FES Internal SourceBook Ecological Restoration August 2008 PB No. 29, Anand 388001, Gujarat, INDIA. Phone: +91 (2692) 261402, 261238, 261239 Fax: +91 (2692) 262087 Email: iasc2011@fes.org.in http://iasc2011.fes.org.in/
Registered under the Societies Registration Act XXI 1860, the Foundation for Ecological Security was set up in 2001 to reinforce the massive and critical task of ecological restoration in the country. The crux of our efforts lies in locating forests and other natural resources within the prevailing economic, social and ecological dynamics in rural landscapes and in intertwining principles of conservation and local self governance for the protection of the natural surroundings and improvement in the living conditions of the poor. By working on systemic issues that can bring about a multiplier change, we strive for a future where the local communities determine and move towards desirable land use that is based on principles of conservation and social justice.
A Source Book for ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION Update 2008 Foundation for Ecological Security 0
Table of Contents Page No. PART A Eco-Restoration Section 1 Introduction 1 What is Ecological Restoration 5 1.1 Why eco-restoration? 5 1.2 How is it different from other approaches? 6 1.3 Our aim is planting or Eco-restoration? 6 2 FES Experience 7 2.1 Change Detection Study in selected locations of Madanapalle district 2.2 Change detection study in selected micro watershed of Lakhundar Gadganga project in Madhya Pradesh 2.3 Change detection study in two watersheds of Bhilwara project in Rajasthan 3 Approaches to Eco-restoration 9 3.1 Ecosystem V/S Species 9 3.2 Protection of individual species or all the species? 9 3.3 Is ecosystem approach ultimate? 9 3.4 Is landscape approach ultimate? 9 Section 2: Eco-restoration Methods and Skills 10 1 How to do Eco-restoration, stepwise? 11 2 Components of Eco-restoration 13 2.1 Revegetation 13 2.2 Regeneration 18 3 Planting methods 19 3.1 Natural regeneration 19 3.2 Some important principles 19 3.3 Post planting activities 20 3.4 Stepwise establishment and management techniques 21 of plantations 4 Nursery Techniques 31 4.1 Nursery establishment and development 31 4.2 Techniques of nursery operations in semi-arid areas 31 4.3 Seedling production 37 4.4 Nursery Level Operations 42 5 Soil and Water Conservation Works 48 5.1 Principles of SMC works 48 5.2 Agronomic Practices for soil and water conservation 48 7 8 8 1
5.3 Mechanical measures for soil and water conservation 49 6 Monitoring Indicators 51 6.1 Sustainability 51 6.2 Invasibility 51 6.3 Productivity 51 6.4 Nutrient Rotation 51 6.5 Biotic Interaction 51 7 Special Plantations 52 7.1 Introduction 52 7.2 Windbreaks and shelterbelts 52 7.3 Design of wind breaks and shelterbelts 52 7.4 Selection of tree and shrub species 53 7.5 Planting techniques 53 7.6 Management practices 54 7.7 Sand dune stabilization 54 7.8 Stabilization of coastal dunes 55 7.9 Stabilization of inland dunes 55 7.10 Planting techniques 56 7.11 Canal side plantations 56 7.12 River bank plantation 57 8 Rehabilitation of saline environment 58 8.1 Aims of saline environment rehabilitation program 58 8.2 Salt tolerant shrub resources 58 8.3 Plant selection 59 8.4 Establishment 59 9 Management aspects of Eco-restoration 62 9.1 Ecological succession and management 62 9.2 Grazing management 63 9.3 NTFP (non-timber forest products) management 67 9.4 Involvement of local people 72 PART B- Some Basic Concepts 75 1 Ecosystem Concept 76 1.1 Major components of ecosystems 76 1.2 Energy and matter flow in ecosystems 77 1.3 Ecosystem health 78 1.4 Eco-services 79 1.5 Succession 79 1.6 Eco-restoration 79 2
2 Biodiversity 80 2.1 Levels of biodiversity 81 2.2 Genetic biodiversity 81 2.3 Species diversity 81 2.4 Community and ecosystem diversity 81 2.5 Important General Principles Associated With 82 Ecological Succession 2.6 Types of ecological succession 83 3 Drylands: Concept 85 3.1 Extent of drylands (Arid-semi arid-dry sub-humid) in 85 India 3.2 Forests of dryland 86 3.3 Arid zones 86 3.4 Semi arid zones 87 3.5 Degradation of drylands 87 3.6 Deforestation 88 3.7 Causes of deforestation 88 4 Land Degradation 89 4.1 Causes for land degradation 89 4.2 Desertification 90 4.3 The implications of deforestation, degradation and 91 desertification on environment and livelihood APPENDICES 92 3
Section A Eco-Restoration 4
Section I: Introduction 1. What is Ecological restoration? According to the Society for Ecological Restoration, the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed is called ecological restoration or eco-restoration. Eco-restoration involves: To bring back original normalcy of function, structure, potential, service and process of eco system. Eco-restoration focuses on rectification of four basic component of ecosystem: 1 Mineral cycle, 2. Water cycle, 3. Energy flow and 4. Succession Other similar terms Rehabilitation-The action of restoring a thing to a previous condition or status is called rehabilitation. Remediation-It is the act of remedying. To remedy is: to rectify, to make good here the emphasis is on the process rather than on the endpoint reached. Reclamation-Reclamation is a term used for making of land fit for use or to bring back to a proper state. Here there is no implication of returning to an original state but rather to a useful one. Restoration-The act of restoring a land to a former original state or position is called restoration. 1.1 Why Eco-restoration? Ecological restoration is usually carried out for one of the following reasons: To restore highly disturbed, but localized sites, such as abandoned mines. Restoration often entails amelioration of the physical and chemical characteristics of the substrate and ensuring the return of vegetation cover. To improve productive capability in degraded productive lands. Degradation of productive land is increasing worldwide, leading to reduced agricultural, range, and forest production. Restoration in these cases aim to return the system to a sustainable level of productivity, e.g., by reversing or ameliorating soil erosion or salinization problems in agricultural or rangelands. To enhance nature conservation values in protected landscapes. Conserved lands are being reduced in value worldwide by various forms of humaninduced disturbance, including the effects of introduced stock, invasive species (plant, animal, and pathogen), pollution, and fragmentation. In these cases, restoration aims to reverse the impacts of these degrading forces, e.g., by removing an introduced herbivore from a protected landscape. In many areas, there is also a recognized need to increase the areas of particular ecosystem types - for instance, attempts are being made to increase the area of native woodlands in the United Kingdom, in order to reverse past trends of decline and to increase the conservation value of the landscape. To restore ecological processes over broad landscape-scale or regional areas. In addition to the need for restoration efforts within conservation lands, there is also a need to ensure that human activities in the broader landscape do not adversely affect ecosystem processes. There is an increasing recognition that protected areas alone will not conserve biodiversity in the long term, and that production and protection lands are interlinked by landscape-scale processes and flows (e.g., hydrology, movement of biota). 5
