A PROPOSAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR GAME-LIKE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS: THE FID 2 GE MODEL

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1 A PROPOSAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR GAME-LIKE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS: THE FID 2 GE MODEL A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES OF THE MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY GÖKNUR KAPLAN AKILLI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY JANUARY 2004

2 Approval of the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences Prof. Dr. Canan ÖZGEN Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. M. Yasar ÖZDEN Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kürsat ÇAGILTAY Supervisor Examining Committee Members Assoc. Prof. Dr. Barbara BICHELMEYER Asst. Prof. Dr. Zahide YILDIRIM Asst. Prof. Dr. Kürsat ÇAGILTAY Asst. Prof. Dr. Erdinç ÇAKIROGLU Dr. Sadi SEFEROGLU

3 ABSTRACT A PROPOSAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR GAME-LIKE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS: THE FID 2 GE MODEL Kaplan Akilli, Göknur M.S., Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Kürsat ÇAGILTAY January 2004, 196 pages Computer games are considered as powerful tools to learning and they have a potential for educational use. However, the lack of available comprehensive design paradigms and well-designed research studies about the question of how to incorporate games into learning environments is still a question, despite more than 30 years existence of computer games and simulations in the instructional design movement. Setting off from these issues, a formative research study is designed to propose an instructional design/development model, which may be used for creation iii

4 of game-like learning environments. Eighteen undergraduate students from Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department in METU participated to the study. Data collection lasted for three months and data were collected through interviews, observations and the artifacts that the participants produced. After the data analysis, it was found that the phases of the instructional design/development process should not be separate, strictly bounded, and processing a linear manner. Depending on these results and with the inspiration from fuzzy logic, an instructional design/development model for creating game-like environments, which is called as FID 2 GE model is proposed. Keywords: Games, simulations, game-like learning environments, instructional design/development, instructional design/development model, formative research, fuzzy logic. iv

5 ÖZ OYUN BENZERI ÖGRENME ORTAMLARI IÇIN BIR ÖGRETIM TASARIMI/GELISTIRME MODEL ÖNERISI: FID 2 GE MODELI Kaplan Akilli, Göknur Yüksek Lisans, Bilgisayar ve Ögretim Teknolojileri Egitimi Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Y. Doç. Dr. Kürsat ÇAGILTAY Ocak 2004, 196 sayfa Bilgisayar oyunlarinin güçlü ögrenme araçlari olduklari ve bu nedenle de egitim amaçli kullanilabilme potansiyeline sahip olduklari düsünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte, bilgisayar oyunlari ve simülasyonlarin ögretim tasarimi faaliyetleri içerisinde 30 yildan fazla süredir yer almis olmasina ragmen, bu oyunlarin ögrenme ortamlarina nasil entegre edilebilecegi ile ilgili kapsamli tasarim paradigmalarinin ve uygun biçimde tasarlanmis arastirma faaliyetlerinin mevcut olmayisi hala bir sorun teskil etmektedir. v

6 Bu sorunlardan yola çikarak, bu çalismada oyun benzeri ögrenme ortamlarinin yaratilmasinda kullanilabilecek bir ögretim tasarimi/gelistirme modeli ortaya koymak üzere biçimlendirici (formative) bir arastirma yapilmistir. Arastirmaya Orta Dogu Teknik Üniversitesi Bilgisayar ve Ögretim Teknolojileri Egitimi Bölümü nden 18 lisans ögrencisi katilmistir. Üç ay süren veri toplama sürecinde veriler; görüsmeler, gözlemler ve katilimcilarin sagladigi belgeler araciligiyla toplanmistir. Verilerin analizi göstermistir ki; ögretim tasarimi/gelistirme süreci birbirinden tamamen ayri, kati sinirlari olan ve dogrusal bir sira takip eden safhalardan olusmamalidir. Bu sonuçlar isiginda, bulanik (fuzzy) mantik kavramindan da esinlenerek, oyun benzeri ortamlarin yaratilmasinda kullanilabilecek bir ögretim tasarimi/gelistirme modeli olan FID 2 GE modeli ortaya konmustur. Anahtar kelimeler : Oyunlar, simülasyonlar, oyun benzeri ögrenme ortamlari, ögretim tasarimi/gelistirme, ögretim tasarimi/gelistirme modeli, biçimlendirici (formative) arastirma, bulanik mantik. vi

