Health-related fitness in sport education and multi-activity teaching

Transcription

1 Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy Vol. 10, No. 1, February 2005, pp Health-related fitness in sport education and multi-activity teaching Mitchum B. Parker and Matthew Curtner-Smith The University of Alabama, USA To date, studies examining the Sport Education (SE) model have largely focused on gains in sporting performance and/or psychosocial development. The purpose of this study was to compare the health-related fitness benefits for pupils participating in SE and traditional multiactivity (MA) units of instruction. Participants were two preservice teachers (PTs) who team/ turn-taught 10-lesson SE and MA units to middle school pupils during an early field experience. All lessons were videotaped and coded with the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT). Descriptive data on pupil activity, lesson context, and teacher behavior for the SE and MA units were then compared by employing separate multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) tests, with analysis of variance (ANOVA) follow-ups if necessary, or, where appropriate, visual inspection. Results indicated that pupils in the MA unit spent slightly more than the recommended 50% of lesson time in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) while the pupils in the SE unit did not approach this level. PTs allocated little time for fitness activity or instruction and spent little time promoting or demonstrating fitness in either unit. Statistical tests were non-significant for health-related variables; however, trends in the data suggested that pupils were likely to participate in MVPA more often and more likely to learn directly about health and fitness in the MA unit. Possible reasons for these findings are explored. Keywords: Health-related fitness; Multi-activity model; Sport education The dominant curriculum model used in American secondary schools is the Multiactivity (MA) model (Siedentop et al., 1986). In recent years, a number of scholars and researchers have argued that there are more effective curriculum models and that the MA model has not delivered (Locke, 1992; Ennis, 1994). Daryl Siedentop s (1994) Sport Education (SE) model has emerged as the leading candidate to replace the MA model. Corresponding author: College of Education, Department of Kinesiology, University of Alabama, Box , Tuscalossa, AL, USA, msmith@bamaed.ua.edu ISSN (print); ISSN (online)=05= # 2005 The Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom DOI: =

2 2 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith The Sport Education model Siedentop (2002) explained that SE was consistent with several modern instructional approaches to teaching, including cooperative learning, games for understanding, pupil-centered learning, outcomes-based education, authentic assessment, and constructivism. Siedentop (2002), however, stressed that SE is not based on any of these approaches. Rather, it is grounded in sport and play theory and its pedagogy is based on viewings of high quality youth sport experiences and the teacher effectiveness literature which deals with management. SE s objectives are to produce competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons (Siedentop, 1994). To this end, a competent sportsperson is one who can participate in a game because he/she understands and executes tactics and possesses the necessary skills. A literate sportsperson is one who values and comprehends sporting traditions, rules, and rituals and can discriminate between sporting practices which are good and bad. An enthusiastic sportsperson is one who strives to protect, enhance, and preserve the culture of sport. SE units are generally fairly lengthy and can be as long as 20 to 30 lessons. Units are designed around six characteristics described by Siedentop (1994). First, the teacher strives to promote a sense of affiliation as pupils are allocated to teams for the duration of the unit. Second and third, the unit is viewed as a sport season during which pupils engage in practice and formal competition. Fourth, pupils are asked to mirror the the real world of sport by collecting statistics and engaging in extensive record keeping. Fifth, teachers attempt to create an atmosphere of festivity throughout the season. Finally, the season ends with a culminating event. These characteristics, together with the fact that pupils are asked to take on a myriad of roles other than player (e.g., coach, captain, press reporter, equity adviser, board member, etc.) and participate in developmentally appropriate game forms during competition, are what differentiates the model from traditional MA teaching. Moreover, unlike the MA model, within SE teachers gradually shift from using more direct styles of teaching to employing more indirect styles with the goal of giving pupils more ownership, responsibility, and power to make decisions. Research on the Sport Education model Small-scale studies of SE have been completed in the United Stated (e.g., Hastie, 1996, 1998a, 1998b; Hastie & Sharpe, 1999; Kinchin, 2001; Brock, 2002), Britain (e.g., Penney et al., 2002; Brunton, 2003; Clarke & Quill, 2003; MacPhail et al., 2003, 2004; O Donovan, 2003), and Australia (e.g., Carlson, 1995; Curnow & Macdonald, 1995; Sadler, 1995; Carlson & Hastie, 1997; Browne, 1998; Browne, Carlson & Hastie, 2004). In addition, several studies of hybrid curricula, in which SE has been combined with another curriculum model, have been completed (Kinchin, 1997, 1998; Ennis, 1999; Ennis et al., 1999; Hastie & Buchanan, 2000; Hastie & Curtner-Smith, 2004). Some larger scale studies of the model have also