1.2 How is it different from other approaches? Ecological restoration differs from other approaches of restoration in the fact that it tries to restore the original biodiversity and ecosystem processes that existed before the degradation or disturbance. Any ecosystem has an inherent capacity and potential to regenerate on its own. Here emphasis is given to help natural ecological processes regenerate the ecosystem structure and functions through giving inputs that are ecologically safe. These inputs tend to only shorten the regeneration time, which would have been longer without these inputs. 1.3 Our aim is planting or eco-restoration? Planting is definitely not a synonym of eco-restoration but only a component of it. As we know, the word ecosystem covers the biological and non-biological elements occurring together in a particular area. When term eco-restoration is being referred to, the suggestion is that we are particularly interested in the restoration of the fundamental process by which ecosystem works. We also talk about restoration of quality. This is particularly true in discussions of soil or water restoration, perhaps because the species in these habitats are multifarious and their individual occurrences difficult to predict. The implication is therefore different. It is the perceived attributes of what is in an area, or of a component of the environment, which are considered to be important. While planning for eco-restoration, our attention should always be to focus on: (i) Restoration of function of ecosystem (ii) Restoration of process of ecosystem (iii) Restoration of structure of ecosystem (iv) Restoration of services of ecosystem Attributes of an ecosystem are mainly its structure and functions. It may be possible, perhaps to restore the functions fairly completely, but achieving the original structure may be more difficult. In above light, level of restoration may be of following types: (1) Full restoration or complete restoration (2) Restoration of only certain attributes (3) Only rehabilitation or (4) Reclamation Obviously, full restoration is very complicated and time consuming; and sometimes very resource consuming also. No doubt, full restoration or complete restoration may be seen ethically the most justifiable and therefore the most obvious to adopt. But at the same time it is not an easy task to achieve the goal of complete restoration. However, for all practical purpose we can go for partial restoration. Once initial recuperation is achieved, we should conserve the same and let it allow repairing the remaining damages itself. 6
Some points to remember A healthy ecosystem needs biologically fertile soil, full of microfauna and flora. Hence, in situ soil conservation is necessary. Utmost care should be taken to protect the local soils. If soil is protected, vegetation will generate again by natural succession or we can expedite the process by artificial methods like enhanced natural regeneration or artificial regeneration (sowing and planting) or both. Soil erosion can be checked through watershed treatment principles. While resorting to artificial regeneration, discourage exotics and prefer local species. While planting, utmost care should be taken to place every species at right place. Proper species selection is a prerequisite for successful restoration. Do not plant such species, which never existed in the area in remote past also. If area is under secondary succession know about original species by various tools given ahead. Care should be given to create and support the microhabitats of the various animal species in the restored area. Animals, right from bacteria to mammals are a must to keep the ecosystem functional. Utmost care should be taken to check further biodiversity loss. Section 2. FES s Experience 2.1.Change detection study in selected locations of Madnapalle project in Andhra Pradesh In Andhra Pradesh, in the Sadhukonda Reserve Forest land of 6380 hectares (ha), the changes are important in bringing out an increase in tree cover in terms of area under dense (472 ha) and open forests (442 ha). Apart from this there is also a considerable increase in shrub coverage (437 ha), all of which is attributable to the rootstock responding to protection. Out of the total area of about 6,380 ha of the RF, an area of 1,968 ha has retained its vegetative cover over the six-year period. The comparison of vegetative cover in 1996 and 2002 for the Yerrakonda revenue wasteland of 465 ha shows an increase of 17 ha of Open forest (from 47 Ha) and 96 ha of mixed degraded forest (from 143 ha). This is mainly due to natural regeneration. The available woody biomass has been found above the average biomass for a dry deciduous forest and has been proven as contributing to the sequestration of a huge amount of carbon. As far as water resources are concerned, one noticeable impact has been with regards to cattle ponds, which are small water harvesting structures tapping seepage water. It may be mentioned that in times of drought, when most tanks have run dry, some of these cattle ponds are the only source of water for cattle. The team in AP is now focusing on strategies to manage the extraction and selling of fuel wood within sustainable limits, keeping in mind the energy needs of the dependent habitations. While the interventions by communities are enhancing the availability of water, the extraction of it remains in the private domain. The findings of the remote sensing analysis and the field survey are now serving as inputs for discussions with communities on provision to and appropriation from these existing resources. The team s experience with revenue wastelands shows that when protected they can cater to the needs of fuelwood and fodder of communities around them, and serve as buffer to reduce pressure on forests. Thus, 7
