Learning Needs in the Multicultural Classroom: Implications to Equitable Teaching Gracel Ann S. Saban

CATALYST Asia-Pacific International University JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES Volume 8 Number 1 December 2013 3-6 7-24 25-36 37-48 49-68 69-77 78-81 82-93 94-102 103-104 105-108 Editorial - Wann Fanwar Learning Needs in the Multicultural Classroom: Implications to Equitable Teaching Gracel Ann S. Saban Experiences in Adventist Colleges/Universities: An International Alumni Perspective Jimmy Kijai, Vinita Sauder and Robert Weaver Effect of Performance-Based Rewards on the Performance of Teachers in Selected Private Secondary Schools in Uganda Leonard Richard Mghweno, Mark Obboko and Stella Adongo Primary and Lower Secondary School Teachers Attitudes toward English Language Learning: A Case Study of Teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang Districts, Saraburi Province Nakhon Kitjaroonchai Internal Quality Assurance of Private Higher Education Institutions in Thailand: A Comparison of Quality Assessment Result in 2012 Damrong Sattayawaksakul, Wanlee Putsom and Narumon Keawduang Nine Lessons from the Preaching Ministry of Jesus Derek J. Morris Jesus Methods of Dealing with Accusations Nola Tudu Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness: Does Faculty Profile Really Matter? Andrea B. Pama, Levinia B. Dulla and Richard C. De Leon Book Review Gerard Bernard Book Review Miguel Luna

CATALYST, Journal of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies, Asia-Pacific International University ISSN 1905-6931 Editor Wann M Fanwar, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Editorial Review Board Samuel Gaikwad, Associate Dean, Graduate School, Adventist International Institute for Advanced Studies, Philippines Clifford Jones, Associate Dean, SDA Theological Seminary, Andrews University, USA Chayada Thanavisuth, Dean, Faculty of Arts, Assumption University, Thailand Siroj Sorajjakool, Professor, Theological Studies, Loma Linda University, USA Kai Arasola, Professor, Religious Education, Lönnrot University, Finland Daniel Bedianko, Dean, School of Graduate Studies, Valley View University, Ghana Beulah Manuel, Professor of English, Washington Adventist University, USA Loren Agrey, President, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Oktavian Mantiri, Director, Graduate Studies Program, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Ritha Lampadan, Dean, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand Pak Lee, Professor, Accounting and Finance, Adventist International Institute for Advanced Studies, Philippines Publication Board Wann M Fanwar, Wayne Hamra, Ronny Kontour, Sang-Hoon Jee, Wanlee Putsom, Ritha Lampadan, Nola Tudu, Nguyen Thi Phuong Linh, Martin Bredenkamp, Petcharat Watanapinyo, May Su Thwe Mang Copy Editor Nola Tudu Layout May Su Thwe Mang 1

Editorial Statement CATALYST is the flagship journal of Asia-Pacific International University (AIU). It is an inter-disciplinary, peer-reviewed journal published by AIU s Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies through its publishing arm, Institute Press. The journal is published online with a limited number of hard copies available. Scope of CATALYST As an interdisciplinary journal, CATALYST brings together articles in several areas of the social sciences such as religion, education, arts and humanities and business. Objectives of CATALYST 1. To facilitate scholarly activity among the faculty of AIU 2. To engender scholarly exchanges with other universities within Thailand and with visiting lecturers, pastors and teachers from other parts of the world 3. To encompass scholarly as well as professional articles, seminar/forum papers, research papers and book reviews Publishing Schedule CATALYST is published annually by Institute Press during the month of December. Indexing EBSCO and CAR Submissions Procedure 1. Manuscripts should be in MS Word format and should relate to one of the relevant disciplines. 2. Manuscripts should adhere to the Catalyst Publishing Guidelines (refer to Catalyst Publishing Guidelines on the webpage). 3. Manuscripts may be submitted in one of the following ways: a. Via email attachment to either fanwar@apiu.edu or relsec@apiu.edu; b. Online, through the Catalyst webpage (follow instructions on the webpage). 4. Manuscripts should be submitted by the 30 th of September. Current and Past Issues Volume 8 December 2013 Volume 7 December 2012 Volume 6 December 2011 Volume 5 December 2010 Volume 4 November 2009 Volume 3 November 2008 Volume 2 November 2007 Volume 1 November 2006 Contact information Wann M Fanwar Email: fanwar@apiu.edu Tel: +66-36-720777 ext 1505 May Su Thwe Mang Email: relsec@apiu.edu Tel: +66-36-720777 ext 1504 All opinions, errors, omissions and such expressed in Catalyst are the responsibility of the authours. Institute Press, Asia-Pacific International University, 2013 2

Editorial Wann Fanwar [The following editorial is an excerpt of a paper presented at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Time and Eternity: Dual Classrooms Qohelet 3:1-15 is the most widely recognised passage of the entire book we know as Ecclesiastes in English. The book itself plays a major liturgical role in Judaism, is listed by some Hebrew traditions as belonging to Megillot (the five scrolls) and is read during the Sabbath of Sukkot, the feast of Tabernacles (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, 1996). Its role among Christians is much more nebulous almost to the point of neglect. Even Theodore of Mopsuestia (AD 350-428), the influential exegete of the Antioch school, questioned the canonical standing of Qohelet (Ibid.). Arguably, among Christians, Qoh 3:1-15 (especially the first eight verses) is well-known (Loader, 1986) and functions as the crux passage of the book. Qoh 3:1-15 constitutes a single unit with a continuous train of thought (Fox, 1999, p. 193). It is bound by several repetitions of certain words like (`et, time ). The unit is divided into two sub-units, 3:1-9 and 3:10-15. The first sub-unit was popularised in the 1960 s in the form of a pop hit song entitled Turn, Turn, Turn. Qoh 3:1-9 is structured in a unique way. The pericope is framed by vv. 1 and 9 which sandwich seven pairs of poetic antithetical lines (vv.2-8) exhibiting a specific structural pattern. The first verse provides a general introduction to the subsequent lines (vv.2-8), while verse 9 serves as a bridge to the second sub-unit (vv.10-15). Loader (1986) refers to this unit as one of the most ingenious passages in the Hebrew Bible (HB) and asserts that its appeal lies in the beauty of its perfect symmetry and the precise balance of its pronouncements (p. 33). It is the verses within the envelope (vv.2-8) that have attracted the most attention. Verse 1 reads: There is an occasion for everything, and a time for every activity under heaven (HCSB). When examining various translations (see below), the complexity of v.1 begins to emerge: For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven (ESV) For everything there is an appointed time, and an appropriate time for every activity on earth (NET Bible) A season is set for everything, a time for every experience under heaven (JPS) There is a time for everything, and a season for every activity under heaven (NIV) Everything has a season, and a time for every matter under the heavens (Alter, 2010) For everything there is a season, a time for every matter under the heavens (Fox, 1999) For everything there is a moment, and there is a time for every affair under the heavens (Murphy, 1992) The verse follows an ABB A chiastic structure which reads: lakkol zeman v`et lekhol khefets. Literally rendered, for everything (A) a season (B) and a time (B ) for every activity (A ). The noun `et has a similar semantic range as the English word time. However, the noun zeman, while a synonym of `et, refers more to time that is appointed for something (Neh 2:6; Esth 9:27, 31; see Fox, 1999). The chiastic parallelism utilised here implies that time is something ordained by someone, God perhaps, and that time is cyclical, as are the experiences of life. The events listed in the subsequent verses are more typical than specific (Fox, 1999). Consequently, Qohelet s usage should be viewed not as something prescriptive but rather descriptive (Loader, 1986). The apparent fatalism expressed in this text could only be true if the second sub-unit is not factored in (see below). The structure of verses 2-8 reveals a pendulum movement that climaxes in a simple chiasm. Each pair of statements contains depictions of things that are negative (N) and positive (P). The negative statements include events that are unpleasant or destructive, while positive statements represent the opposite (Fox, 1999). The pairing of statements reflects neither complementarity nor the presence of merisms (Ibid.). The pairings do however indicate a polarity which implies a totality of life. When these statements are analysed, the following pattern emerges (see Fox, 1999; Murphy, 1992; Loader, 1986). The first pair is made up of P N//P N statements (v.2). This is followed by two pairs of N P//N P and N P//N P (vv.3-4). Next comes two pairs of P N//P N and P N//P N (vv.5-6), followed by a pair of N P//N P (v.7). The final pair is a simple, climactic chiasm P 3