3 Health-related fitness 3 been conducted in Australia (Alexander et al., 1996; Alexander & Luckman, 2001) and New Zealand (Grant, 1992; Grant et al., 1992). Pupils As noted by Curtner-Smith and Sofo (2004), results of all these studies suggest that pupils like SE because they have time to socialize, make decisions, and enjoy themselves. Moreover, they like performing roles other than player, enjoy being on teams, and engage often and robustly in competition. Importantly, the research has also indicated that pupils tactical knowledge, cooperation level, and ability to make decisions improves during SE units as does their ability to consume sport critically. The review of research on SE conducted by Curtner-Smith and Sofo (2004) also indicates that the model caters to all types of pupils. This is because it provides a physically and emotionally safe environment and, consequently, both high- and low-skilled pupils can succeed. Moreover, the SE model appears to give girls more opportunity in mixed-gender classes and, in general, the number of pupils missing physical education when it is taught this way is considerably reduced. On the downside, some of the research has indicated that pupils have problems in SE units. For example, there are data suggesting less effort is put into administrative roles by pupils and that, regardless of claims for inclusion, boys still dominate in the decision-making aspects of SE seasons. Worryingly, there is also some indication that socioeconomic status (SES), attractiveness, skill level, and intellect determine pupils status within SE teams. Teachers Teachers appear to be even more positive about SE than pupils. The review of literature completed by Curtner-Smith and Sofo (2004) indicated that teachers have warmed to the model and, as a result, have restructured their programs, spent more time discussing curricular politics, improved their assessment procedures, and used more indirect styles of teaching. Comparisons of the Multi-activity and Sport Education models When campaigning for a switch to SE, scholars and researchers have usually made comparisons with MA teaching. Done well, this model involves teachers employing direct styles of instruction to teach sports and games through drills, practices, small-sided-games, conditioned games, and full-sided games (Curtner-Smith & Sofo, 2004). Unfortunately, most of the literature (Ennis, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999; Cothran & Ennis, 1997; Ennis et al., 1997; Ennis & McCauley, 1998) indicates that, in the United States, MA teaching has not been done well. For example, these units often include little instruction, are not connected with other units, are frequently very short, and include few true assessments designed to hold

4 4 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith pupils accountable for learning. In addition, pupil supervision and feedback provided by teachers is virtually non-existent and very little effort is made to help low-skilled pupils who exist in a sink or swim gymnasium culture. Moreover, Ennis (1999) has provided data which indicate that girls have a particularly hard time of it in MA lessons to the point where some are too intimidated to take part. Boys, then, especially those who are physically powerful, are able to dominate proceedings in this form of the MA model. Equally depressing is the fact that low-skilled boys fair little better than girls and can be subjected to bullying and humiliation (Griffin, 1984, 1985). The fact that MA teaching has been so poor in the United States has led to calls for it to be scrapped all together (Locke, 1992). Others have pointed out that even when teachers are aware of the problems, it is hard to do anything about the anti-social culture of the gymnasium created by the MA model (Ennis, 1995). Curtner-Smith and Sofo (2004) acknowledged the woeful standard of MA teaching in the United States but also pointed out that comparing well-taught SE with this kind of uneducational curriculum was not a fair comparison. Rather, they suggested, researchers should examine and make comparisons between high quality SE and MA teaching. Browne et al. (2004) completed one such study which indicated that classes of pupils taught through either method improved on sport-related learning objectives. In their own study, Curtner-Smith and Sofo (2004) found that preservice teachers had considerably more success when using the SE model even though when they employed the MA model they appeared to be doing it exceedingly well. Curtner-Smith and Sofo (2004) noted that SE s superiority over MA teaching was probably due to two factors. First, the SE model has considerable structural advantages over the MA model. Specifically, teachers using the MA model must put forth huge amounts of energy (Ennis, 1999) because they are center-stage (Hastie, 2003). This energy is focused on supporting low-skilled pupils or minorities, keeping pupils competitive urges under control, and trying to maintain cordial social relationships (Ennis, 1999). In short, the teacher drives the MA model and its momentum, or lack thereof, is solely a result of the teacher s efforts (Curtner- Smith & Sofo, 2004). In contrast, within the SE model, the teacher is off centerstage (Alexander et al., 1998). Ownership and decision-making are dispersed among the pupils and, unlike the MA model, the pupil social system is incorporated within the model (Hastie, 2003). This, of course, means less stress for teachers and pupils and less friction between them. Moreover, since the SE model creates a sense of community, it prompts positive social relationships (Ennis, 1999). Second, SE has also been shown to have an advantage over MA teaching due to its cultural relevance for pupils. Building from the writing of Tinning and Fitzclarence (1992), Alexander et al. (1996) suggested that MA teaching is just not as responsive to the characteristics of post-modern youth culture as SE. Alexander and Luckman (2001) even suggested that employing the SE model could lead to physical education becoming a less marginalized subject. Moreover, Kirk and a number of his colleagues (Kirk & Macdonald, 1998; Kirk & Almond, 1999; Kirk & Kinchin, 2003) noted that SE was an example of situated learning which meant that it provided opportunities