while integrated land use planning at the village level is the need of the hour, some simultaneous regulatory mechanisms for utilization of biomass and water across all categories of lands forming a larger resource constituency are needed. 2.2. Change detection study in selected micro watershed of Lakhundar Gadganga Project in Madhya Pradesh From Madhya Pradesh, in the Salri Micro-watershed there has been a significant improvement in the vegetation cover since 1996. There has been an improvement in the wastelands, scrub lands and mixed degraded forests and another 2 ha of dense forests and 32 hectares of open forests in 2002, categories that were non-existent in 1996. The riverine vegetation has improved from being under the open category to dense category (24 ha in 1996 to 65 ha in 2002). Another significant improvement has been seen in the mixed degraded category of forest, which has increased by 57 ha from 71 ha in 1996 to 128ha in 2002. On the other hand, there is a decrease in the wastelands from 399 ha to 270 ha during this period. This is a result of protection and soil and water conservation measures taken up by the communities on the common lands since 1998. Though, there is a marginal increase in agricultural area by 8 ha, the rabi crop area has been reduced by 22 ha which is primarily due to the three years of drought. There would have been a further decrease in this category had it not been for newer areas brought under Rabi cultivation owing to their proximity to water harvesting structures. Similarly in Ladwan Micro watershed of MP, there is an improvement in the hectarage under open forests from 4 ha in 1996 to 78 ha in 2002. The vegetation along the valley also shows considerable improvement, as the open riverine forest has become dense riverine forests. The dense riverine forests have increased from 21 ha in 1996 to 111 ha in 2002 while the open riverine forests have decreased from 87 ha to 22 ha in the same time period. The area under scrub has been converted to mixed degraded forest and thus increased the area under this category by 196 ha. Another change is the reduction of wasteland from 1334 ha in 1996 to 1213 ha in 2002. Wasteland constitutes almost 40% of the total geographical area in these watersheds. Due to drought, re-vegetative methods were relatively less successful than regeneration of rootstock by protection. 2.3. Change detection study in two watersheds of Bhilwara project in Rajasthan From Rajasthan, in the Lilri Watershed, an important change is the increase in tree cover in terms of the area under open forests that increased by 192 ha. There has also been an increasing trend in the category of Mixed degraded forest category that has increased by 464 ha. This implies that when under protection, the rootstock available in the watershed can grow out to develop into a more dense vegetation cover. Scrubland has also increased by 133 ha and consequently wasteland has decreased by 750 ha in 2002. Area covered by water bodies has decreased in the year 2002 and can be attributed primarily to low rainfall (only 51 mm), leading to a severe drought. In the Devnarayan Kalikhol Watershed, considerable changes in land cover have been noted through GIS imageries, which have been verified at the field level. The changes, which have been given, can be categorized under changes in common property resources and private property resources. An important change is the increase in tree cover in terms of area under dense and open forests. There is an increase of 345 ha in this category. 8
3. Approaches to Ecorestoration 3.1 Ecosystem v/s species An Ecosystem does support a variety of floral and faunal species to remain in functional state. Not even a single species of an ecosystem can survive its own in isolation. Interdependency among species is so intricate that one can t think of their survival away from ecosystem for long. One species influence other species present in the surroundings and get influenced from others those are surrounding it. Each species is useful to other species in many ways like: Fulfillment of needs of food Fulfillment of habitat needs Fulfillment of system dynamics needs Fulfillment of system cybernetics needs Every species has its specific role in the ecosystem. All species function on the principle of division of labour in the ecosystem. Extinction or extermination or insufficient number of individual species will affect quantum of service being rendered by the species to the ecosystem. Every species has its own ability, potential and adaptability to perform a specific role in the ecosystem. 3.2 Protection of individual species or all the species? It has been already mentioned that no species can survive in isolation. Existence of every species is inextricably linked to the existence of other species.. If we want to save one species, we have to save all those species which have linkage with targeted species; and all the species can be saved only when if ecosystem is intact, sound and functional. Hence instead of Species Conservation Approach, Ecosystem Conservation Approach should be ideally followed. 3.3 Is ecosystem approach ultimate? An ecosystem does have many species and all the species of a particular ecosystem have multiple linkages from other species. Broadly speaking, an ecosystem is a self sufficient unit of the nature, but in reality, every ecosystem has linkages with other ecosystems present in its surroundings. To maintain an ecosystem in its best condition, maintenance of all ecosystems, present in the vicinity is must. It means, instead of protecting single ecosystem we will have to protect all the ecosystems. In other words, we will have to protect the whole landscape. This is known as LANDSCAPE APPROACH. It is a refined and enlarged edition of ecosystem approach. 3.4 Is landscape approach ultimate? There is a series of ecosystems in the nature. One ends, another starts. Now question arises, how many ecosystems should we protect or restore? One, few or all! Nothing in the nature is present in airtight compartments. All ecosystems are linked with each other in one way or the other. Zone of influence of different ecosystem sometimes touches each other or sometimes even overlaps. It means, protection of every ecosystem is needed. Hence our approach should be global. So thinking globally and acting locally should be our motto. To restore the degraded ecosystems, besides intensive efforts we also need extensive efforts. 9
