1.0 Background 1.1 Historical background 1.2 Cost of wind turbines

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1 1.0 Background 1.1 Historical background Wind energy has been used for thousands of years for milling grain, pumping water and other mechanical power applications. Wind power is not a new concept. The fist accepted establishment of the use of windmills was in the tenth century in Persia [1]. Today, there are several hundred thousand windmills in operation around the world. Modern windmills tend to be called wind turbines partly because of their functional similarity to the steam and gas turbines and partly to distinguish them from their traditional forbears [2]. Wind energy was the fastest growing energy technology in the 1990s, in terms of percentage of yearly growth of installed capacity per technology source. The growth of wind energy, however, is not evenly distributed around the world. By the end of 1999, around 69% of the worldwide wind energy capacity was installed in Europe, a further 19% in North America and 10% in Asia and the Pacific [3]. Wind energy is expected to play an increasingly important role in the future national energy scene [4, 5]. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the wind to electrical energy by rotating the blades. Greenpeace states that about 10% of electricity can be supplied by the wind by the year 2020 [6]. 1.2 Cost of wind turbines In the 1990s, the cost for manufacturing wind turbines declined by about 20% every time the number of manufactured wind turbines doubled. Currently, the production of large-scale, grid-connected wind turbines doubles almost every 3 years. A similar cost reduction was achieved during the first years of oil exploitation about 100 years ago. The Danish Energy Agency predicts that a further cost reduction of 50% can be achieved until 2020, and the EU Commission estimates in its White Book that energy cost from wind power will be reduced by at least 30% between 1998 and 2010 [8]. A general comparison of the electricity production costs, however, is very difficult as production costs vary significantly between countries, due to the availability of resources, different tax structures or other reasons. In addition, market regulations can affect the electricity prices in different countries. The competitive bidding processes for renewable power generation in England and Wales (The Non- 1

2 Fossil Fuel Obligation, D NFFO), however, provides a good comparison of power production prices. Within this bidding process, potential project developers for renewable energy projects are invited to bid for building new projects. The developers bid under different technology brands, e.g. wind or solar, for a feed-in tariff or for an amount of financial incentives to be paid for each kwh fed into the grid by renewable energy systems. The best bidder(s) will be awarded their bid feed-in tariff for a predefined period [7]. 1.3 Environmental Impact and reliability of wind turbines. Wind energy can be regarded as environmentally friendly; however, it is not free of emissions. The production of the blades, the nacelle, the tower, etc., the exploration of the material and the transport of equipment leads to the consumption of energy resources; hence emissions are produced as long as these energy resources are based on fossil fuel. These emissions are known as indirect emissions. In addition, the noise and the visual impact of wind turbines are important considerations for a public acceptance of wind energy technology, particular if the wind turbines are located close to human settlements. The noise impact can be reduced with technical means, e.g. variable speed or reduced rotational speed. The noise impact as well as the visual impact can also be reduced with appropriate siting of wind turbines in the landscape [9]. Reliability of wind turbine system is based on the performance of its components under assigned environment, manufacturing process, handling, and the stress and aging process. Chands et al. had studied the expert-based maintenance methodology. It has the potential to improve the reliability of systems, besides the conventional monitoring function [10]. Denson analyzed the failure causes for electronic systems and factors contributing to failure cause parts [11]. 2.0 Technical Background 2.1 Types of wind turbines There are two great classes of wind turbines: those whose rotors spin about a horizontal axis and those whose rotors spin about a vertical axis. Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) can be divided into two major groups: those that use aerodynamic drag to extract power from the wind and those that use lift. The advantages of the 2

3 VAWTs are that they can accept the wind from any direction. This simplifies their design and eliminates the problem imposed by gyroscopic forces on the rotor of a convectional machine as the turbine tracks the wind. The vertical axis of rotation also permits mounting the generator and drive train at ground level [12]. The disadvantages of this type of rotors is that it is quite difficult to control power output by pitching the rotor blades, they are not self starting and they have low tip-speed ratio [13]. Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) are convectional wind turbines and unlikely the VAWT are not omnidirectional. As the wind changes direction, HAWTs must change direction with it. They must have some means for orienting the rotor with respect to the wind. In a HAWT the generator converts directly the wind which is extracted from the rotor. The rotor speed as well as the power output can be controlled by pitching the rotor blades along their longitudinal axis. A mechanical or an electronic blade pitch control mechanism can be used in order to achieve this. An important advantage for HAWT is that blade pitching acts as a form of protection against extreme wind conditions and over speed. Also the rotor blades can be shaped to achieve maximum turbine efficiency, by exploiting the aerodynamic lift to the maximum. 2.2 Features and components of wind turbines The main parts of a HAWT are the blades, the hub, the transmission system, the gearbox, the generator and the yaw and pitch control systems. The blades are the key to the operation of the wind turbine. Three bladed designs are the most common for modern wind turbines. The blades of a HAWT are fastened to the central hub. As the rotor turns, its blades generate an imaginary surface whose projection on a vertical plane is called the swept area. For purposes of calculating the swept area, blades are assumed to be undeformed by applied loads [14]. Fiberglass is the material the blades are constructed, while the design of the blade is designed in such a way to achieve maximum efficiency and minimum noise. Depending on the blade design features, power extraction can be controlled in order to avoid the turbine from running too fast. For this reason there are three main types of blades: Pitch Controlled Wind Turbines: On a pitch controlled wind turbine the turbine's electronic controller checks the power output of the turbine several times per 3