5 Health-related fitness 5 for pupils to take part in authentic learning experiences not unlike the experiences they might encounter outside of school. Purpose One major health concern in the United States of America is the rate of obesity. Some 13% of 6 to 11 year-olds and 14% of 12 to 19 year-old adolescents were overweight in 1999 (US Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2001). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report obesity as a major health risk that can result in infectious disease, physical ailments, lower quality of life, and shortened life span (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], n.d.; USDHHS, 1996a, 1996b). The Surgeon General suggested that healthy habits learned in youth would be followed in adulthood. Moreover, in the document Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General (USDHHS, 1996a), the Surgeon General stated that: Recommendations from experts agree that for better health, physical activity should be performed regularly. The most recent recommendations advise people of all ages to include a minimum of 30 minutes of physical activity of moderate intensity (such as brisk walking) on most, if not all, days of the week. It is also acknowledged that for most people, greater health benefits can be obtained by engaging in physical activity of more vigorous intensity or of longer duration (p. 12). One way that children and youth could include more physical activity in their daily lives, the Surgeon General argued, would be through well-designed programs which increase physical activity in physical education classes (USDHHS, 1996b, p. 3). This suggestion gels with the recommendations put forth by the International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents in June 1993 (Sallis & Patrick, 1994). Scholars at that conference decided that children and adolescents should participate three or more times a week in continuous moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for 20 minutes or more in order to reduce health risks. A number of researchers (e.g., Blair et al., 1989; McKenzie et al., 1992; Cale & Harris, 1993; Sallis & Patrick, 1994; Simons-Morton et al., 1998) have indicated that children and youth who engage in appropriate levels of MVPA gain much in terms of positive health benefits. For example, there is evidence suggesting that a positive relationship exists between participation in MVPA by adolescents and their cardio-respiratory fitness, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and psychological health (Armstrong & Simons-Morton, 1994; Calfas & Taylor, 1994; Morrow & Freedson, 1994). To date, studies examining the SE model have largely focused on gains in sporting performance and/or psychosocial development. As yet, only one study has examined the effects of the SE model on pupils health-related fitness. In that study, Hastie and Trost (2002) found that seventh grade boys who engaged in a 22-lesson SE unit of floor hockey averaged approximately 30 minutes of MVPA per 50-minute lesson. In other words, pupils were in MVPA for just over 60% of the lesson, a figure