Section II: Eco-restoration Methods and Skills 10
1. How to do eco-restoration, stepwise? Certain steps of intervention are needed to start with the eco-restoration process in a particular area. Our step would be as following Five Steps 1. Biophysical analysis 2. Studying factors 3. Setting eco-restoration objectives 4. Re-examine the plan STEP I : Understand the extent and nature of degradation of the ecosystem This can be approached through examination of the species composition of the area, soil analyses, landscape analysis, water testing etc. Analysis of Bio-physical factors Study of local bio-physical factors is necessary to understand the intensity of problems, nature of limiting factors and ways of restoration. After doing a reconnaissance survey of the area, in depth survey is required. During survey following information should be collected. Physical Factors Biotic Factors Additional Information Biological spectrum of the area? 1. Vegetation composition 2. Animal communities Parasite Epiphytes. Weeds Exotics Pathogenic Organisms Influence of wild animals Anthropogenic activities Fire Insects Impact of wild animals Climatic Factors Temperature Maximum and Minimum temperature Mean January temperature Mean Annual temperature Presence of Frost Rainfall Annual Rainfall Length of rainy season No. of rainy days Tentative arrival date of monsoon Tentative departure date of monsoon Relative Humidity Frequency of drought Presence of Fog Perenniality of streams Presence of springs Wind velocity Loo condition Storm condition Edaphic Factor Type of soil Texture of soil Structure of soil ph of soil Soil profile Humus conditions Soil Minerals Salinity Depth of water table and its behaviour Presence of impervious rocks Nutritional deficiency in soil Topographic Factors Nature of slope Aspect and exposure Altitude Configuration of land surface Type of Forests Type of Grasslands Stage of plant secession Stratification in forests Climate vegetation of the area Fragmentation status of forest Corridor problems of the area Crop raiding status Ecological signification of the area (Ecological criticality of the area) Endemism in the area Red data species of the area Threatened species of the area Protected area in and around of targeted area Top predators (i) During past (ii) At present Species lost from the area (i) Animals (ii) Plants Species new to the area (i) Animals (ii) Plants 11
Analysis of Data After collection of data, the analysis and interpretation of data is necessary to extract relevant information from the data collected. Analysis paves our path for planning, implementation and monitoring. How inference is drawn from the data can be understood from examples given in annexure. Take notice of Ecological Indicators: An ecological or biological indicator is a species, the presence or observes of which is indicative of a particular set of environmental conditions. Ecological indicators are very often the plant species, which form ground flora. Different ecosystems and different stages of ecosystem have different indicators. Indicators always give important information about ecosystem. Few indicators are given below: S.No Name of indicator Indicative of which condition 1. Indigofera pulchela If present in Sal forests, indicates that soil condition is getting drier. 2. Woodfordia floribunda If present in Sal forests, indicates that soil condition is getting drier. 3. Holarrhena antidysentrica Unfavorable conditions for Sal 4. Helicteres isora Unfavorable conditions for Sal 5. Clerodendron viscosum Favorable soil condition for Sal regeneration 6. Moghania chapper Favorable soil condition for Sal regeneration 7. Leea sambucina Favorable conditions of regeneration of Dipterocarpus macrocarpa. 8. Urochloa reptans Indicate overgrazed grasslands 9. Sporobolus spp. Indicate overgrazed grasslands 10. Cassia tora Indicate overgrazed grasslands 11. Aristida spp. Indicator of overgrazed and depleted site 12. Melanocenchrus jacquemontii Indicator of overgrazed and depleted site 13. Saccharum spontaneum Indicates poor soil drainage 14. Capparis spinosa Indicates intense soil erosion in forest area 15. Carissa spinarnum Indicates intense soil erosion in forest area 16. Butea monosperma (Pure crop) Badly drained clay soil STEP II - Trace the causal factor or factors responsible for the degradation. Factor(s) may be internal or external, anthropogenic or natural, periodic or continuous and so on. STEP III - Think of ecologically sound remedies and ways to minimize or completely check the causal factor(s) Make an exhaustive plan to restore the site. STEP IV - Review the plan Think about its impact on ecosystem and local people. Discuss it with locals also. If there is any apprehension do needful alterations and rectifications. STEP V - Implement the plan in field. Monitor and review the plan If needed, mid term correction can be incorporated in the plan to fulfill the objectives. To complete various steps as suggested above, extensive and intensive prior field surveys are necessary to collect the primary data. Secondary data would also be required to be collected to understand all the aspects of the site under consideration. 12
2. Components of Ecorestoration 2.1 Revegetation 1. Revegetation 2. Seed collection and Nursery 3. SMC work 2.1.1 Eco-restoration and Regeneration of vegetation: Vegetation cover is an important factor to keep ecosystem in normal condition. Normal vegetation cover of an area can protect soil, moisture, and animals effectively. If vegetation cover is under pressure and degradation is going on, the loss of soil, moisture and animal populations will take place automatically. A degraded ecosystem loses its many microhabitat and their inhabitants. Regeneration of vegetation is comparatively easy, however once regenerated vegetation helps in the propagation of both the plants and animals alike. The vegetation regeneration should therefore be done in the best way possible. 2.1.2 Process of Revegetation Plan: Following steps are taken while preparing and launching a regeneration plan. 1. Mapping of Biophysical factors. 