N N P (v.8). The following enumeration sets out these relationships. 3:2 P N (being born-dying) // P N (planting-uprooting) 3:3 N P (killing-healing) // N P (tearing down-building up) 3:4 N P (weeping-laughing) // N P (mourning-dancing) 3:5 P N (casting-gathering stones) // P N (embracing-shunning embrace) 3:6 P N (seeking-losing) // P N (keeping-discarding) 3:7 N P (tearing-sewing) // N P (keeping silent-speaking) 3:8 P N (loving-hating) // N P (war-peace) Qohelet is not saying that these events, opaque as some of them are, must happen or that we should expect them to. Nevertheless, he is saying that this is how life essentially works; life is a tapestry of positives and negatives. The ever-changing kaleidoscope we call life comprises of joy and mourning, life and death, peace and war and so on and so forth; things unasked and without our control as well as things unhelpful or chosen (Davidson, 1986, p. 22). The positive-negative pairing teaches that everything in life, even unfortunate and destructive deeds and events, have their right times (Fox, 1999, p. 194). As Loader (1986) puts it, there is a specific occasion for everything that happens. When the occasion arrives, the event that fits it occurs... Whatever happens happens, and there is nothing you can do about it (p. 35). These things happen to us, yet this is not mere determinism as these things are under divine control and, therefore, are God s times instead of ours (Murphy, 1992). This is not so much a portrayal of the inevitability of life but rather its reality. This mixture of positives and negatives is what each of us will encounter in life. This poem is a statement of the divine determination of all that occurs (Fox, 1999, p. 197). After confronting such inescapable reality, Qohelet is left with an exasperated rhetorical question: What does the worker gain from his struggles? (v.9; HCSB). This question is the climax of Qohelet s Catalogue of Times (Fox, 1999). The contradictory events of human life, both good and bad, are beyond man s control (Alter, 2010, p. 355). This question is essentially a judgement on human activity, for humans are locked into a world of events that they cannot shape (Murphy, 1992). To every person, life is no more than serving time. There is a certain despondency regarding life that leaves the thinking person burdened by inevitability. The very thing that should serve humanity becomes a tyrant that no one can escape. Time runs its own course and people are quite helpless to do much about it and no amount of effort can change the time that God has determined (Murphy, 1992, p. 34). This is the first classroom that Qohelet entered where he learned about the gloom and doom of human existence. However, Qohelet is not yet done for he continues his discourse by entering a different classroom. While he has struggled in the classroom of time (3:1-9), with all of its trappings and implications, in 3:10 he enters another, a classroom of eternity. In this new classroom, Qohelet admits that there is something else to learn. He begins to fathom the reasons behind the litany of times and its discomforting message. The veil is lifted, allowing Qohelet to discover the hand of God behind the apparent paradoxes of life. The second sub-unit in this passage also exhibits a noteworthy pattern. The centre piece (vv.12-13) addresses the value of the joy of life and is enclosed by two sections dealing with the inscrutability of God s work (vv.10-11 and 14-15; see Loader, 1986). In v.10, Qohelet speaks of what he sees (the Hebrew verb ra ah is used here; cf. 3:16; 4:1, 4, 7; 6:11; 7:15; 8:10; 9:11, 13), while in verses 12 and 14 he says, I know (the Hebrew verb yada` is utilised). Qohelet experiences a paradigm shift by what he sees and knows. The repetition of yd` with its connotations of learning and understanding evidently points to the new lessons that Qohelet is compelled to embrace (Murphy, 1992). The first lesson concerns the control that God exercises over human existence. Such control involves what God assigns for people to do (v.10), the appropriateness of God s actions (v.11a) and the fact that God will always remain a mystery (v.11b). Qohelet admits, I have seen the task that God has given people to keep them occupied (v.10; HCSB). Our lives are ordained by God and it is he who determines what we become. On our own, life would be no more than hebel habelim ( nothing of nothings ). Further, God has made everything appropriate in its time (v.11a; HCSB). God continues to make things at all times ; he makes the day of good fortune and the day of bad fortune (7:14) (Fox, 1999). He has also put eternity in their hearts (v.11b; HCSB). 4