7 To mom and dad, whom I owe everything vii

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly and foremost, I would like to thank and express my deep and sincere appreciation to my thesis supervisor, Asst. Prof. Dr. Kürsat Çagiltay. This thesis would not even be likely to exist without his insight, patience, guidance, support and encouragement throughout the study. I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to my examination committee members, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Barbara Bichelmeyer, Asst. Prof. Dr. Zahide Yildirim, Asst. Prof. Dr. Erdinç Çakiroglu, and Dr. Sadi Seferoglu for their valuable suggestions and comments. I would also like to thank Asst. Prof. Dr. Ercan Kiraz for his valuable assistance in data analysis part of the study. Special thanks also go to my dearest friends Halil Ersoy, Levent Durdu, Nuray Temur and all the others in the department for their valuable support and encouragement during the study. I must express my thankfulness also to my officemate, Erol Özçelik, for his valuable comments and contribution to the study. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Gülfidan Can for her support and help from the other side of the world. I would like to express my love and deep gratitude to my family, and my loving husband, Sinan Akilli, for their patience, encouragement and unwavering faith in me. viii

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT. ÖZ. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.. TABLE OF CONTENTS.. LIST OF TABLES... LIST OF FIGURES... iii v viii ix xii xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study Definition of Terms 8 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Instructional (Systems) Design/Development (IDD) Instructional Design/Development Models (IDDM) Criticisms and New Trends in IDD and IDDM An Alternative IDDM: Rapid Prototyping.. 21 ix

10 2.5. A Better Guide: Fuzzy Logic Games and Simulations Effects of Games and Simulations on Learning Educational Use of Games and Simulations Design Models for Educational Use of Games and Simulations Synthesis METHODOLOGY Research Problem and Research Questions Overall Design of the Study Justification for the Selection of the Methodology Implementation Process The Case Participants and Sampling Data Collection Instruments Data Collection Procedures Data Analysis Validity and Reliability Limitations and Delimitations RESULTS Background Information of Participants Background Information of Students Background Information of Instructors Soft Issues x

11 4.3. Process-related Issues Analysis Related Issues Design and Development Related Issues Evaluation Related Issues Hard Issues CONCLUSION General Overview Underlying Principles of the FID 2 GE Model Principles Related to Soft and Hard Issues Principles Related to Design/Development Process Theoretical Foundations The FID 2 GE Model Pre-analysis Phase of FID 2 GE Model Analysis Phase of FID 2 GE Model Design-Development Phase of the FID 2 GE Model Evaluation Phase of the FID 2 GE Model Summary Implications for Further Research and Practice REFERENCES APPENDICES A. INTERVIEW GUIDES AND OBSERVATION PROTOCOL 174 B. INTERVIEWS CITED. 184 C. SCREENSHOTS xi

12 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 2.1. Key alterations with the shift from industrial age to information age Detailed schedule of observation and briefing sessions Detailed schedule of interviews Students interview durations and grand totals of interviews Codes used in data analysis IDD background information of the participants Legend of icons used in Figure Summary of the FID 2 GE model xii

13 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 2.1. Prototyping approach to software design (by Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990) Rapid prototyping IDDM (by Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990) Conceptual structure of fuzzy logic (by MIT Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, 2003) Diagram that shows the post-facto and in-vivo naturalistic case research frameworks The components of Active Worlds The boundaries and delimitations of the case that forms the focus of the 49 current study An excerpt from the coded data collected from the analysis interviews Excel sheet prepared for the transcriptions of personal information 67 interviews Excel sheet prepared for the transcriptions of analysis interviews The relationships among the soft (peopleware) and hard (technical) issues of an ISD process, creativity, and the quality of the product Conceptual structure of fuzzy logic (by MIT Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, 2003) xiii

14 5.3. Overall appearance of the FID 2 GE model The visualization of Pre-Analysis phase of the FID 2 GE model The visualization of Analysis phase of the FID 2 GE model The visualization of Design and Development phases of the FID 2 GE model The visualization of Evaluation phase of the FID 2 GE model 159 C.1. A screenshot from Mysterious Town C.2. A screenshot from History of Music C.3. A screenshot of entrance of History of Music and its web component. 195 C.4. A screenshot of entrance of History of Arts C.5. A screenshot of two people talking xiv

15 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This introductory chapter addresses the issues that underlie the background of the study; the statement of the problem in the light of these background issues; purpose and significance of the study; and, lastly, definition of the terms that were used throughout the study Background of the Study It is unanimously acknowledged that presently we are living in that part of history, which is called the Information Age. This also provides that contemporary human society is likewise referred to as the Information Society (Bates, 2000; Reigeluth, 1996). What made these two emerging concepts possible, however, was another one, technology, or rather, the rate of progress that has been achieved in technology over the past fifty or so years (Molenda & Sullivan, 2003). Throughout this period, technology has been both the generator and the transmitter of information with an increasingly faster speed and an increasingly wider audience each and every 1