2. Proper plant species selection, which is based on (i) Species survey of site (ii) Ecological concerns (iii) Community preference (iv) Past learnings 3 Treatment plan, which include detail planning about: (i) Soil and moisture conservation (ii) Sowing (iii) Planting (iv) Natural regeneration (v) After care. 4. Time budgeting for timely implementation. 5. Implementation in the field 6. Monitoring 7. Learning and re-planning Promoting Plant Diversity A diversity of desirable native plants will establish more quickly if the aggressive erosion hardy grasses are not established on the site. This includes rabbitbrush, alfalfa, yellow sweetclover, forage kochia, and some wheatgrass and brome cultivars developed for seedling vigor, emergence, or stand establishment. Seeding of aggressive species should be limited to areas of high risk for revegetation failure or erosion. The revegetation plan should at least allow for islands of diversity within the disturbed area to be seeded. Planting should consist of non-aggressive shrubs, forbs and /or grass species. Fertilizer should rarely be used within these islands of diversity. Small or long, linear disturbances, such as roads or pipelines, can revegetate naturally without seeding if good topsoil handling techniques are practiced. This is beneficial because it reduces cost and promotes establishment of a native vegetation community similar to the surrounding area. 13
Limitations to this approach are areas that are susceptible to: a.) Invasions of noxious or pervasive weeds b.) Sedimentation to streams or rivers c.) Rill and gully erosion Diversity in soils, slopes, and aspects will create diversity in plant communities. Do not blend all the salvaged soils into one soil. Instead, keep the rocky soils for slopes and deep loams for bottomlands. 2.1.3. Selection of Plant species: Selection of restorations plant species depends on: (i) The environmental or biophysical characteristics of the disturbed site. (ii) Species life-history characteristics (iii) Present successional stage (iv) Restoration goals There may be many situations in front of us while going for species selection in a particular area. We have to opt specific method for species selection for specific site conditions like below: If site has degraded rootstock or remnant of original or previous vegetation is available: FES is mostly working in the dry uplands, which consists of hilly and undulating terrain. Obviously, a hilly zone has different types of plant species and stratification pattern at its foothill, slope and top zone i.e. in vertical direction. Similarly, if foothills are extensive, then, horizontal vegetation pattern will be different near foothills and far-foot hills. Obviously, vegetation of dry, moist and wet streams will be different. In a hilly zone, step by step species selection pattern will be as following: Divide the area in different hypothetical segments in both the plains-vertical and horizontal, according to availability of broad set of biophysical characteristics. Soil depth, water regime, pebbleness, slope etc. is good criteria for zonation. Suppose there are three zones in vertical plain, namely, top zone, middle zone and foothill zone. Similarly, three zones may be in horizontal plain, namely (i) foothill zone, (ii) low-lying area and stream zone and (iii) far foothill zone. Foothill zone will be common in both the directions. Thus, after identifying 5 net zones, we'll go to record the occurrence of species in each zone. For this, a transect survey of 20 m width is desirable. While walking on a transect line, observe species occurrence in the right and left strip of 10 m width each (Fig.-). Linear survey of stream is necessary to know about bank and bed species. Record biophysical factors of every segment for planning. Now prepare a ranking list for each zone separately. Species of upper half of ranking list of each segment could be selected for planting and sowing operations in that particular segment. 14
S. No. Points to Remember: 1. Select transact line randomly. 2. Don't rely on single survey. Survey from 2 to 3 directions will give better results. If we don't want to go for an elaborate species selection survey, than one should go atop of hills and a bird's eye view can give us the idea about species of different zones (Fig.). This method, though is less time consuming but requires sufficient skill to identify the species from distance by seeing their crown and height pattern. Needless to say, survey from single hill would serve little purpose. It is always advisable that if area is of bigger size (e.g.100 ha), at least 5-6 hills or spot should scrutinized. Local Name 1. Bans If site is quite barren: Method 1:Observations in nearest patch in isoclimatic zone: If site is more or less barren, then it is not possible to get some clues about species suitability because representative species of original or previous stage are not available there. In such conditions, nearest sites in good condition can be visited to have clues about species. The site should be in isoclimatic zone so that one can get true picture of the species. Method 2 : Reconstruction of Past : If observation in nearest patch of isoclimatic zone is not possible, we can go for "reconstruction of past" method or, both the methods can be adopted for better understanding. " Reconstruction of past" is a good tool to understand the flora lost from the area. Success of this method depends on knowledge level of local people and ability of the surveyor. Steps in this method are as following: Step1: Organize a meeting at some suitable common place or near planting site and invite all the elders and headmen of the village. Step2: Ask about all the possible species, when they were present in the area? Why they were lost? Use following format to collect the information. Results of survey conducted during 2004 at Labua Baosi VFPMC in Udaipur district of Rajasthan are depicted below: Botanical name Dendrocalamus strictus Past status (in opinion of locals) Present Status (Our observation) ++++ - Appx. Year of this change (People's opinion) 2004-20 (i.e.20yrs. back) 2. Tan Ougenia oojensis ++ + 2004-25 Factors responsible for change Locally extracted for house and fence making. Habitat loss, extraction for plough making 3. Kadaya Stereulia urens + - 2004-10 Gum extraction 4. Salar Boswellia serrata ++ + 2004-15 Extraction for fire wood and gum 5. Godal Lannea corom Extraction for fire wood ++ + 2004-15 andelica 6. Bahera Terminalia Encroachment in ++ + 2004-20 bellerica foothills 7. Karmela Cassia fistula ++ + 2004-20 Bark collection 8. Karonda Carissa carandas ++ + 2004-15 Extraction for fire wood 9. Katalia Lantana camara - ++ 2004-05 Unknown 15