There is no consensus on the second sentence among scholars because of differing opinions concerning the use of the Hebrew word (`olam). The word `olam normally means eternity (cf. 1:4; 2:16; 3:14; 9:6; 12:5) and in this verse it is the antonym of time. However, it has been suggested that in this verse the word should be emended to `elem to mean ignorance or darkness (see discussion by Fox, 1999; cp. Davidson, 1986). It has also been suggested that `olam here means duration (cf. Gen 9:16; Exod 21:6; Ps 61:7) rather than eternity (see discussion by Murphy, 1992). It seems best to retain the nuance of eternity as Qohelet is attempting to contrast two different temporal realities: time and eternity (see Davidson, 1986; Alter, 2010). This view of time and eternity allows Qohelet to share two more new things he has learnt. In v.12, using the emphatic sense of I know, he tells his readers that the best thing about life is simply to enjoy it because it is a gift from God (v.13). It may be said that there is only one possible lifestyle: making the best of the prevailing circumstances (Loader, 1986, p. 40). Qohelet urges us to enjoy the pleasures of life here and now, but he is perfectly aware it is a matter of luck, or God s unfathomable determination, whether we are given the time and means to enjoy the good things of life (Alter, 2010). Despite the pervading presence of hebel habelim in life, such darkness is not the only reality since there is another realm of reality. Time is one classroom, but eternity offers another. Qohelet also knows that while time and its contents are fleeting, eternity, the abode of God, is non-fleeting. Finally, Qohelet learns that whatever God does lasts forever (v.14a), there is nothing that can be added or subtracted from his work (v.14b), and man s primary task is to stand in awe of God (v.14c; cf. Deut 4:2; see Tidball, 1989). God is in complete control of time and life (Alter, 2010). We can neither add a favourable event or subtract an unfavourable one from God s determinations (Loader, 1986); he is the divine guarantor of the secure life (Eaton, 1983). To punctuate the thought, Qohelet winds up this unit with another enigmatic statement: Whatever is, has already been, and whatever will be, already is. God repeats what has passed (v.15; HCSB). Despite the difficulty of interpreting this final verse, the gist appears to be that God is in control both in time and eternity (cf. Fox, 1999); nothing escapes the dominion of God, who has everything within the divine purview (Murphy, 1992). In the classroom of time, Qohelet has learned about human privilege (vv.12-13), while in the classroom of eternity he has faced the purpose of God (vv.14-15), bringing full circle the pessimism encountered in the litany of time by replacing it with an immutable hope in the security God provides (Loader, 1986). Two Classrooms: Reflections If Qohelet s message is to amount to anything in the life of God s people, then his two classroom proposal should be carefully contemplated. Every lesson that is taught in the classroom, regardless of the field of study, should always endeavour to move the students from one classroom to the other. The classroom called time is essential for dealing with the reality of human existence. Even though such examination may compel students to confront the darkness of life, it is a necessary educational option. To function within the real world, students should be taught that their lives are not those of birds in a gold cage. There is pain, tragedy, and suffering all around us. Some of this is man-made, while some of it belongs to the natural order. Yet, such lessons require a counter-balance or they will stifle the mind, burden the heart and create students who are crippled and unable to enjoy the positives of life. This is where the other classroom enters the picture. Every lesson of life should have its eternal counterpart for no matter how dark life may appear under the sun, God is present over it. What we are unable to fathom in time, is explicable in eternity. This is why Qohelet is able to conclude his entire discourse with the stirring words of Qoh 12:13, When all has been heard, the conclusion of the matter is: fear God and keep his commands, because this is for all humanity (HCSB). Through the telescope of time, Qohelet has viewed the colours of eternity and this has put paid to the argument that life is hebel habelim. Without God s eternal perspective, life is indeed hebel habelim. With God life is quite something else. The discovery of these two perspectives (classrooms) is the true challenge of all educational pursuits. It was true for Qohelet; it should remain true today. References Alter, R. (2010). The Wisdom Books: Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Davidson, R. (1986). Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon. Philadelphia: Westminster. Eaton, M. A. (1983). Ecclesiastes: An Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. 5

Fox, M. V. (1999). A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. LaSor, W. S., Hubbard, D. A., and Bush, F. Wm. (1996). Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Loader, J. A. (1986). Ecclesiastes A Practical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Murphy, R. E. (1992). Ecclesiastes. WBC 23A. Dallas: Word Books. Tidball, D. (1989). That s Life! Realism and Hope for Today from Ecclesiastes. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. 6

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Learning Needs in the Multicultural Classroom: Implications to Equitable Teaching Gracel Ann S. Saban [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This qualitative study identified the learning needs of students in the multicultural classroom. The study utilised a semi-structured interview guide and data were gathered through focus group interviews of six ethnic groups, namely: Asian, Black, Filipino, Filipino-American, Hispanic, and White. Each group was comprised of eight to twelve members purposively sampled from the student population of one multicultural university in the Philippines for the collegiate year 2012-2013. The themes that emerged from the Qualitative Data Analysis of interview transcripts showed that learning needs in the multicultural classroom are culturally responsive teaching, teacher immediacy behaviours, differentiated instruction, and teacher language competence and instructional clarity. It is thus recommended that teachers rethink their approaches so that students from diverse cultural and language backgrounds will have equal learning opportunities. Further, it is deemed imperative to look into the curriculum and instruction to bring about changes in the way educational programmes are conceptualised, organised and taught. Keywords: learning needs, multicultural classroom, equitable teaching, culturally responsive teaching Introduction Classrooms are a melting pot of various cultures which include differing worldviews, religious beliefs, values, abilities, languages, and family backgrounds of students. No matter how school administrators and teachers strive for homogeneity in the classroom, differences are inevitable and thus must be dealt with appropriately as this diversity may increase or impede students learning success. Because Multicultural Education (ME) seeks to promote equity and excellence across such variables as race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, regional groups, and language background, educators must understand the function language can play in either helping or inhibiting the educational fulfilment of individuals. As Ovando (1989) stated, a fair curricular process is one that builds on whatever socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds the students bring with them (p. 215). Students language diversity in the classroom implies varying degrees of learning needs. These learning needs are related to educational outcomes students academic achievement in particular, and learning in general. Several studies (La Belle & Ward, 1994; Gersten, 1996; Trueba, 1988; Culatta, Tompkins, & Werts, 2003; Mattes & Omark, 1984; Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1995) have attested the prevalence of educational inequality experienced by language and/or cultural minority students related to their inability to understand, speak, read and write standard English in the required school curriculum. Such case is no different in this multicultural university in the Philippines where students come from diverse language backgrounds and where English is used as medium of instruction. The main goal of ME is to change teaching and learning approaches so that students of both genders, from diverse cultural and ethnic groups, and language backgrounds will have equal opportunities to learn in the classroom. This goal suggests that major changes ought to be made in the ways that educational programs are conceptualised, organised and taught. There is a dire need for students learning needs to be identified 7

and analysed in order to transform and improve teaching approaches in multicultural classrooms. Hence, this study was pursued to identify the learning needs of students in the multicultural classroom, and analyse their implications to equitable teaching. Significance of the Study The findings of this study are deemed significant to the following: 1) Students since their actual linguistic needs will be identified and analysed, teachers will look into ways to address them. They may benefit from a culture-sensitive and equitable teaching not only through improved academic achievement, but also through a more satisfying learning experience; 2) Teachers they may glean insights from this study on transforming their perspectives and approaches in teaching their subject. This study may not only inspire them to adopt a multicultural perspective, but also inform and/or remind them to rethink and overhaul, if need be, their language habits and instructional strategies in the classroom; 3) Administrators the findings of this study may be useful to them in areas of supervision of instruction, human resource management, professional development, teacher training, teacher evaluation and curriculum revision; 4) Curriculum Developers the findings of this study may provide relevant inputs which they may integrate in constructing learning materials reflective of cultural diversity and language expectations and limitations; and 5) Researchers this study may awaken further interest to explore something novel in the field of multicultural teaching, such that educational outcomes will continue to improve through research-based practices. Scope and Limitations This study focused on purposively sampled college students of a multicultural university in the Philippines enrolled in the first semester of collegiate year 2012-2013. Since the purpose of the study was to identify and analyse students learning needs in the multicultural classroom, representations from 6 ethnic groups, namely: Asian, Black, Filipino, Filipino-American, Hispanic and White, comprised the final sample of the study. Only students in their first year and last year in the university were included in the study. Learning Needs in the Classroom Learning needs abound in a classroom where individual differences are limitless. Ovando (1989) stressed that in thinking in terms of pluralism or assimilation, it would be useful to view a particular society as a dynamic and complex cultural and linguistic organism that is constantly undergoing evolution, change and modification according to the nature of circumstances a constructive pluralism in which maintenance, diversification and assimilation are taking place simultaneously under varying circumstances. And within such environment of constructive pluralism, blaming the student s genetic, environmental, cultural or linguistic background for lack of academic success in the English-dominated classroom cannot be accepted. Programmes and practices can be implemented to redress past inequities experienced by both English-background students who come to our schools speaking stigmatised nonstandard versions of English as well as students whose primary language is not English. According to Griffin and Barnes (1986), a good place to start in addressing learning needs is by examining what constitute effective teaching and learning classroom climates for students in general. They stated: A composite picture of effective teachers drawn from this body of research findings would give attention to the following: the teacher s establishment of a work orientation while maintaining a warm, supportive environment; a high level or organization with emphasis on management of the class to increase the productive use of time; active involvement with students to prevent misbehavior and prompt interventions to stop misbehavior; clear presentation of new material with opportunities for students to practice new skills; monitoring of student behavior; provision of feedback to students; assignment of individual seatwork; and systematic evaluation of student products (p. 18). The growing body of research on teaching and learning cannot, by itself, suffice without due consideration of the importance of teacher effectiveness. Brophy (1992) mentioned that literature on effective teaching gave a significant contribution to education at large because of the recognised teachers roles in learning and systematic pursuits for research-based claims. 8

