denominations and did not confirm to the notion of 130

25 `feminine jobs. Such an attitude was reported more from the Reformed Syrian than from the Orthodox Syrian. A higher preference for teaching was noticed among the Reformed Syrian while a greater preference for nursing came from the Orthodox Syrian mainly because of its job opportunities Decision Making Roles Decision making is an important component of empowerment of women. Active participation in the decision making matters is an indication of the empowerment of women. Generally in a patriarchal culture women hardly have any role in decision making matters either at home or at the work place where at the most it might be a very marginal representation. In Kerala as per the NFHS-3 (IIPS 2006), a good proportion of currently married women took active part in decision making in areas of health care, household purchases, visiting relatives and friends. This was found to be more likely among educated, urban, women in nuclear families and Christian women. Whether the women of the study took active part in decision making could be indicative of the empowerment. (1) Decision Making Roles at Home In order to have an idea about the decision making roles of respondents at home, that is regarding the family size, children s upbringing, education, career, finance and marriage of children. They were asked to respond to the question referring to their roles in decision making. Table (6.14) Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Decision Making Roles at Home by Denominations. Decision making Roles at Home Orthodox Syrian ( N = 136) Reformed Syrian (N = 164) Total ( N = 300) Active role in decision making matters 86.8 (118) 82.3 (135) 84.3 (253) Passive role in decision making matters 13.2 (18) 17.7 (29) 15.7 (47) Chi-square = df. = 1 p =

26 When the respondents were asked about their decision making roles at home on various matters, the responses from both the denominations were reported to have played active roles in decision making matters which was found to be 84.3 per cent. Across the denominations, active roles in decision making was reported by 86.8 per cent from the Orthodox Syrian and 82.3 per cent from Reformed Syrian. This is indicative of the fact that Orthodox Syrians had a slightly higher decision making role compared to the Reformed Syrians despite they having lower educational and employment status. Those who played an active role in decision making included those who were widowed and separated where the sole responsibility of all decisions regarding the household, children s upbringing, finance, education and marriage had to be taken, and also those women whose husbands had been mostly working outside India. It was observed that quite a number of husbands of Orthodox Syrian and Marthoma women of the Reformed Syrian, were working in the Middle Eastern countries like Dubai, Kuwait Saudi-Arabia, as skilled or semi-skilled professionals and were away from their homes for long period of time. As a result, the decisions concerning various domestic, financial as well as other matters fell on the wives and that has contributed to their greater participation rate. The rest (15.7%) belonged to the category of passive decision makers. Few replied that it was their husbands who had the decision making power and that they had to abide by their decisions. Syrian Christian women of the study did play an active role in the decision making matters at home, irrespective of denominational affiliation. This observation has more significance, since irrespective of the mediocre educational status and low employment participation, the Orthodox Syrian women played an active role in decision making. The decision making roles of the Syrian Christian women was found to be on par with that of women in Kerala as reported by the NFHS-3 (IIPS 2006). 132