Chapter 3: Networking

Transcription

1 Chapter 3: Networking Ethics for the Information Age Third Edition by Michael J. Quinn Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

2 Chapter Overview (1/2) Introduction and spam Fighting spam World Wide Web Ethical perspectives on pornography 1-2 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-2

3 Chapter Overview (2/2) Censorship Freedom of expression Children and the Web Breaking trust on the Internet Internet addiction 1-3 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-3

4 Introduction Networking increases computer s utility Internet connects millions of computers Powerful computational resource Even more powerful communication medium Network utility grows as number of users squared 10 users 90 sender-receiver combinations 100 users 9900 sender-receiver combinations 1-4 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-4

5 How Works Messages embedded in files transferred between computers address: Uniquely identifies cyberspace mailbox Messages broken into packets Routers transfer packets from sender s mail server to receiver s mail server 1-5 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-5

6 The Spam Epidemic (1/2) Spam: Unsolicited, bulk Amount of that is spam has increased 8% in % in % in 2007 Spam is effective More than 100 times cheaper than junk mail Profitable even if only 1 in 100,000 buys product 1-6 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-6

7 The Spam Epidemic (2/2) How firms get addresses Opt-in lists Dictionary attacks Spammers seek anonymity Change and IP addresses to disguise sending machine Hijack another system as a spam launch pad Spam blockers Attempt to screen out spam Have led to more picture-based spam 1-7 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-7

8 Ethical Evaluations of Spamming Kantian evaluation Act utilitarian evaluation Rule utilitarian evaluation Social contract theory evaluation From all these perspectives, it is wrong to send spam 1-8 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-8

9 Fighting Spam Real-Time Blackhole List run by Trend Micro Ethical evaluations of blacklisting by Trend Micro Proposed solutions to the spam epidemic CAN SPAM Act of 2003 Emergence of spim Need for socio-technical solutions 1-9 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-9

10 Real-Time Blackhole List Trend Micro contacts marketers who violate standards for bulk It puts marketers who violate standards on the Real-Time Blackhole List (RBL) Some mail relays refer to RBL list Looks up host name on RBL list If name on list, the gets bounced back All from blacklisted hosts gets bounced, even from non-spammers 1-10 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-10

11 Ethical Evaluations of Publishing Blacklist Social contract theory evaluation Utilitarian evaluation Kantian evaluation 1-11 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-11

12 Proposed Solutions to Spam Epidemic Require an explicit opt-in of subscribers Require labeling of advertising Add a cost to every that is sent Ban unsolicited Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-12

13 CAN SPAM Act of 2003 Took effect January 1, 2004 Consumers have right to opt out Sexually explicit messages must contain subject line notice Prohibits dictionary attacks and falsifying header information Critics call it You CAN Spam Act Spam still legal, as long as regulations followed Opting out can have harmful consequences Federal law weaker than state laws it preempted Spammers can avoid prosecution by locating outside United States 1-13 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-13

14 Emergence of Spim Spim is an unsolicited, bulk instant message People combat spim by accepting messages only from friends or buddies 1-14 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-14

15 Need for Socio-Technical Solutions New technologies sometimes cause new social situations to emerge Calculators feminization of bookkeeping Telephones blurred work/home boundaries Spam an example of this phenomenon messages practically free Profits increase with number of messages sent Strong motivation to send more messages Internet design allows unfair, one-way communications 1-15 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-15

16 Attributes of the Web It is decentralized Every Web object has a unique address It is based on the Internet 1-16 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-16

17 How We Use the Web Shopping Contributing content (wikis, blogs) Promoting business Learning Exploring our roots Entering virtual worlds Paying taxes Gambling Lots more! 1-17 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-17

18 Too Much Control or Too Little? Not everyone in world has Internet access Saudi Arabia: centralized control center People s Republic of China: ISPs sign self-discipline agreement Germany: Forbids access to neo-nazi sites United States: Repeated efforts to limit access of minors to pornography 1-18 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-18

19 Pornography Is Immoral Kant Loved person an object of sexual appetite Sexual desire focuses on body, not complete person All sexual gratification outside marriage wrong Utilitarianism Pornography reduces dignity of human life Pornography increases crimes such as rape Pornography reduces sympathy for rape victims Pornography is like pollution Pornography industry diverts resources from more socially redeeming activities 1-19 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-19