6 6 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith which surpassed the goal of 50% listed in the publication Healthy people 2010 (USDHHS, 2000). Moreover, engaging in this level of MVPA did not compromise pupils skill learning. In general, this high level of MVPA also exceeded levels that have been reached in studies of MA teaching (e.g., Curtner-Smith et al., 1995, 1996). However, given the concerns about the quality of MA teaching in the United States (Curtner-Smith & Sofo, 2004; Ennis, 1999), this may not be a fair comparison. In addition, while Hastie and Trost s (2002) work was of high quality, it did not seek to examine whether or not teachers were able to include other pedagogical elements in their lessons related with pupils gains in healthrelated fitness. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to compare the healthrelated fitness benefits for pupils of participating in SE and MA units of instruction. Specifically, the goals of this study were to compare (a) the percentage of time pupils were engaged in MVPA, (b) the percentage of time allocated for pupils to engage in fitness activity or to acquire health-related fitness knowledge, and (c) the percentage of time instructors used behaviors likely to encourage pupils to participate in health-promoting activity. Method Participants and context Participants were two preservice teachers (PTs) enrolled in a secondary methods course and early field experience (EFE) at a large public university situated in the southeastern United States. One PT was female, one was male. Both PTs were Caucasian. Both were traditional students in their first year of physical education teacher education (PETE). The PTs were selected by the teacher of the methods course and EFE to take part in the study due to their superior potential and work ethic. The methods course took place on campus in the first ten weeks of the university semester. During this time, the PTs studied effective teaching behaviors, teaching styles, management, planning, assessment, and different curriculum models. The EFE took place at a local middle school during the last five weeks of the semester. Pupils attending the school came from predominately low-income families and included both African-Americans and Caucasians. Cooperating teachers warned that the PTs were likely to encounter fairly severe discipline problems. During the EFE, the two PTs team/turn-taught two ten-lesson mini-soccer units. During the first of these they employed the MA model, and during the second they utilized the SE model (see Figures 1 and 2 for content). The PTs taught two mornings a week. During each session they taught one MA lesson to 6th grade pupils and one SE lesson to a mixture of 7th and 8th grade pupils. Both classes included boys and girls. The mean MA class size was 9.40 (SD ¼ 0.52). The Mean SE class size was 9.70 (SD ¼ 0.82). The mean MA lesson length was minutes (range to minutes). The mean SE lesson length was minutes (range to minutes). During the competitive portion of the SE unit (lessons 5 to 9), the participant PT s class played against teams from classes taught by other PTs.

7 Health-related fitness 7 Figure 1. Multi-activity unit content Lessons 4, 6, and 10 of both the MA and SE units took place in an allocated section of a large gymnasium. The remaining seven MA and SE lessons took place on a community softball field situated next to the school. Throughout both the MA and SE units, the soccer ball to pupil ratio was 1:2. Data collection Each MA and SE lesson taught by the participant PTs was videotaped. The video camera was set in a position peripheral to the action so that it did not interfere with class activity. One PT wore a wireless microphone to ensure that all verbal behavior of both PTs was recorded. The videotaping protocol involved randomly selecting four target pupils during each lesson. These target pupils were videotaped for 1-minute intervals

8 8 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith Figure 2. Sport Education unit content throughout each lesson in a repetitive rotational order. Videotaping began when the PTs announced their lesson was starting and ended when the pupils were dismissed. Model verification Metzler (2001) noted that researchers of curricular models should make strenuous efforts to verify that the instruction studied was consistent with the broad guidelines for each model. To this end, we compared the list of tasks given in Figures 1 and 2 with what we observed live during the EFE and on videotape. This procedure confirmed that the PTs followed the EFE plan closely and, therefore, included all the key features of MA and SE teaching in their units.

9 Health-related fitness 9 Systematic observation instrument All videotaped lessons were coded with the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) (McKenzie et al., 1992). SOFIT is a momentary time sampling and interval recording device which gathers quantitative data on elements thought to enhance pupils health-related fitness. Using the instrument involves a coder making three sets of decisions about pupil activity, allocation of lesson time, and teacher behavior. The first decision involves a coder deciding how active pupils are in a class every 20 seconds throughout a lesson. Pupils are coded as lying down, sitting, standing, or walking. In addition, they can also be coded as very active. Coding is based on the levels of activity in which pupils are engaged at the moment an observational interval ends. The second decision involves coding the context of a particular lesson. The observer decides whether lesson time is allocated for management (e.g., organizing pupils, moving equipment) or physical education content. If he/she decides time has been allocated for content, a further decision is made about whether the lesson is focused on gaining knowledge (skill-related or health-related) or motor activity. In turn, motor activity can be coded as fitness, skill practice, or game play. Again, these decisions are made based on what is occurring at the moment an observation interval ends. The third decision involves coding teacher behavior every 20 seconds. Six codes are used to categorize this behavior. Behavior aimed at prompting pupils to take part in activity designed to improve their fitness is coded as promotes fitness. Behavior that models fitness engagement is coded as demonstrates fitness. Behavior not directly related to pupils health-related fitness gains is coded as instructs generally, manages, observes, or off-task. All teacher behavior is coded in a hierarchical system which prioritizes behaviors aimed at promoting fitness. Coding and intra-observer reliability All videotaped lessons were coded by the first author. Observer training consisted of coding videotaped physical education lessons and extra-curricular sports practices which were not part of the study for approximately 50 hours. Intra-observer reliability was checked using the procedures recommended by van der Mars (1989). This involved coding and recoding a videotaped lesson designated as the reliability lesson before coding of the study lessons commenced. Time between the two codings was seven days. The second coding of the reliability lesson was compared to the first. Reliability was calculated by using strict interval by interval comparisons. Reliability percentages resulting from this check were 92.24% (pupil behavior), 95.69% (lesson context), and 95.69% (teacher behavior) and thus exceeded the 80% level recommended by van der Mars (1989). Data analysis Percentages of intervals for pupil activity, lesson context, and teacher behavior for each lesson were entered into a Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