16 day. Soon it has dominated all our lives, penetrating into the conduction of normal daily life. The field of education has not been, and actually could never be, an exception in the spreading out of technology. On the contrary, education has always been considered as one of the most productive breeding-grounds for technology, where it would find its finest resonances and thus would have revolutionary effects. Yet, high expectations regarding the revolutionary impacts of technology on education have hardly been realized so far. More specifically, what we call instructional technology, or the use of technology in educational environments, does not presently seem to have contributed significantly to the realization of these expectations (Molenda & Sullivan, 2003; Russell, 2003). It may be argued that the reason for the existence of the relative ineffectiveness is the application of the same old methods in new educational media. To make an analogy, New wine was poured, but only into old bottles (Cohen & Ball, 1990, p. 334). Another reason related to this issue can be the famous Clark and Kozma debate, started by Clark s 1983 statement that media do not influence students learning (Clark, 1983). On the contrary, Kozma (1991) argued that learning and media are complementary and interrelationships of media, method and external environment have influence on learning. Both of them rationalize their arguments by Russell s (2003) study on, so called, no-significantdifference researches. Clark (1983, 1994a, 1994b) uses this phenomenon as evidence for his argument, whereas Kozma (1994) uses this phenomenon an indicative of insufficient evidence for his debate. 2

17 Moreover, there is the insufficiency of current models and methods to meet the consequences of a paradigm shift from Industrial Age to Information Age (Bates, 2000; Reigeluth, 1996, 1999). One of the possible novelties regarding the methods of education, which should be discussed, is the use of games. As a matter of fact, games are not so much a novelty in this field, as young human beings, by nature, begin to learn through games and playing from their early childhood (Rieber, 1996). At the older ages, games are replaced by formal education. Nevertheless, the transition from informal games to formal education environment does not always, and especially nowadays, seem to be a sharp one as it is known that games are being used also in some educational environments, yet their success is questionable. When one looks deeper into the subject, it is understood that the use of games in education is not so much a novelty too, because its history may be traced back a few thousand years (Dempsey, Lucassen, Haynes & Casey, 1996). It is now known that even in times before history, games and dramatic performances as representations of real life were more effective as teaching tools than the presentations of life itself. In our modern day, with the new technological advancement of societies, traditional games of old times have been replaced by electronic games and in similar manner, dramatic representations of old have been transformed into role-playing in simulation environments. Hence, electronic games and simulations have been parts of contemporary formal education. However, such transformation cannot be expected to take place quite smoothly and without its problems. The first question that arises, when the use of games and simulations in formal education environments is concerned, is that of how? : How games and 3

18 simulations should be used in education?, Is there a design/development model tailored for the creation of game-like learning environments? The answer that the researcher of the present study gave to the second question was No. To be more specific, the researcher has not yet found, and apparently is not likely to find in near future; information about the presence of such a model as can be used for the abovegiven purpose, except for the model she proposes in this study. She has only come across basic design guidelines and principles offered by researchers (Amory, Naicker, Vincent & Adams, 1999; Prensky, 2001; MIT, 2003). In other words, there is the apparent and urgent need for the introduction of an instructional design/development model that will help and guide instructional designers for the efficient use of games and simulations in educational environments, more precisely for creating game-like learning environments. Accordingly, what this thesis aims to do is to propose a model that can possibly contribute to, if not solve to some extent, the problem concerning the lack of an instructional design/development model, which can be employed for creating game-like learning environments. Otherwise, instructional designers have to take the challenge of forcing the situation to fit a model rather than selecting an appropriate model to fit the situation, due to the non-existence of even one appropriate instructional design/development model (Gustafson & Branch, 1997) Statement of the Problem Traditional instructional development models have been criticized on the grounds that they hardly represent a variety of structure, although they are abundant in number. In other words, as time passes models are enhanced in quantity, but not in 4

19 quality (Gustafson & Branch, 1997, 1998). The procedural stratifications and timeconsuming practices have constituted the main rationale of these criticisms. Both Prensky (2001) and Rowland, Parra and Basnet (1994) put forth that much of instructional design is done by the book or by using a rational view, which in turn produces boring cookie-cutter outcomes (Prensky, 2001, p. 83) and they emphasize creativity or creative approaches against the growing dissatisfaction about the current methods. Many researchers also suggest new approaches to be adapted from various fields, such as employment of hermeneutics, chaos theory or fuzzy logic (Jonassen, et al., 1997). On the other hand, although computer games and simulations have a history of more than three decades in the instructional design movement, literature still lacks available comprehensive design paradigms and well-designed research studies (Gredler, 1996). While there is vast number of similar studies about the perception of students and their reactions, the question of how to incorporate games into learning environments stays unresolved (Dempsey, Lucassen, et al., 1996). The researcher came across some studies about general design principles and elements, yet not a model (Amory, et al., 1999; Prensky, 2001; MIT, 2003). For these reasons and while it has been impossible to find a study that resembles the researcher s intentions, we believe that the findings of this study reveal important information and illuminate the path that goes to the answer of the above-mentioned question Purpose of the Study This study has a general aim to contribute to knowledge base in instructional design theory and to make a humble contribution to the organizational and somewhat 5