Teachers view the use of nonstandard English in the classroom in a seemingly negative way. However, effective teachers are open-minded enough to understand and address cultural and language barriers accordingly. According Ovando (1989), limited English proficiency cannot be singled out as the cause for school failure. As Torrey (1983) puts it, teachers should not judge children s language abilities by their schoolyard grammar (p. 165). Instead, a more likely source of poor academic performance is the school s reaction and approach to language limitations. The challenge for students with limited English proficiency (LEP) is that they speak little English at all. Based on teacher effectiveness research, Macias (1986) identified some basic competencies for quality instruction for LEP students regardless of whether the teacher speaks the students home language: Use of active teaching behaviors, including giving directions clearly, describing tasks accurately, specifying how students will know when the tasks are completed correctly, and presenting new information by using appropriate strategies like explaining, outlining and demonstrating, keeping students engagement in instructional tasks by pacing instruction appropriately, by involving students actively, and by expressing expectations for students successful task completion, monitoring students progress and providing immediate feedback when necessary (p. 37). In addition to this, Macias found that significant instructional features for teachers who speak the students first language included use of both languages for instruction, assuring not only understandable instruction, but a clear and positive environment and status for each language; the integration of English language development with academic skills development; understanding and appropriate use of the cultural background and diversity of the students to mediate learning, and classroom management (p. 58). Many teachers who work with LEP students are not bilingual, and they provide instruction in English as a Second Language (ESL) rather than bilingual instruction. Among the skills important to their task are a sound knowledge of how languages are naturally acquired and an explicit grasp of the rules of the English language coupled with an ability to convey such things as grammar rules through means other than lectures and drills. An important principle to keep in mind when working with language minority students is that their cognitive development must be launched from within a given sociolinguistic context. Even language socialisations have different patterns. One implication of variations in language development is that the academic success that language minority students will experience in school hinges more on how these children are able to manipulate language in a variety of contexts and for different purposes than on the specific language they use. It follows that the school s responsibility is to provide a wide range of experiences that will facilitate language development for social interaction as well as language for academic prosperity (Heward & Orlansky, 1989). In all likelihood, teachers will have bilingual students of varying English-language and academic abilities in their classes throughout their teaching career. Ruddell (2008) opined that it is the responsibility of teachers to provide full access to multicultural-sensitive curriculum in ways that enrich students learning in the classroom. The qualitative study of Tahtinen (2009) examined the types of academic, social, and linguistic support currently available to immigrant school-aged children and their families as they entered into a small mid-western community in the United States. Major findings of the study include: (a) the need for increased communication and access to services, (b) the need for more opportunities to learn English, and (c) the importance of maintaining native language skills and culture as an asset to the community. Several studies assessed students language needs in different contexts (Cohen, 2008; Dominguez, 2009; Steele, 2008; Vakilifard, 2008; Williams, 2009). These studies brought into focus the interlocking connection between linguistic and cultural diversity toward literacy teaching in English medium schools. As implicitly suggested, there can be no effective teaching not only of the target language but also teaching in content areas without deliberately identifying and addressing students language needs. As general knowledge, language can either be a building or stumbling block to learning. Although a high level of language proficiency may not be wholly associated with intelligence, one cannot effectively get his or her ideas across if not well-armed with language tools appropriate for any particular learning context as language skills support good thinking (Vyhmeister, 2006, p. 63). Language barriers or language deficiency among second or foreign language learners and poor vocabulary among first language learners have often been cited as the underlying causes of student failure (Brown, 1995; Choo, 2007; Dekker, 2003; Schiff-Myers, Djukic, McGovern-Lawler, & Perez, 1993; Trueba, 1988; Waters 9

& Vilches, 2008). Because of language issues, the teacher only has time to go over the subject material briefly and is not able to develop the students cognitive skills in the classroom. Students with language difficulty are often the source of teacher anxiety (Johns & Espinoza, 1996). Unable to develop concepts with the learners in a language they understand well, the teachers cannot build on the cognitive skills, thereby stunting intellectual growth. Characteristics of a Multicultural Classroom Classrooms today have a diverse blend of many different cultures. Educators need to keep informed on the current trends and methodology regarding multicultural education. In addition, the classroom needs to reflect the diverse needs of these students. McIntyre (2012) affirms this: Creating a multicultural environment in the classroom is an important step in the teaching profession. Now, more than ever, teachers need to be attentive to the benefits of creating an environment that is advantageous for diverse students students who benefit of a good, multicultural classroom environment are more likely to excel in school. Furthermore, teachers who incorporate a multicultural environment in the classroom are more tolerant to the needs of their students. This creates a reciprocal understanding between teachers and students which in turn creates a positive learning environment. (para. 2) Further, McIntyre posits that a multicultural classroom is open and non-judgemental, embraces language differences, and celebrates differences. Given the fact that differences abound in classrooms, it is deemed important that a teacher possesses an impartial stance in the way he/she deals with individual students. Genuinely understanding students means empathising with their language and cultural adjustment difficulties. And above all, diversity should not be viewed as a limitation, but rather as a strength to be celebrated and capitalised on. Several studies (Cohen, 2008; Dominguez, 2009; Steele, 2008; Vakilifard, 2008; Williams, 2009) as cited in Dissertation Abstracts International (2010) had not only determined language needs but also highlighted the features of multicultural classrooms that promote effective teaching and learning process. Particularly, Baralis (2009) examined the long-term effects of a K-5 dual language programme (English-Spanish) on middle school student achievement and degree of acculturation in a suburban school district in New York. Those students with exposure to dual languages had consistently higher levels of biculturation than their counterparts. The characteristics of a multicultural classroom are similar to that of a learning environment that respects and values individuality and differences. Several studies (Cohen, 2008; Dominguez, 2009; Steele, 2008; Vakilifard, 2008; Williams, 2009) as cited in Dissertation Abstracts International (2010) had not only determined language needs but also highlighted the features of multicultural classrooms that promote effective teaching and learning process. Particularly, Baralis (2009) examined the long-term effects of a K-5 dual language program (English-Spanish) on middle school student achievement and degree of acculturation in a suburban school district in New York. Those students with exposure to dual languages had consistently higher levels of biculturation than their counterparts. The characteristics of a multicultural classroom are similar to that of a learning environment that respects and values individuality and differences. Language Needs and Equitable Teaching True teaching cannot exist without authentic consideration of learners. Banks and McGee Banks (1989) emphasised the binary relationship between effective teaching and equitable teaching. They argued that these two are interdependent. It means that teaching cannot be effective if it is not equitable, and it cannot be equitable if it is not effective. Unlike the term effective, the term equitable has not been commonly attached to teaching. For the purpose of this study, equitable is deemed more appropriate to relate with multiculturalism in the classroom. But literature showed the similarity of both terms (Banks & McGee Banks, 1989). Hence much of the literature was gleaned from teaching effectiveness research as these would still pertain to equitable teaching. Effective teaching is both a science and an art because it necessitates great amounts of intuition, improvisation, and expressiveness, and effective teaching depends on high levels of creativity, sound 10