10 10 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith program in order to produce descriptive statistics for the MA and SE units. The descriptive data for the MA and SE units were then compared by employing separate MANOVAs for pupil activity, lesson context, and teacher behavior, with ANOVA follow-ups if necessary, or, where appropriate, visual inspection. Level of significance for all inferential tests was established at p,.05. Results Pupil activity, lesson context, and teacher behavior within the MA and SE units The MA unit. Percentages of SOFIT intervals for pupil activity, lesson context, and teacher behavior for both the MA and SE units are shown in Table 1. The table indicates that during the MA unit pupils spent 52.85% of their time in MVPA, activity likely to promote health-related benefits. On the downside, much of this activity was walking (33.47%) and only 19.38% was very active. Of even more concern was the fact that pupils spent large amounts of time standing (28.49%) and sitting (17.06%). The lesson context section of Table 1 indicates that during the MA unit the two PTs focused almost exclusively on teaching soccer skills and strategies. They allocated Table 1. Percentage of SOFIT intervals for pupil activity, lesson context, and teacher behavior for the MA and SE units SOFIT Category MA Unit SE Unit M SD M SD Pupil Activity Lying Down Sitting Standing Walking Very Active MVPA a Lesson Context Management General Knowledge Physical Fitness Fitness Skill Practice Game Play Teacher Behavior Promotes Fitness Demonstrates Fitness Instructs Generally Manages Observes Off-Task a MVPA ¼ Moderate to vigorous physical activity (walking þ very active).

11 Health-related fitness % of lesson time for skill practice and 16.60% for discussing skills and strategies. Only 3.19% of lesson time was allocated for fitness activity and 0.15% was used to convey knowledge about physical fitness. Interestingly, very little time (0.09%) was allocated for game play. The table also indicates that approximately one fifth of lesson time was allocated for management. The teacher behavior section of Table 1 also indicates that during the MA unit the two PTs main goal was to teach pupils how to participate successfully in a game of soccer. They spent 73.28% of their time providing pupils with instruction on skills, strategies, tactics, and rules. Conversely, they spent very little time either promoting (0.15%) or demonstrating (2.69%) fitness. One indicator that the PTs were very active instructors was the fact that they spent only 2.15% of their time silently monitoring their pupils. Finally, in congruence with the lesson context data, they were recorded as engaging in managerial behavior for 21.73% of their time. The SE unit. The pupil activity section of Table 1 indicates that during the SE unit pupils spent just 36.60% of their time in MVPA. Moreover, 25.33% of this time was spent walking and only 11.27% of it was coded as very active. Disturbingly, the table also indicates that the pupils spent 38.67% of their time sitting and 22.75% of their time standing. The lesson context section of Table 1 reveals that during the SE unit the two PTs again focused on teaching soccer skills and strategies. They allocated 12.73% of lesson time for skill practice and 36.36% for discussing skills and strategies. In addition, 26.42% of lesson time was allocated for game play. Very little time, however, was allocated for fitness activity (0.98%) or for discussing physical fitness (0.09%). Approximately one quarter of lesson time was allocated for management. The teacher behavior section of Table 1 again indicates that during the SE unit the PTs major objective was to teach the game of soccer. They spent 69.24% of their time giving pupils instruction on skills, tactics, and rules and only 0.09% and 0.89% of their time promoting and demonstrating fitness. Reflecting their use of more pupil-centered teaching styles, the table also shows that the two PTs spent 8.92% of their time monitoring passively. In addition, it reveals that they spent 20.87% their time in management. Comparison of the MA and SE units The MANOVAs revealed that there were no significant differences between the MA and SE units for any of the pupil activity categories [Wilks Lambda ¼.665, F(3, 16) ¼ 2.681, p ¼.082, h 2 ¼.335] or teacher behaviors [Wilks Lambda ¼.760, F(4, 15) ¼ 1.187, p ¼.356, h 2 ¼.240] measured by SOFIT. The MANOVA for the lesson context data, however, was significant [Wilks Lambda ¼.283, F(5, 14) ¼ 7.110, p ¼.002, h 2 ¼.717]. Follow-up ANOVAs indicated that the percentage of time allocated for discussing skills, tactics, and strategies was significantly greater during the SE unit [F (1, 18) ¼ 4.833, p ¼.041] as was the percentage of time allocated for game play [F (1, 18) ¼ 7.836, p ¼.012]. Conversely,