3. Field data, collected in step 2, are arranged in a "time zone wise extermination" table as given below: Time Species 25 or more years back Ougenia oojensis Inference Lost much ago hence their revival may pose difficulty in regeneration than species of col. 3 & 4 Plant disappeared or decreased in number 20-24 yrs back Dendrocalam us strictus, Terminalia bellerica, Cassia fistula Easy regeneration than species of col.1 15-19 yrs back 10-14 yrs back Boswellia Sterculia serrata, Lannea urens coromandelica, Carissa carandos Easy regeneration than species of col.2 Most recently disappeared species, hence regeneration of species of this column is relative easy than col. 1, 2 & 3 5-9 yrs. back New species to the area - Lantana camara No disappearanc e taken place in this period. This weed species is new to area. It should be eradicated before its naturalizati on. As period will pass, its eradication will become tougher. 4. If few pockets in area are still good, species of higher successional level can be planted in such pockets. 2.1.4 Silvicultural characteristics of species & options of species selection Different species have different autecological characteristics. Presence of different biophysical factors guides us for selection of certain species. In nature different type of species are available which provide many options to us as given below: S.No. Character Favourable Species 1. Alkaline and saline soil Acacia nilotica, Agave spp., Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus robusta 2. Laterite soil Ancardium occidentale, Swietenia mahogani, Xylia xylocarpa, Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus hybrid, Alstonia scholaris 3. Lime rich soil Cupressus torulosa, Cleistanthus collinus, Ixoro parviflora 4. Stiff kankar clay Acacia leucophloea, Prosopis spicigera, Balanites aegyptica,capparis spp., Chloroxylon swietenia, Soymida febrifuga 5. Coastal sands Casuarina equisetifolia, Anacardium occidentale 6. Marshy/water logged/ water high regime zone Salix tetrasperma, Sesbania grandiflora, Sizygium cumini,s. heynianum, Bischofia javanicabambusa arundinacea, Lagerstroemia flosreginae, Terminalia tomentosa, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia arjuna, Vitex negundo, Ficus glomerata, Eucalyptus sp., 7. Salty marshes and mud flates 8. High concentration of soluble salts Phoenix sylvestris,pandanus odoratissimus Mangrove species, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala, Heritiera minor, Aquilaria agallocha,pandanus fruitescence,p. nipa, Rhizophora muconata, Avincinia spp., Xylocarpus mollecensis Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica,tamarix aphylla, Salvadora oleoides, S. persica, Sporobolus marginatory, Thespesia polulnia, Phoenix paludosa, Salvadora oleoides, Pongamia pinnata, Prosopis juliflora, Azadiradita indica, Butea monosperma, Tamarix articulata, 9. Dry rocks Sterculia urens, Ficus arnottiana,f. tomentosa, Gyrocarpus, americanus, Euphorbia spp., Sarcostima acidum 10. Browsing hardy species Pongamia pinnata, Holoptelia integrifolia, Cymbopogon coloratus, Euphorbia spp.,cassia siamea, Prosopis juliflora 11. Moderately browsing hardy species Neem, Wrightia tinctoria, Acacia leucophloea 12. Browsing susceptible Acacia catechu, Adina cordifolia species 13. Sucker producing Dalbergia sissoo, Toona ciliata,prosopis juliflora, Prosopis spicigera, Boswellia serrata 16
species (Syn. B. glabra), Dichrostachys cinerea, Emblica officinalis, Phoenix dactylifera, Millingtonia hortensismiliusa tomentosa 14. Moist forest areas Grewia tilaefolia, Kydia calycina, Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia latifolia, Adina cordifolia, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pterocarpus marsupium, Bombax ceiba,anogeissus latifolia, Desmodium spp.,lagerstroemia parviflora,bridelia retusa,syzygium cumini,mellotus philippensis, Helicteres isora,phoenix acaulis, Emblica officinalis, Albizia procera, Terminalina bellerica 15. Swampy forest areas Pandanus odoratissimus, Ficus glomerulata, Syzygium cumini, Toona ciliata, Putranjiva roxburghii, Salix tetrasperna, Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia arjuna 16. Best pollarding species Terminalia tomentosa, Grewia oppositifolia, Delonix alata, Salix spp., Hardwickia binata 17. Root sinker species Acacia nilotica, Prosopis spicigera 18. Root spreader species Tectona grandis, Phoenix sylvestris 19. Light demander species Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia, Bombex ceiba, Melia azedarach 20. Shade bearer species Toona ciliata, Dalberigia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Albizia lebbeck, (Tolerates light shade in early life), Azadiradta indica, (Tolerates light shade in early life), Mitragyna parvifolia, Pithocellobium dulce, Santalum album, Syzygium cumini, S. heyneanum, Mesua 21. Shade demander species ferea, Shorea robusta (shade tolerate when young, shade bearer in later stage). Mellotus philippinensis, Epiphytic orchids 22. Fire resistant species Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Emblica officinalis, Bombex ceiba, 23. Moderately fire resistant Acacia catechu 24. Fire sensitive species Santalum album 25. Good coppicer species Acacia catechu, Albizzia spp., Anogeissus spp., Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula,dalbergia spp., Emblica officinalis,garuga pinnata, Melia azidarachta, Ougeinia oojenensis, Salix tetrasperma,robinia pseuidacacia, Sapium sebiferum, Shorea robusta, Syzygium cumini, Tectona grandis, Toona ciliata, Gmelina arborea, Morus alba, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis spicigera, Terminalia tomentosa, Broussonetia popyrifera, Cleistanthus collinus 26. Fairly coppicing species Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia bellerica, T. tomentosa, Aesculus indicus, Chloroxylon swietinia, Hardwiakia binata, Juglans regia, Quercus incana,q. lanuginosa,q. semicarpifolia, 27. Poorly coppicing species Adina cordifolia, Bombax ceiba, Madhuca indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Populus ciliata, Acacia nilotica 28. Non coppicing species Phoenix sylvestris, and other palms, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana 29. Frost hardy/frost resistant species 30. Moderately frost hardy species Acacia catechu, Anogeissus pendula, Dalbergia sissoo, Diospyros melanoxylon, Madhuca indica, Stereospermum suaveolens, Toona ciliata, Ziziphus jujuba, Albizia procera, Morus alba, Hardwickia