4 second. When the power output becomes too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns) the rotor blades slightly out of the wind. Conversely, the blades are turned back into the wind whenever the wind drops again. Stall Controlled Wind Turbines: (Passive) stall controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle. The geometry of the rotor blade profile, however has been aerodynamically designed to ensure that the moment the wind speed becomes too high, it creates turbulence on the side of the rotor blade. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the rotor. The basic advantage of stall control is that one avoids moving parts in the rotor itself, and a complex control system. Active Stall Controlled Wind Turbines: Technically the active stall machines resemble pitch controlled machines, since they have pitchable blades. In order to get a reasonably large torque (turning force) at low wind speeds, the machines will usually be programmed to pitch their blades much like a pitch controlled machine at low wind speeds. One of the advantages of active stall is that one can control the power output more accurately than with passive stall, so as to avoid overshooting the rated power of the machine at the beginning of a gust of wind. Another advantage is that the machine can be run almost exactly at rated power at all high wind speeds [15]. 2.3 Physics of wind turbines [16] The power in the wind is the total available energy per time unit. The power in the wind is converted into the mechanical-rotational energy of the wind turbine rotor, which results in a reduced speed of the air mass. The power in the wind cannot be extracted completely by a wind turbine, as the air mass would be stopped completely in the intercepting rotor area. This would cause a `congestion' of the cross-sectional area for the following air masses. The theoretical optimum for utilising the power in the wind by reducing its velocity was first discovered by Betz, in According to Betz, the theoretically maximum power that can be extracted from the wind is P Betz 1 C 2 pbetz A V 0.59 A V (1) Where ρ= air density, A = area of wind turbine blades, V= wind speed, C = Constant. 4

5 Wind turbines operate by the action of the relative wind. Relative wind is a combination of natural wind plus wind caused by rotor motion and the rotor induced flow. The result of the relative wind are the aerodynamic forces which are created on the rotating blades. These aerodynamic forces are called drag and lift forces [17]. The drag force is the component that is in line with the direction of the air stream. A flat plate in an air stream, for example, experiences maximum drag forces when the direction of the air flow is perpendicular to the flat side of the plate; when the direction of the air stream is in line with the flat side of the plate, the drag forces are at a minimum. The lift force is the component that is at right angles to the direction of the air stream. Lift forces acting on a flat plate are smallest when the direction of the air stream is at a zero angle to the flat surface of the plate. At small angles relative to the direction of the air stream, a low pressure region is created on the downstream side of the plate as a result of an increase in the air velocity on that side [18] D dimensional flow Two-dimensional (2D) flow is confined to a plane and if this plane is described with a Cartesian coordinate system as shown in Figure 1, the velocity component w in the z-direction is zero. In order to realize a two-dimensional flow it is necessary to extrude an airfoil into a wing of infinite span. On a real wing the planform and the twist change along the span and the wing starts at a hub and ends in a tip. In cases where long slender wings, as on modern gliders and wind turbines, the spanwise velocity component is normally small compared to the streamwise component. Moreover, Prandtl has shown local 2-D accordingly, with the trailing vortices behind the wind [19]. 5

6 Pure drag surfaces can achieve the simplest type of wind energy conversion. When rotors rely on drag forces, they have a large area perpendicular to the flow in order to be able to capture the energy of the wind. Nevertheless these kinds of motors have low speed, high torque and low efficiency thus they are not widely used to electricity generation. Also the maximum efficiency that can be obtained from a drag type motor is one third of the ideal power coefficient (Cp). In contrast with drag type turbines power coefficient as well as the speed of rotation of the turbine will be increased if a lift type rotor is used. However the most critical factor for generating lifts the blade design which allows them to achieve faster speeds than the wind speed [20]. 6

7 References: 1. A..D. Spera, Wind turbine technology, ASME press, London, 1994, p G. Boyle, Renewable energy, power for a sustainable future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 2004, p T. Ackerman, Wind energy technology and current status, a review, Elsevier science, 2000, p.322 (Accessed 22/01/2007). 4. K.T. Fung, R.L. Scheffler, J. Stolpe, Wind energy a utility perspective, IEEE Trans Power Appar System, Vol. 100, 1981, p S. Ezio, C. Claudio, Exploitation of wind as an energy source to meet the world s electricity demand, Wind eng., Vol , 1998, p G.M. Goselin, A review of wind energy technologies, Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, Vol. 11, 2007, p T. Ackerman, Wind energy technology and current status, a review, Elsevier science, 2000, p.349 (Accessed 22/01/2007). 8. Prehn Morten Sùrensen, Learning curve: how is new energy technology costs reduced over time, Report of an IEA Workshop, International Energy Agency, Paris, T. Ackerman, Wind energy technology and current status, a review, Elsevier science, 2000, p.351 (Accessed 22/01/2007). 10. P.K.Chands, S.V. Tokekar, Expert-based maintenance: a study of its effectiveness, IEEE Trans Reliab, 1998, Vol. 47, p W. Denson, The history of reliability prediction, failure causes for electronic systems, IEEE Trans Reliab, 1998, Vol. 47, p P. Gipe, Wind Power, James & James, London, 2004, p E. Hau, Wind Turbines, fundamentals, technologies, application, economics, Springer-verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2000, p A.D. Spera, Wind turbine technology, ASME press, London, 1994, p Danish Wind Industry Association, Power control of wind turbines, (Accessed 20/1/07). 16. T. Ackerman, Wind energy technology and current status, a review, Elsevier science, 2000, p.331 (Accessed 22/01/2007). 17. A.D. Spera, Wind turbine technology, ASME press, London, 1994, p

8 18. G. Boyle, Renewable energy, power for a sustainable future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 2004, p M. Hansen, Aerodynamics of wind turbines, James & James, London, 2000, p L. Johnson, Wind energy systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood cliffs, New Jersey, 1985, p