12 12 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith the percentage of time allocated for skill practice was significantly greater during the MA unit [F (1, 18) ¼ , p ¼.000]. Data in Table 1 indicate that some of the non-significant inferential test results were due to small sample size and large variability. Visual inspection of these data suggests that there may well have been other real differences between the units. Figure 3, for example, shows a lesson-by-lesson plot of MVPA for the two units. For all but lesson 8, pupils engaged in more MVPA during the MA unit than they did during the SE unit. Similarly, Figure 4 shows a lesson-by-lesson plot of the percentages of time allocated by the PTs for the acquisition of physical fitness knowledge and participation in fitness activity for the two units. Again, the figure suggests that there was a greater concern for health-related fitness during the MA unit than there was during the SE Unit. Finally, Figure 5 shows a lesson by lesson plot of the percentages of time spent by the PTs promoting and demonstrating fitness within the two units. The figure indicates that, after lesson 3, the PTs did not use these behaviors at all during the SE unit but used them sparingly during all the remaining MA lessons except lessons 6, 9, and 10. Discussion and conclusion The most important finding of this study was that, on average, pupils in the MA unit spent slightly more than the recommended 50% of lesson time (USDHHS, 2000) in Figure 3. Percentage of time spent by pupils in MVPA during the MA and SE units

13 Health-related fitness 13 Figure 4. Percentage of time allocated for the acquisition of fitness knowledge and participation in fitness activity during the MA and SE units Figure 5. Percentage of time in which PTs promoted and demonstrated fitness during the MA and SE units

14 14 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith MVPA while the pupils in the SE unit did not approach this level. Moreover, while the inferential statistical tests revealed no significant differences between the units for any of the pupil activity variables, trends in the data suggested that pupils were likely to participate in MVPA more often in the MA unit. However, given that lessons in both units lasted only a little more than 30 minutes on average, this meant that pupils in the MA unit still only accrued approximately 17.5 minutes of MVPA per lesson, while those in the SE unit spent approximately 11.5 minutes per lesson in this kind of activity. The second major finding was that the PTs allocated very little time for fitness activity and instruction and spent very little time promoting and demonstrating fitness in either unit. Again, however, while statistical tests were non-significant, trends in the data suggested that pupils were more likely to learn directly about health and fitness in the MA unit. Prior to the study and following the results of Hastie and Trost s (2002) work, we had expected that the structural and cultural advantages of the model would ensure that pupils would accrue more MVPA in the SE unit. Finding that the PTs allocated significantly more time for game play and significantly less time for skill practice during the SE unit added to this expectation since a number of researchers had indicated that participation in game play was a key motivator for pupils (Werner et al., 1996; Allison et al., 2000; Strean & Holt, 2000; Holt et al., 2002; Hastie & Curtner-Smith, 2004). Moreover, since the PTs were not the central driving force in the SE unit (as they were in MA unit), we had also expected more of their behavior to be directed at promoting and demonstrating fitness and more time to be allocated for fitness activity and the acquisition of fitness knowledge. Why, then, were we wrong on all counts? First, despite having the advantage of working with very small classes, it must be remembered that the PTs in the study were very inexperienced and, as indicated by the time they spent in managerial activity, taught some particularly difficult children. Moreover, of the two models, SE was much more of a foreign entity, with its indirect and non-traditional pedagogy being totally new. Like PTs in previous studies (Curtner-Smith & Sofo, 2004; McCaughtry et al., 2004), these PTs had considerably more previous experience of MA teaching and found some aspects of SE difficult to comprehend and master. Comparative research in which MA and SE units are taught by more experienced teachers to less disruptive children may well yield different results. Second, the shortness of the units and lessons undoubtedly had more influence on the PTs ability to provide pupils with opportunities to participate in MVPA, to allocate time for fitness instruction, and to spend time promoting and demonstrating fitness during the SE unit. As Hastie and Curtner-Smith (2004) found, there is an awful lot to do in an SE unit and a time-crunch invariably means that peripheral subject matter which could be infused in teaching is squeezed out. Had the PTs taught a more lengthy SE unit with longer lessons, as normally recommended and as Hastie and Trost (2002) did, then perhaps the results of the study would have been different. Regardless, it is important to emphasize that many teachers who try