judgment, and insight (Davis, 2001, An Art, A Science, A Profession section, para. 2). The art of teaching is a synergistic blend of three components: teacher, theory, and practice (Cain, 2007; Fromm, 1956). An effective teacher will endeavour to identify and address the students needs individual, cultural, linguistic, moral and spiritual towards holistic development (White, 1903). In terms of language ability mismatch between teachers and students and the seemingly scarce language background of teachers, August and Hakuta as cited in Rieger (2006) mentioned that: many English language learners spend most of their academic life with teachers who speak only English and who are not prepared to fully understand their varying needs as English language learners. In order for today s teachers to meet the challenge of educating a richly diverse generation of children, they need to learn a great deal about second language acquisition and effective pedagogy for English language learners through pre-service teacher education programs and in-service professional development opportunities. (p. 3) In support to this pedagogical insight on language, Rieger also stated that a teacher s understanding of the language acquisition process and pedagogy could not be, in any way, undermined. Undoubtedly, this knowledge will help teachers address the needs of linguistically diverse classroom learners. In addressing the social complexities of teaching in a multilingual classroom, Nash as cited in Rieger (2006, pp. 5-6) adapted the following recommendations in her Spanish classroom: 1) Smile when you see me, 2) Call me by name, 3) Let me know that you missed me when I was absent, 4) Recognise my own special talents, even if they do not show up on my report card, 5) Praise me when I do something right and 6) If you do not like something that I do, help me understand that you still like me as a person. These practices support the positive learning environment proposed by McIntyre (2012) which is a key element in the success of a multicultural classroom. Methodology This study employed a purely qualitative research method in which a semi-structured interview guide was utilised. Since the purpose of the study was to identify and analyze the various learning needs of students in the multicultural classroom, data were gathered through focus group interviews of six ethnic groups, namely: Asian, Black, Filipino, Filipino-American, Hispanic and White. Each group was comprised of 8 to 12 members purposively sampled from the student population of a multicultural university in the Philippines for the collegiate year 2012-2013. These groups were formed on the basis of their geographical origin and similarity in language and/or culture. In order to determine the population s nationality and year level, two lists were procured from the University Registrar: a) master list of students enrolled in the first semester of collegiate year 2012-2013 (indicating the students course and year level), and b) master list of foreign students (by nationality, course, and year level). Then the researcher strategically clustered students into six ethnic groups ensuring balanced distribution based on the purpose of the study, particularly in terms of nationality, geographic location and year level. Students in their first or last year in the university were selected to provide variety in terms of perspectives and experiences in one focus group. For instance, the Asian group was comprised of two of each Thai, Indonesian, Korean, Japanese and Chinese nationalities; the two with similar nationality were of different year levels, such that the other one was in his/her first year and the other was in his/her fourth or last year in the university. This also proved to be helpful in providing language and social support to a freshman who seemed struggling with communication barriers (i.e., indistinct pronunciation, insufficient English vocabulary, feeling shy to express, etc.) as a fellow countryman in his/her senior year provided support through language translation of the views and feelings shared by the former. Selection was strategically done such that there would be a balanced distribution according to the geographical location of students. I personally contacted each of the purposively sampled respondents to explain the requirements of the study and arrange focus group interview schedule with them. Finding a common free time among members in one group was the major challenge I encountered during data gathering. However, through persistence and sacrifice, researcher-proposed schedules were agreed upon by all. To ensure 100% attendance of the selected respondents, the following were executed: 1) I communicated with each student through mobile phone in order to get their confirmation to attend the scheduled interview, 2) Excuse letters noted and approved by the university research director were sent to professors of respondents whose interview conflicted with a class schedule, and 3) Meals were provided to all focus groups since the interview schedules fell either on a lunch break or after 5:30 pm which is dinner time. The duration of interviews ranged from one to two hours. For ethical considerations in the conduct of this study, respondents were assured of their anonymity 11

as respondents, confidentiality of the information they would be sharing and that their participation was voluntary, not compulsory. Then they were asked to sign an informed consent form to signify their willing participation and knowledge that the entire focus group interview session was to be video-recorded. Instrumentation The semi-structured interview guide was the sole instrument used in this study. It served as a guide in the conduct of focus group interviews. Its questions were divergent in nature and were gleaned from several literatures, particularly those that determined learning needs. The questions were validated by three experts: An ESL/EFL teacher, Education specialist and a Curriculum and Instruction teacher. Further, an informal pilot interview was conducted with a student who belongs to the language minority on campus. Below are the questions contained in the guide: 1. Who do you mostly interact with in school? 2. Tell me about your friends with respect to ethnic background and race. 3. What language do you use in your daily social interactions among your peers? 4. Have you experienced or seen anyone experience negative attitudes for speaking in their heritage/ native language? If so, how did it make you feel? 5. How is your language interwoven into your culture? 6. How would you describe the overall university climate in terms of language use? 7. How about classroom climate? 8. In your schooling experience, what language difficulties do/did you have? Language needs in the classroom? 9. How do the school and/or your teachers address your language needs? What types of teaching strategies or activities do your teachers employ to address your cultural and linguistic uniqueness? Any suggestions? 10. In culturally and linguistically diverse university classrooms, how do you think a teacher can teach fairly so that ALL students will have equal opportunity for academic success? Qualitative Data Analysis In order to extract the themes leading to the identification and analysis of students learning needs, qualitative analysis was employed. The inductive method of analysis is considered useful in drawing meaningful patterns of teacher qualities from the substantial data available. The qualitative data sources were the transcriptions from six audio-recorded focus group interviews. The researcher personally conducted the focus group interviews then a senior English major student was assigned to transcribe the interviews. For validation and transcript accuracy checking purposes, I hired another student to check the transcript s accuracy by listening to the interview audio files while reading the transcribed interviews. Several corrections were made at this stage. Then, for final validation and initial step in the data analysis, I went through the interview transcripts in relation to their respective audio files. A few errors were found and rectified. The edited and final transcriptions were printed and treated with the Qualitative Data Analysis Model of Serdet (1998). This study considered the very essence of qualitative analysis which is the extraction of themes that will emerge dominantly from the interview data. The analysis of interview transcriptions went through the process of noticing similar themes. The identified learning needs as extracted from the responses of respondents were analysed, through content analysis, vis-à-vis their implications to equitable teaching. Results and Discussion In this study, ethnic group pertains to a group of university students coming from similar geographic location or sharing common language, racial, and national or cultural norms. The actual data showed that the six ethnic groups were comprised of different nationalities as operationally defined in this study, such as follows: 1) Asian pertains to a group of university student population coming from Asian countries such as Indonesia, Korea, Myanmar, China, etc.; 2) Black refers to a group of university students coming from African continent such as Angola, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Congo, Rwanda, etc.; 3) Filipino a group of university students who were born and raised in the Philippines; they are natives of the land who grew up in Luzon, 12