20 social phenomenon of creating game-like learning environments. More precisely, the purpose of the current study is to propose an instructional design/development model, which may be used in the creation of game-like learning environments. Specifically, the study is concerned with the exploration and identification of distinctive components of the model and its sufficient subelements, which are peculiar to game-like learning environments. Additionally, it is aimed to preserve the essential and working components of an instructional design/development model and to offer suggestions for the improvement of impeded elements, while removing the excessive components and/or subelements to guarantee the simplicity and to avoid parsimony of the model. Accordingly, what this thesis aims to do is to propose a model that can possibly contribute to, if not solve to some extent, the problem concerning the lack of an instructional design/development model which can be employed for creating game-like learning environments. The following research questions were taken as the blueprint for the current study to achieve this purpose of proposing an instructional design/development model especially for creating game-like learning environments in 3D realm of simulations: 1. What are the distinctive characteristics of an instructional design/development process for the creation of game-like learning environments? 2. What are the necessary and sufficient components of an appropriate instructional design/development model for the creation of game-like learning environments? 3. How do these components come together to form a model? 6

21 1.4. Significance of the Study Computer games and simulations have appeared on the scene of instructional design/development activities more than three decades ago; yet, the literature still lacks available comprehensive design paradigms and well-designed research studies (Gredler, 1996). Although, there is an accumulating mass of research about the perceptions of the students and their reactions, effects of games on learning and various skills, and even about the illustrations of such environments, the question of how to incorporate games into learning environments stays unresolved. Moreover, Reigeluth and Frick (1999) mention that since the existing design theories have not reached perfection; there is need for more theories and models that will guide us through human development and related additional kinds of learning, where for different kinds of situations those utilize new information technologies as tools. They further state that the design theories are prescriptive guidelines that tells us how to do education, in contrast with its descriptive counterpart that tells us what is education. Yet, they further contend that graduate programs in many universities encourage their students and faculty to conduct qualitative and quantitative researches, for creating descriptive knowledge of education more and more every day (Reigeluth & Frick, 1999). Although, there is vast number of instructional design/development models, which reveal answers of how to questions for various learning environments and situations, the researcher has not yet found, and apparently is not likely to find in near future; information about the presence of such a model with the exception of the model that she proposes, as can be used for creating game-like learning 7

22 environments. The three studies within researcher s reach were proposing basic design guidelines and principles rather than a model (Amory, et al., 1999; Prensky, 2001; MIT, 2003). As for the situations in Turkey, studies related with games are very rare, and none of them applies to the scope of the current study. In conclusion, there is the apparent and urgent need for the introduction of an instructional design/development model that will help and guide instructional designers for the efficient use of games and simulations in educational environments, more precisely to create game-like learning environments. Additionally, while there exists hardly any study that bears a resemblance to the researcher s intentions, she believes that the findings of this study can possibly contribute, if not illuminate to some extent, the path along with the creation of game-like learning environments. Moreover, the model proposed at the end of the current study may also add much to the literature, due to its prescriptive and complementary nature about the creation of game-like learning environments. The study might also be unique in this sense, since it is separated from other descriptive studies that provide knowledge of what is Definitions of Terms In this part of the chapter, the operational definitions of the terms that are used throughout the study will be presented: Model is simple representation of more complex forms, processes, and functions of physical phenomena or ideas (Gustafson & Branch, 1997, p. 17). It provides a visual representation of an abstract concept (Schindelka, 2003), helps people to conceptualize representations of reality (Gustafson & Branch, 1997), and explains ways of doing (Gustafson & Branch, 1998, p.3). 8