15 Health-related fitness 15 SE choose to teach relatively short units and have no choice but to work within comparatively short lessons. Research aimed at finding out whether the results of this study generalize, then, would be helpful. Finally, some of the activities and structures which make the sport in SE authentic would appear to detract from pupils opportunities to participate in MVPA. Taking on other roles such as statkeeper, scorekeeper, scout, and board member, attending to administrative tasks, and taking part in a season-ending awards ceremony, for example, must mean that pupils are denied potential opportunities to participate in MVPA, opportunities they might be given in well-taught MA units. 1 Perhaps this is why teachers studied by Alexander and Luckman (2001) believed that gains in personal and social development and strategic knowledge were more likely when employing the SE model than improvements in fitness. In addition, while maximizing active participation in game play segments is accepted as good practice in MA lessons, this is not necessarily the case in SE where game formats are formal and standardized and involve pupils taking on non-playing roles as well as liberal substitutions. The authentic and situated nature of SE, then, appears to lead to a trade-off situation. Exciting and motivating pupils by making lessons culturally relevant and, therefore, hopefully hooking them on sport and physical activity for the long haul means that, in the short term, some opportunities for participation in healthful activity are lost. Unlike some in the medical and sport science community, we believe this trade-off is a good one, particularly if physical education departments employ a range of curricular models and include units specifically focused on health-related fitness. We recognize, then, as do most sport pedagogues, that physical education should have multiple goals and would certainly not wish to see the subject reduced/ returned to a physical training emphasis. Note 1. Hastie and Trost (2002) made changes to the activities and structures in the SE unit taught in their study in order to limit inactivity. In our view, this kind of action can be counterproductive in that it may detract from the authenticity of sport. References Alexander, K. & Luckman, J. (2001) Australian teachers perceptions and uses of the sport education curriculum model, European Physical Education Review, 7(3), Alexander, K., Taggart, A. & Luckman, J. (1998) Pilgrims progress: the sport education crusade down under, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 69(4), Alexander, K., Taggart, A. & Thorpe, S. (1996) A spring in their steps? Possibilities for professional renewal through sport education in Australian schools, Sport, Education and Society, 1, Allison, P. C., Pissanos, B. W. & Turner, A. P. (2000) Preservice physical educators epistemologies of skillfulness, Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 19, Armstrong, N. & Simons-Morton, B. G. (1994) Physical activity and blood lipids in adolescents, Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, Blair, S. N., Clark, D. G., Cureton, K. J. & Powell, K. E. (1989) Exercise and fitness in childhood: implications for a lifetime of health, in: C. Gisolfi & D. Lamb (Eds) Perspectives in exercise science and sports medicine. Vol 2: Youth, exercise and sport (Indianapolis, IN, Benchmark),