binata, Ougenia oojeinensis, Pinus roxburghii, Schlechera oleasa Pterocarpus marsupium, Adina cordifolia, Morus alba, Anogeissus latifolia, Bombax ceiba, Dalbergia latifolia, Gmelina arborea, Pongamia pinnata, Acacia senegal, Terminalia tomentosa, Bischofia javanica, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera 31. Frost tender species Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Boswellia serrata, Garuga pinnata,tectona grandis, Terminalia arjuna,t. tomentosa, Adina cordifolia, Albizia lebbeck, Anthocephalus kadamba,santalum album, Tamaridus indicus 32. Drought hardy species Acacia nilotica, A catechu, Bombax ceiba, Hardwickia binnata, Miliusa velutina, Schleichera oleosa, Boswellia serrata, Dalbergia latifolia,diospyrus melanoxylon, D. tomentosa, Kydia calicina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Lannea coromandelica, Mellotus philippinus, Ougenia oojeinensis, Pongamia pinnata, Sterospermum suaveolens, Syzygium cumini, Zizyphus jujuba, Z. xylopyrus, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia lebbeck, A. procera, Melia azedirachta, Mitragyna parvifolia, Moringa oleifera, Pithocollobium dulce, Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera, Tamarindus indicus, 33. Moderately drought hardy species 34. Drought sensitive species Acacia catechu, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia procera,anogeissus pendula, Dalbergia sissoo, Gmelina arborea, Mitragyna parviflora, Cassia fistula, Morus alba, Santalum album, Terminalia tomentosa Anogeisus latifolia, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Pterocarpus marsupium Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, T arjuna, Toona ciliata, Anthocephalus cadamba, Bischofia javanica, Shorea robusta 35. Nitrogen fixing species Dalbergia spp., Bauhinia spp., Acacia spp.,albizzia spp., Erythrina spp., Tephrosia spp.,indigofera spp., Leucaena spp. 2.1.5 Why appropriate species selection is necessary: Planting and sowing is of two types- mechanical and ecological. In mechanical planting only planting/sowing target is kept in focus and ecological suitability of species, selected for regeneration is neglected. Without judging suitability of species in local biophysical conditions, targets are blindly achieved. Such regeneration process gives poor survival results in future and high casualties are seen after rains. 17
When ecological regeneration is in focus, species specific selection is ensured for top zone, middle slopes, foothills, low-lying area, streams, etc. such regeneration process give better survival results in future and low casualties are met with after rains. 2.2. Regeneration Regeneration is the act of originating and establishment of young individuals of a species. It can be broadly categorized into two categories viz. Artificial regeneration and Natural regeneration. Each of it has its own pros and cons in the ecorestoration plans. These are briefly discussed below: 2.2.1. Natural Regeneration vs Artificial Regeneration Natural Regeneration Advantages Less expensive than planting Species and trees well adapted to site Natural root morphology Disadvantages Dependent upon seed crop, seedbed and environment (difficult to control) May take longer to regenerate a stand May create stands with variation in species composition, distribution and age Artificial Regeneration Advantages Provide direct control of species, and distribution of trees in the stand Can introduce genetically superior material Can shorten establishment period achieving prompt regeneration Disadvantages Costly Requires substantial infrastructure (growing, storage and transportation) and organization for successful planting programs Though the natural regeneration is always preferable to artificial regeneration, it is rarely available in sufficient quantity to meet the restoration goals. Therefore more frequently than not, artificial regeneration methods are adopted. 2.2.2. Planting Planting differs from seeding, in that live plants are planted as part of the remedial action versus the planting of seeds. While more costly than seeding, planting has a number of advantages. Plants are often: (i) quick to establish, (ii) often carry microbial and mycorrhizal associations indigenous to the species, (iii) can allow for establishment of species difficult to seed and can be planted in areas inaccessible to mechanized equipment. Planting is most typically applied to tree and shrub species, but is equally applicable to grass and forbs. Planting technique should conform to standard planting procedures and typically involves excavation of a planting "pocket", insertion of the plant, backfilling, and resloping of the adjacent soil and often providing for wind and sun protection on harsh sites. The species selected, size of the rootstock, soil treatment, plant protective techniques, and density of planting are design issues. 18
3 Planting methods 3.1 Natural Regeneration: Natural regeneration can be defined as the renewal of a forest crop by self-sown or by coppicing or root suckers. Few important ways of natural regeneration are as following: Micro-catchment / crescent / Thawla making: In this method, a micro catchment is made around the seedling by soil readjustment so that it harvest the water for the plant growth Wildling Protection: Wild seedlings are protected from the various factors like grazing animals. Through Suckers: In this method shoot from lower parts of the stem (suckers) are used for the propagation of plant species. Through Coppice (Seedling coppice and stool coppice): In this method applicable only for the coppicing species, coppices origination from cut stems are used for the regeneration purpose. Pollarding: This method is use to promote the growth of lateral branches in trees. It also provides the tree fodder for the animals. Closure making: Closures are made to protect the plants from grazing and browsing animals, Advance closure making: to protect regeneration from animals sometimes the area is closed in advance of the regeneration period of the year. Protection of seed trees (standards) and their proper distribution Controlled burning: to reduce the fire hazard, controlled burning is adopted to do away with litter and dry grasses. Cutting back: it is a method in which stems/branches are cut to promote the regrowth of the plant. Stump dressing: The stump of the plant also requires treatment to prevent moisture loss and infection by air and soil borne pathogens. Bamboo culture Protection of seed traps: Seed traps are used to determine the amount of seeds which particular tree species produce per year. Protection of safe sites Pollard: A tree whose top branches have been cut back to the trunk so that it may produce a dense growth of new shoots. Sucker: A shoot from the root or lower part of a stem. 3.2. Some important principles: In rocky soils, the plants should be spaced in suitable soil pockets, in such case the distance between plants will vary considerably. The lesser the rainfall, the wider the spacing recommended. Where naked-root seedlings are used, closer planting is recommended. Pit planting require bit wide spacing. According to time, planting is of following types: Pre- Monsoon planting: When irrigation is possible or where summers are accompanied by fairly good showers, pre-monsoon planting can be done. 19