Visayas or Mindanao; 4) Filipino-American a group of university students who are Filipinos by blood, but American by culture, language and exposure; they may be born in the Philippines or in the United States, or Filipino citizen or Fil-Am citizen but the dominant part of their growing years was in the foreign land; 5) Hispanic a group of university students coming from South American continent such as Argentina, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica, Brazil, etc.; and 6) White a group of university students coming from any part of USA and Europe. Table 1 presents the nationality or origin composition of six ethnic groups. Emerging Themes from Interview Transcript Analysis Using Serdet s Qualitative Data Analysis Model in treating interview transcripts, five general themes had emerged. These themes, which centred on the learning needs in the multicultural classroom, are culturally responsive teaching, teacher immediacy behaviours, differentiated instruction, instructional clarity and teacher language competence. Culturally Responsive Teaching On top of all the needs which were expressed during focus group interviews, all respondents were one in saying that they need a culturally responsive teaching. Concepts such as cultural diversity, cultural sensitivity, cultural respect and the like kept recurring across all the focus group interviews conducted. I would say, awareness because as long as [the university] has so many international students, so many cultures and language and then the accent and the pronunciation, we will always have these difficulties because we just have to, if we are trying them, teachers and students we have to try harder to understand each other... [and] so [is] the culture. (Black Group) Especially po (Filipino word indicating respect) [if] your topic is so wide and it pertains to, I mean the definition of that subject or that concept that you are talking to is that it has different meaning in different cultures. So I think if the teacher is willing enough or interested enough to ask the students what s that in their culture katulad ng sinabi natin kanina na (Just like what we said earlier), we will ask them, Paano to sa inyong culture, anong ginagawa ninyo (How is this in your culture? What do you do with it) so we should show interest. (Filipino Group) Table 1: Nationality/Origin Composition of Six Ethnic Group Ethnic Group Nationality/Origin (# in a group) 1. ASIAN a. Papua New Guinean (1) b. Thai (2) c. Indonesian (2) d. Japanese (2) e. Korean (2) f. Bangladeshi (1) g. Chinese (2) 1. BLACK a. Kenyan(2) b. Malawian (1) c. Zambian (1) d. Angolan (1) e. Congolese (1) f. Zimbabwean (1) g. Tanzanian (1) h. Ghanaian (1) i. Rwandese (1) 13

2. FILIPINO a. Northern Luzon (3) b. Central Luzon (1) c. Southern Luzon (1) d. Central Visayas (2) e. Northern Mindanao (1) f. Southern Mindanao (2) 3. FILIPINO-AMERICAN a. Philippine-born (3) b. US-born (3) 4. HISPANIC a. Brazilian (1) b. Colombian (1) c. Honduran (2) d. Mexican (1) 5. WHITE a. American (4) b. British (1) c. South African (1) Two Asian students expressed the importance of open-mindedness and cultural respect, not only by the teacher, but even amongst students in the classroom: It s not really my experience but it s my friend s. Some, it depends on your culture... Sometimes it [is] insensitive with their culture or it is not appropriate so sometimes some teachers, not just teachers, some people cannot understand that because they don t really associate with that culture. So of course the person or the people might not try or might not intend to like offend them, but for the person especially that my friend is new. That person got a little offended since they didn t know the person s culture. Of course, the person has to get used to the culture that there should be some kind of way to let everyone understand the other cultures and of course the Filipino culture also. It s more easy [easier] to understand and not offend each other [by] making them not want to learn. (Asian Group) I just wanna say like maybe, if the classmates I am not asking them to learn our culture but to understand to be open-minded and try to help those because sometimes, it depends on their culture that they don t. For Japanese people, we don t want to bother other people. It is a bother to them. So it is hard for some people to ask help. It is really culture. If some people would go out trying to help those... maybe it could really be a big help to those who need. (Asian Group) One student in Black group, a Zambian, suggested that the university should seriously consider the multicultural needs as a whole, not only the language. He seemed to denote that there are no adequate measures done to address students learning needs, especially when it comes to the plurality of cultures that abound on campus: I believe a study should be done by the university to teachers to understand the multicultural society that we live. It is not only about language. There are a couple of other factors which have to be dealt. We should study about them, too. (Black Group) It is noteworthy that a culturally responsive teaching includes teachers initiative in establishing a positive learning environment, where everyone is encouraged to respect each other because their teacher shows a good example of cultural respect. According to Borich (2011), Bias in a way the teacher interacts with students is undesirable in any form, but it is particularly distasteful when it pertains to students who belong to a cultural, ethnic, or linguistic minority. Our nation and our educational system are based on respect for individual differences of all types. (p. 28) This means that our classrooms become one of the most important showplaces of democratic values. It is disturbing that researchers report frequent ethnic bias or cultural insensitivity during student-teacher interactions in mixed-ethnic classrooms. Studies (Dillon, 1989; Tharp & Gallimore, 1991) have pointed out that 14