16 16 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith Brock, S. J. (2002) Sixth grade students perceptions and experiences during a sport education unit. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. Browne, T. (1998) Assessment under sport education: three case studies of change to physical education. Unpublished honors thesis, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia. Browne, T. B. J., Carlson, T. B. & Hastie, P. (2004) A comparison of rugby seasons presented in traditional and sport education formats, European Physical Education Review, 10(2), Brunton, J. A. (2003) Changing hierarchies of power in physical education using sport education, European Physical Education Review, 9(3), Cale, L. A. & Harris, J. (1993) Exercise recommendations for children and young people, Physical Education Review, 16, Calfas, K. J. & Taylor, W. C. (1994) Effects of physical activity on psychological variables in adolescents, Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, Carlson, T. (1995) Now I think I can. The reaction of eight low-skilled students to sport education, ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 42(4), 6 8. Carlson, T. & Hastie, P. (1997) The student social system within sport education, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 16, Centers for Disease Control (n.d.) Overweight and obesity: health consequences. Available online at: (accessed 20 October 2003). Clark, G. & Quill, M. (2003) Researching sport education in action: a case study, European Physical Education Review, 9(3), Cothran, D. J. & Ennis, C. D. (1997) Students and teachers perceptions of conflict and power, Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, Curnow, J., & Macdonald, D. (1995) Can sport education be gender inclusive? A case study in upper primary school, The ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 42(4), Curtner-Smith, M. D., Chen, W. & Kerr, I. G. (1995) Health-related fitness in secondary school physical education: a descriptive-analytic study, Educational Studies, 21(1), Curtner-Smith, M. D., Kerr, I. G. & Clapp, A. J. (1996) The impact of national curriculum physical educate on the teaching of health-related fitness: a case study in one English town, European Journal of Physical Education, 1(1), Curtner-Smith, M. D., & Sofo, S. (2004) Preservice teachers conceptions of teaching within sport education and multi-activity units, Sport, Education and Society, 9(3), Ennis, C. D. (1994) Urban secondary teachers value orientations: social goals for teaching, Teaching and Teacher Education, 10, Ennis, C. D. (1995) Teachers responses to noncompliant students: the realities and consequences of a negotiated curriculum, Teaching and Teacher Education, 11, Ennis, C. D. (1996) When confrontation leads to avoiding content: disruptive students impact on curriculum, Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 11, Ennis, C. D. (1998) Shared expectations: creating a joint vision for urban schools, in: J. Brophy (Ed.) Advances in research on teaching (Vol. 7) (New York, JAI Press), Ennis, C. D. (1999) Creating a culturally relevant curriculum for disengaged girls, Sport, Education and Society, 4, Ennis, C. D., Cothran, D. J., Davidson, K. S., Loftus, S. J., Owens, L., Swanson, L. & Hopsicker, P. (1997) Implementing curriculum within a context of fear and disengagement, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, Ennis, C. D., & McCauley, M. T. (1998, April) The impact of violence on learning in urban public schools, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA. Ennis, C. D., Solmon, M. A., Satina, B., Loftus, S. J., Mensch, J. & McCauley, M. T. (1999) Creating a sense of family in urban schools using the sport for peace curriculum, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70,

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18 18 M. B. Parker and M. D. Curtner-Smith McKenzie, T. L., Sallis, J. F. & Nader, P. R. (1992) SOFIT: system for observing fitness instruction time, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, Metzler, M. W. (2001) Implications of models-based instruction for research and teaching: a focus on teaching games for understanding, paper presented at the international conference Teaching Games for Understanding in Physical Education and Sport, Waterville Valley, New Hampshire: 1 4 August. Morrow, J. R. & Freedson, P. S. (1994) Relationship between habitual physical activity and aerobic fitness in adolescents, Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, O Donovan, T. M. (2003) A changing culture? Interrogating the dynamics of peer affiliations over the course of a sport education season, European Physical Education Review, 9(3), Penney, D., Clarke, G., Quill, M. & Kinchin, G. (2002) Activity selection in sport education, Journal of Sport Pedagogy, 8(2), Sadler, A. (1995) Student attitudes to their roles and responsibilities within a sport education curriculum model in physical education. Unpublished honors thesis, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia. Sallis, J. F. & Patrick, K. (1994) Physical activity guidelines for adolescents: consensus statement, Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, Siedentop, D. (1994) Sport education (Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics). Siedentop, D. (2002) Sport education: a retrospective, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 21, Siedentop, D., Mand, C. & Taggart, A. (1986) Physical education: teaching and curriculum strategies for grades 5 12 (Palo Alto, CA, Mayfield Publishing Company). Simons-Morton, B. G., Parcel, G. S., O Hara, N. M., Blair, S. N. & Pate, R. R. (1998) Healthrelated physical fitness in childhood: status and recommendations, Annual Review of Public Health, 9, Strean, W. B., & Holt, N. L. (2000) Players, coaches, and parents perceptions of fun in youth sport, Avante, 6, Tinning, R. & Fitzclarence, L. (1992) Postmodern youth culture and the crisis in Australian secondary school physical education, Quest, 44, US Department of Health and Human Services (1996a) Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General (Atlanta, GA, US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion). US Department of Health and Human Services (1996b) Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General at-a-glance (Atlanta, GA, US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion). US Department of Health and Human Services (2000, November) Healthy people 2010: understanding and improving health (2nd edn) (Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office). US Department of Health and Human Services (2001) The Surgeon General s call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity (Rockville, MD, US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General. Available from US GPO, Washington). van der Mars, H. (1989). Observer reliability: issues and procedures, in: P. W. Darst, D. B. Zakrajsek & V. H. Mancini (Eds) Analyzing physical education and sport instruction (2nd edn) (Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics), Werner, P., Bunker, D. & Thorpe, R. (1996) Teaching games for understanding: evolution of a Model, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 67(1),

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