20 Adult Pornography Is Moral Utilitarianism Those who produce pornography make money Consumers of pornography derive physical pleasure Pornography is a harmless outlet for exploring sexual fantasies 1-20 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-20

21 Commentary Performing utilitarian calculus is difficult How to deal with contradictory facts by experts? How to quantify harms/benefits, such as harm done to people who find pornography offensive? 1-21 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-21

22 Direct Censorship Government monopolization Prepublication review Licensing and registration 1-22 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-22

23 Self-censorship Most common form of censorship Group decides for itself not to publish Reasons Avoid subsequent persecution Maintain good relations with government officials (sources of information) Ratings systems Movies, TVs, CDs, video games Not the Web 1-23 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-23

24 Challenges Posed by the Internet Many-to-many communication Dynamic connections Huge numbers of Web sites Extends beyond national borders, laws Can t determine age of users 1-24 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-24

25 Ethical Perspectives on Censorship Kant opposed censorship Enlightenment thinker Have courage to use your own reason Mill opposed censorship No one is infallible Any opinion may contain a kernel of truth Truth revealed in class of ideas Ideas resulting from discourse are more influential 1-25 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-25

26 Mill s Principle of Harm The only ground on which intervention is justified is to prevent harm to others; the individual s own good is not a sufficient condition Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-26

27 Freedom of Expression: History De Scandalis Magnatum (England, 1275) Court of Star Chamber 18 th century No prior restraints on publication People could be punished for sedition or libel American states adopted bills of rights including freedom of expression Freedom of expression in 1 st amendment to U.S. Constitution 1-27 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-27

28 1 st Amendment to U.S. Constitution Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-28

29 Freedom of Expression Not an Absolute Right 1 st Amendment covers political and nonpolitical speech Right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the public good Various restrictions on freedom of expression exist 1-29 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-29

30 FCC v. Pacifica Foundation et al. George Carlin records Filthy Words WBAI in New York airs Filthy Words (1973) FCC issues declaratory order to Pacifica Pacifica sues U.S. Supreme Court ruled FCC did not violate 1 st Amendment (5-4 decision) Broadcast media uniquely pervasive Broadcasting uniquely accessible to children 1-30 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-30

31 Web Filters Web filter: software that prevents display of certain Web pages May be installed on an individual PC ISP may provide service for customers Methodologies Maintain black list of objectionable sites Examine content for objectionable words/phrases 1-31 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-31

32 Child Internet Protection Act Libraries receiving federal networking funds must filter pages containing obscenity or child pornography U.S. Supreme Court ruled CIPA did not violate 1 st Amendment guarantees (6-3 decision in June 2003) 1-32 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-32

33 Ethical Evaluations of CIPA Kantian evaluation: CIPA is wrong Act utilitarian evaluation: depends on how benefits and harms are weighed Social contract theory: freedom of conscience should be given precedence 1-33 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-33

34 Identity Theft Identity theft: when a person uses another person s electronic identity Leading form: credit card fraud (more about this in Chapter 5) Many victims are experienced computer users comfortable with typing credit card number online 1-34 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-34

35 Chat Room Predators Chat room: supports real-time discussions among many people connected to network Instant messaging and chat rooms replacing telephone for many people Some pedophiles meeting children through chat rooms Police countering with sting operations 1-35 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-35

36 Ethical Evaluations of Stings Utilitarian evaluation Kantian evaluation Social contract theory evaluation 1-36 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-36

37 False Information Quality of Web-based information varies widely Other media also have information of varying quality The New York Times v. The National Enquirer 60 Minutes v. Conspiracy Theory Google attempts to reward quality Ranking uses voting algorithm If many links point to a page, Google search engine ranks that page higher 1-37 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-37

38 Is Internet Addiction Real? Some liken compulsive computer use to pathological gambling Traditional definition of addiction: Compulsive use of harmful substance or drug Knowledge of its long-term harm Kimberly Young created test for Internet addiction Her test is controversial 1-38 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-38

39 Contributing Factors Social factors Peer groups Situational factors Stress Lack of social support and intimacy Limited opportunities for productive activity Individual factors Tendency to pursue activities to excess Lack of achievement Fear of failure 1-39 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-39

40 Ethical Evaluation Enlightenment view Individuals can and should govern their lives People are responsible for their choices Jeffrey Reiman s view Addict s behavior makes sense if addict has no hope for a better future Society bears responsibility for putting people in hopeless situations 1-40 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 3-40