many actions of teachers diminish the classroom participation of minority students and/or build resentment because the actions are culturally incongruent. As educators, Gottlieb (2006) stressed that we are constantly challenged to make informed decisions about our students; to do so, we plan, gather, and analyse information from multiple resources over time so that the results are meaningful to teaching and learning. Cooper (2011) discussed culturally responsive teaching (CRT) as an approach to teaching and learning that builds on the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant and effective for them. Also referred to as culturally relevant, culturally congruent, and culturally compatible, this approach of working with students of diverse backgrounds affirms the identities of students and builds upon who students are and what they bring with them to school. Teacher Immediacy Behaviours Teacher immediacy is characterized by verbal and nonverbal behaviours that reduce physical and/or psychological distance between teachers and students. According to Gorham (1988), verbal immediacy includes the use of humour, frequent use of student name, encouragement of discussion and following up on student-initiated comments, encouraging future contact with students, and sharing of personal examples; while nonverbal immediacy includes smiling, eye contact, vocal expressiveness, open gestures and body movement behaviours done by the teacher. During the interview, I sensed the seemingly strong need of students for teacher immediacy behaviours to be practiced in the classrooms: I have one teacher like that. If you cannot understand, you are afraid to ask because they treat you it s like a damn. You feel afraid to ask. (Hispanic Group) Some teachers, you say something and they just cut you off and it s kind of you are not important. So when they interrupt you, that is unfriendly. Some teachers don t listen. (Hispanic Group) One student even emphasised the importance of student-teacher relationship in learning, and that this relationship must spring from a teacher s sense of being a Christian and being connected to God: Maybe don t look at it as academic but when a teacher is a Christian and you can see that, it helps. The atmosphere is different in the classroom. When you have a teacher who knows you, well, everyone has weaknesses. We re not perfect. Sometimes, prejudices come up or pride or what else... Sometimes the teacher is very opinionated and learning and learning is not about forcing an opinion on someone. Well, learning, one teacher who is connected to God and that is brought in the classroom, half of the problems are gone when it comes to relationship. (Hispanic Group) Most of the respondents shared how some of their teachers would get offended when corrected, or annoyed when students tried to clarify the lesson presented: But I think the problem with that is, I just noticed this, it is that they get very offended if you tell them to say certain things... Like Ma am can you please enunciate it better so that we can understand. And then parang (like), Ang arte mo, Like that. No ma am it s just that I am trying to help out other students who talk to me that they could not understand. (Filipino-American Group) Well, we, Africans, think that there are some foreigners in the class who don t know English. I think teachers should forgive them because there are some foreigners like in the countries they come from, they do not use English. So it is good for the teachers to understand the African or the foreigners because some of the students [are] from Korea, from China. They don t know English. I think as a teacher, you should ask the students, Do you want to ask [about] what I was teaching? (Black Group) Respondents went on expressing their need for teachers genuine care and concern towards their needs, such that this concern motivates teacher s pleasant verbal and nonverbal behaviours in and out of the classroom: 15

It is good for every teacher to have a personal concern for every student. (White Group) Yeah, if a student feels the teacher s personal concern, I mean if the teacher I feel is involved... It s just like they would adjust to each other and the teacher would go down to the students level and know the problem. Example if the students are doing exam and the students did not perform well, they should talk to the student. That way, the student would perform better. (Black Group) But almost all teachers are not there during consultation time and if they are there, I am made to feel that I am a nuisance when I share my concerns. (Asian Group) I think the best strategy is Jesus example. Jesus was the best teacher. He mingled with the students. (Black Group) A good teacher doesn t leave a student behind.... (White Group) In my experience, one teacher like when I asked her, she made me feel like, Why are you so stupid? (Asian Group) A group of Filipino respondents expressed their sentiment about how some of their teachers tone of voice, demeanour, facial expressions and even choice of words could dampen their motivation to learn. It seemed that they got carried away by the topic that most of them spoke in Filipino language: Another thing is communication techniques. Kasi (because) some of the teachers... hindi siya ganoon ka approachable kaya (they are not approachable) instead na parang yung ano mo matuto (your aim is to learn), since hindi naman approachable ang teachers mo (but the teachers are not approachable). So parang wala lang din (you won t be motivated to learn). May mga teachers na pagdating pa lang sa classroom, nakasimangot na.... (There are teachers who are already frowning even upon coming into the classroom). Pero kung mali man ang student, try to say something na hindi nakaka-hurt sa feelings ng student Even if the student commits a mistake, try to say something that does not hurt student s feelings). Kasi may mga teacher po na halimbawa, May mga tanong pa ba kayo? Kapag tinanong naman sila, sasabihin nila, Diba na-discuss na natin ito? Kaysa naman pagalitan pa hindi nalang magtatanong (There are teachers who ask if students have questions. But if we ask, they will say, Haven t we already discussed this? So as not to be reprimanded, we don t care to ask anymore). In traditional classrooms, researchers found that teachers immediacy behaviours can lessen the psychological distance between themselves and their students, leading to more effective learning and motivation (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Kelley & Gorham 1988; Menzel & Carrel, 1999; Myers et al., 1998). Further, sharing personal stories and examples, responding quickly, responding in a friendly tone, and creating a safe psychological environment for student participation can provide the needed caring presence that encourages student engagement (Swan & Richardson, 2003). Differentiated Instruction Respondents across all focus groups brought up the need for teachers to vary their teaching strategies to suit the different needs of students, particularly in a multicultural classroom. Though the White group acknowledged the fact that the university has several academic strengths, they boldly shared their perceptions on the quality of teaching and learning process they experienced: I think teachers here in the Philippines for the whole three years that I have been here, teachers have one way of teaching. They don t adjust... they don t adopt. It s just like they go on with the syllabus. I don t care what your issues are. That s how I feel. 16

Not all teachers consider learning styles because some classes are full of audio people. Some are just visual. So things like that. If you are studying with a class with visual, they don t get anything when you write things on the board. They don t get anything. You will come out of the class like What? But you could have adjusted some of your teaching criteria. One thing is... I saw the biggest problem here is that there is no textbook. Most teachers ask students to go to the copy center, spend a long time in line just to photocopy a small piece of material. It s a waste of time. The Asian group also revealed similar predicaments in terms of learning difficulties. Some teachers are just writing on the board and the handwriting is very hard to understand. When we asked the teacher, Oh anyway, this is my handwriting. Whether you like it or not, this is my handwriting. I think, maybe we can use media, a video. A teacher may find a video related to the topic so that the students can get some insights about the things that are discussed by their teacher. If I were on a teacher s shoe, I think I could give them [students] equal chance but in case of different range of understanding, learning and the background, the value of equal chance may be different for each student... so teachers need to discover the individual needs, so he can know what to do. The Filipino group elucidated the same insights that justify students earnest need for a differentiated instruction to address student needs: So ang suggestion ko po kasi po hindi lahat ng mga estudyante ay may kakayahang magsalita, so yung iba magaling talaga. Mayroon talagang magagaling sa klase na kahit na isang ano pa lang, pick up na agad nila. So ang ano ko po, sana doon, sa unang klase pa lang po, dapat sana, alamin ng teacher kung ano ang mga kahinaan ng mga estudyante, tapos mag-isip siya kung ano ang mga strategy niya upang matugonan and pangangailangan ng lahat ng estudyante (Since not all students have the ability to express, unlike others who are eloquent in class...they can easily understand the concepts taught, I suggest that on the first day of classes, the teacher should know students weaknesses. Then she has to think of strategies to address those weaknesses). For me, more illustrations. They [teachers] should give more illustrations. Even though kahit mahina ang voice nila, mayroon silang illustration na makakatulong... (Even if the teacher s voice is soft or not very audible, the illustrations can help students understand). Pwede naman pong lahat ay projected po talaga para take time talaga silang magbasa (The teacher may project or show all the materials and so they can take time to read). Enough materials at saka dapat marami rin siyang enough choices... pag walang electricity at least may written handout siya. Kasi ganoon ang nangyayari sa amin (Teachers should have enough choices, so that if there is no electric power, he/she has a printed handout. That is what is happening to us). Two of the Black group respondents shared that there was no equal chance for learning in the university. They backed up this seemingly informal assessment with personal classroom observations and experiences: I can say that there is no equal chance of learning. You see... a teacher should care. You see, we have different kinds of students. Some learn by listening and if language is a barrier, how they are speaking in class, they won t learn easily. Some actually are visual learners so if you speak perfectly but you have a bad power point, they still won t get you. So if a teacher doesn t care of every students sitting in the classroom, they can try to understand, what type of learning [do] you want [for]him or her? What I can do for this student? The teacher really has to care. The major classes, it becomes easy but in general classes, it is hard because most students do not even know their own learning styles. 17