23 Instructional Design is optimizing the process of instructing (Reigeluth, 1983, p.9), which is concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of instruction (Reigeluth, 1983, p.7). Instructional Development is optimizing the process of developing the instruction. (Reigeluth, 1983, p.9). It encompasses design, implementation, and formative evaluation activities. It is concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of creating [italics added] instruction (Reigeluth, 1983, p.8). It is an organized procedure that includes steps of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction. (Seels & Richey, 1994, p.31). It is a complex, yet purposeful process that promotes creativity, interactivity and cyberneticity and encompasses analysis, design, development, and evaluation (Gustafson & Branch, 1997, p.18). A unified term of instructional design/ development (IDD) will be used throughout the study, due to interchangeable usage of these two terms and instructional systems design (ISD). Instructional Design/ Development Model (IDDM) is a simple representation of the complex processes of instructional design/development (Gustafson & Branch, 1997). Game is an activity, in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as striving to attain a challenging goal (Heinich, Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino, 2002); simply it is an organized play (Prensky, 2001, p. 119). Simulation is an interactive abstraction or simplification of some real life (Heinich, et al., 2002; Baudrillard, 1983). It is a simulated real life scenario 9

24 displayed on the computer, which the student has to act upon (Tessmer, Jonassen, & Caverly, 1989, p. 89). Game-like learning environments are authentic or simulated places, where learning is fostered and supported especially by seamless integration of motivating game elements, such as challenge, curiosity, fantasy, etc. 3D Virtual worlds are combination of 3D settings of desktop Virtual Reality, interactive multimedia and a chat application, which were tied up in a bundle. Fuzzy Logic is a departure from classical two-valued sets and logic, that uses "soft" linguistic (e.g. large, hot, tall) system variables and a continuous range of truth values in the closed interval [0, 1], rather than strict binary (True or False) decisions and assignments. 10

25 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter addresses the related literature regarding the scope of the study bounded by the research problem and research questions articulated in the previous chapter. More specifically, it is an attempt to reveal, summarize and synthesize the issues about the field of instructional design/development; theoretical facet of the study; and games and simulations. After the definitions, historical background and new trends in the instructional design/development are given, the theoretical foundations of the study, namely fuzzy logic is explained. Lastly, the definitions of games and simulations, their educational history, effect on learning, and related design models will be handled. Finally, all literature is synthesized that, in turn, revealed the gap in the literature, for which the current study may add much to fill this gap, if not fill it up completely. 11

26 2.1. Instructional (Systems) Design/Development (IDD) As the name of this part implies there does not exist a consensus about the name and the definition of, what the researcher chooses to call, instructional design/development (IDD). During the review of the relevant literature the researcher was faced with the interchangeable use of instructional design, instructional systems design (ISD) and instructional development and even instructional technology, which was also asserted by many researchers (Schrock, 1995; Seels & Richie, 1994; Gustafson & Branch, 1997; Reigeluth, 1983). Even though several attempts have been made to derive standardized definitions and terms (Gustafson & Branch, 1997; Seels & Richie, 1994; Schiffman, 1995), the results have not been adopted and used in the literature. Reigeluth (1983) characterizes his views on instructional design as [it] is concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of instruction (p.7), as he puts forth instructional development as being concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of creating [italics added] instruction (p.8). Furthermore, he states that instructional design produces knowledge of optimal blueprints about methods of instruction, whereas instructional development optimizes the process of developing the instruction and encompasses design, implementation, and formative evaluation activities (Reigeluth, 1983). He also emphasizes that design theories are different from descriptive theories due to their prescriptive nature, in the sense that they offer guidelines, but not that they spell out every detail and allow no variation (Reigeluth, 1983, 1997, 1999). Gustafson and Branch (1997) accept the Seels and Richie (1994) definition, which is an organized procedure that includes steps of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and 12

27 evaluating instruction (p.31). However, they declare that Seels and Richie (1994) have coined this definition for ISD, instead of instructional development. Shrock, (1995) have also made a definition similar to that of Seels and Richie s (1994) definition, yet for instructional development. Gustafson and Branch (1997) further characterize instructional development as a complex, yet purposeful process that promotes creativity, interactivity and cyberneticity. (p. 18). The need for the development of a linking science and the need for a middleman between learning theory and educational practice was first asserted by John Dewey in 1900 (Reigeluth, 1983), yet, when the origins of instructional design procedures are traced, it is seen that the first research efforts date back only to the time of World War II (Dick, 1987). Moreover, the need for a middleman was also put forth by Glaser (1971), who stated that an instructional designer must perform the interplay between theory, research and application Instructional Design/Development Models (IDDM) Gustafson and Branch aver that models help us to conceptualize representations of reality (1997, p. 17); and they also state that models explain ways of doing (1998, p.3). In line with Reigeluth s (1983) above-mentioned opinions about instructional development, Gustafson and Branch (1997) have gone one step further and have stated that instructional development models have at least four components, which are analysis of the setting and learner needs; design of a set of specifications for an effective, efficient and relevant learner environment; development of all learner and management materials; and evaluation of the results of the development both formatively and summatively. (p. 12). They have also 13