Advance Planting: During pre-monsoon showers i.e. just before on set of monsoon, broad-leaved species can be planted. Avoid planting of thorny species if rains are less. Early planting: Necked or poly-bag seedlings, root-shoot cuttings, branch cuttings planting should be completed as early as possible (within 7 to 10 days) so that whole growing period can be utilized by the seedling for growth. Late planting: During rains, seasonal streams become fluvial. Early planting is sometimes not possible in such streams. After receding water, bit late planting can be done is the streams. Retreat planting: It is casualty replacement work in pits. In many pockets of south India, retreating monsoon can be used for casualty replacement or even for fresh planting. Winter planting: Some hill species are best planted before snowfall. Some more types of planting are as follows: Aerial planting: One-meter long cuttings of Tinospora cordifolia are kept on trees/ shrubs one meter (or more) above the ground to induce aerial roots. The physiological lower end should be towards ground while placing the cuttings. Wildling planting: During rainy season, wild seedlings are dug out from the forest or other places and they are planted in pits or notches where needed. This method is not always good. Wildling in-situ conservation: Instead of uprooting the wildling to use somewhere else, it is better we prepare a crescent around it to harvest water for the wildling. Planting inside trench ditches: If rainfall is less, high water demanding species like Mangifera indica, Terminalia bellirica etc. should be planted in ditches of the trenches. Mound planting: If area is low lying and water stagnates, we can prepare heap of earth before rains and planting should be done on earth heaps during rainy season. 3.3. Post planting activities: Protection: Check on grazing, trampling and fire is a must. Weeding: After planting 1 to 3 weeding is needed to minimize completion. Weeds compete for water, light, minerals and space. If budget permits, 1 or 2 weeding can be done during second year also. Hoeing: To conserve soil moisture, hoeing is necessary. It is done by pickaxe. It also improves aeration in rhizosphere. Pruning: Removal of side branches of lower one-third height is called pruning. It should be done between saplings to pole stage. Thinning: Removal of extra plant is called thinning. To maintain proper spacement between trees, judicious thinning is done. 20
3.4 Step wise establishment and management techniques of plantations To appreciate the need for forest plantations in arid zones, the roles played by these plantations must be defined. Quite often, there are a number of roles (such as fuelwood or fodder production) which, through careful planning, can be combined to achieve multiple benefits. This section of the manual describes the techniques for the establishment and management of forest plantations in arid zones. Site reconnaissance The more information there is available about the site conditions in the area being considered for tree and shrub planting, the better are the chances of selecting the tree and shrub species best suited to the area. Information most commonly included in site reconnaissance is: - Climate - temperature, rainfall (amount and distribution), relative humidity, and wind. - Soil - depth of soil and its capacity to retain moisture, texture, structure, parent material, ph, degree of compaction, and drainage. - Topography - important for it s modifying effects on both climate and soil. - Vegetation - composition and ecological characteristics of natural and (when present) introduced vegetation. On areas which have not been degraded by man, the vegetation can provide an indication of the site. Unfortunately, over much of the arid world, the vegetation has been so disturbed that it is no longer a reliable indicator of potential planting sites; in these situations, site selection should be based on soil surveys. - Other biotic factors - past history and present land use influences on the site, including fire, domestic livestock and wild animals, insects and diseases. - Watertable levels - a knowledge of the depth and variation of the watertable levels in the wet and dry seasons is valuable and can be crucial in determining the tree and shrub species that can be grown. Watertable levels can be estimated from observations in wells or by borings made for this purpose. - Availability of supplementary water sources - ponds, lakes, streams, and other water sources. - Distance from nursery. Apart from the above biophysical information, socio-economic factors also play an important role. Among these factors are: - The availability of labour. - Motivation of the local population. - The distance of the forest plantation to the market and consumer centers. - Land ownership and tenure. Selection of the planting site Where to plant is generally a collective decision made by policy makers, foresters, and the planting crews, based on information obtained in the site reconnaissance. The key is to select the site that, when planted, will lead to the establishment of a successful forest plantation. Often, the choice of the planting site is limited to lands which are not suited for agriculture or livestock production; when this is the case, the site reconnaissance information gains importance. The boundaries of the planting site, once the area has been chosen, should be marked with boundary posts. When there is a danger of trespassing and damage by grazing animals, a boundary fence should be established. Fencing is costly and, therefore, should only be built when other means of protection are not effective. 21