In my opinion, no equal chance. [The university] basically has auditory learners, go to class, listen, attend class, always check in the class, lower grades and that means that if you study in the library, though you get the same content, you are going to flunk the class which means it is not fair for everyone. Some students need a room and they can dance around and they study in the pool. But if you are forced to sit down in the class for you to pass, it becomes unfair to others although most students have continuous routine from elementary school. It is not a perfect system for everyone. That respondent sharing about the need for a room where students can dance, perhaps while studying, or study in the pool area, implies the need for a differentiated instruction. It is a reality that not all students who sit in the class can maximise learning because these students might have other ways of learning at their best. This seems to bear a repercussion to curriculum as well. On the other hand, the all-nursing Filipino-American group seemed to find handouts as an effective instructional material: I think, handouts are very good idea. Just like to give a visual for them to understand what words are being said or to just have so whatever the teachers are saying, it is actually seen. Instead of just listening and what was that word exactly? Two respondents from Hispanic group expressed their difficulty in coping up with dictated quizzes: In printed quiz, I feel confident and not pressured. I just can sit down and concentrate and not listening. But if he [teacher] is giving a quiz to write, you don t have enough time to think. But for those who are speaking in English, they can write fast. It s good but for those have limitations, it is stressful. I have a problem about that but the teacher knows about that. It is about quiz because sometimes you study hard, but when sometimes you write, you answer well and then the teacher starts to ask the question, 1,2,3,4 and then one is one minute I think. You don t have time to finish, they start the second one and then I have to leave the class because I cannot follow. Then the next class, the teacher asked me, Why you left the class? I said, I cannot do the quiz that s why I left the class. But still I lost points because I don t show up on time and then I have to go back and then I lost many quizzes. In addition, same members from the Hispanic group accentuated their need for learning options. During the interview, I sensed the dire exigency of this need as they went on suggesting that teachers give options for academic requirements, and that they should consider other dimensions of intelligences and measures of assessment: You are mentioning different ways people learn, sometimes I feel like the teacher has usually in the classroom to do a group project or a term paper something like that. Maybe to reach everyone, or maybe the language problem can also be addressed in this way. Maybe they can have 3 or 4 options and they can advise you, You will do this one. I think you will do better with this one. The person just chooses, not that it is easier than the other things so that I choose the easiest one to go out of it. But I know where my learning is, where I learn better, maybe, I will not do research. Maybe, I will do a project. Yeah so if the project is done outside of my schedule, give me another option. Let me do research or let me read five books and let me give you a paper. I will learn like that. But don t tell me at such a date, you have to perform or dramatized a script and I don t learn in it. It is stressful. I was thinking about the multiple intelligences. I was gonna suggest just also instead of just lectures and you know deadlines for this assignment. You know options? It is good to have options. I think the principal or the head teacher should let teachers upgrade themselves. You have courses to upgrade yourselves to the new trends of education because some teachers have been teaching 30 years, even though if it s just lecture, everybody listens. To me, I m giving you all the information. But they don t know new theories, new trends in education and technology. They can use to improve learning, to improve opportunity for students learning as much as listening. So I think, using methods, also bring yourself every year having short classes like two or three weeks just learning new methods. 18

This theme is considered to be the root of the other four themes, as the latter may interplay with differentiated instruction. According to Borich (2011), differentiated instruction provides the opportunity for the teacher to consider multiple characteristics of the learner simultaneously in choosing an instructional strategy for a particular learner and learning objective. Therefore, differentiated instruction is ideally suited for a heterogeneous classroom, in which learning histories, learning styles, learner interests, and skills as well as disabilities representing special populations may impair learning. The goal of differentiated instruction is to give learners alternate paths with which to learn. Students working below grade level may be given resources that retrace major objectives that have already been taught, whereas learners above grade level may be asked to produce work that requires more complex and advanced thinking. By varying teaching strategies, the teacher makes sure that each student has the opportunity to learn in a manner compatible with his or her own learning strengths and preferences. The curriculum is no longer defined in terms of what a teacher will teach but rather in terms of what a student will be able to demonstrate. Honey and Mumford as cited in Glover and Law (2002) emphasised that learning is as much about developing personal competence as about accumulating knowledge. Jester and Miller (2000) espoused the four styles of learning, namely: 1) Visual/Verbal: relying on what is seen and in a written language format; 2) Visual/Non-verbal: relying on what is seen but presented via pictorial or graphic media; 3) Tactile/Kinaesthetic: relying on physical involvement, for example, experimentation and hands-on; and 4) Auditory/Verbal: relying on the presentation of material in oral language format Buskist and Benassi (2012) stated that audio and visual technologies are becoming increasingly common in education because teachers find that they are easy to use and students find that they enhance their classroom experiences. As with social technologies, some audio and visual technologies that were not originally designed for educational instruction are finding their way into college and university teaching. Most of the technologies in this category are widely available, easily accessible, cost-effective, and require minimal technical know-how. Buskist and Benassi also emphasised that the focus on professional development is particularly important in light of the rapidly changing nature of today s student body. Filling the classrooms of colleges and universities is a new breed of student: individuals who have grown up online with much of the world s knowledge a mouse-click away. Although these tech-savvy students present new challenges for faculty, the effective use of technology in the classroom has the potential to make teaching and learning more impactful and fulfilling. With the rapid evolution of technology, it has perhaps never been more important to remember that professional development does not end with the completion of graduate school. Instead, it is a lifelong process that requires individuals to stay abreast of pedagogical research development and implement teaching methods that promote high levels of student learning. Teacher Language Competence and Instructional Clarity As I re-analysed the interview data, I realised that teacher language competence and instructional clarity cannot be separated. The instances shared by the respondents that pertain to either of these two are always intertwined with the other. The following interview transcriptions would prove the team-up of these two themes. Further, it did not come as a surprise to find that students would need effective communication in the classroom, for after all, what would teaching be without communication? All the ethnic groups, except for the Filipino group, conveyed their learning anxiety about some teachers who, despite their presence in the classroom, would still dominantly use the Filipino language in teaching. The Asian group vividly shared their experiences: If the teacher is not really English-oriented and there is [are] really [a] few foreigners, they tend to speak Tagalog if they knew that there are [a] few foreigners. And since the majority is Filipinos, they want to express to the majority which is Tagalog. We don t feel like we belong... It s me and the other foreign students. Okay how come you know the teacher is talking without considering us? And then we will be asking our other friends but they wouldn t know how to really, you know, explain to us again in English. 19

Like when they speak, it s not the right accent. So it is hard for me to understand. It s like when a question is asked, the teacher says it in Filipino so it s like we have to ask our friends and the teacher shows any interest in answering questions that are asked by us, foreign students. It is like, I already answered because sometimes, they hardly [find it hard to] speak in English. Sometimes I cannot understand teachers saying because like teachers are speaking too fast. The Black group expressed similar experiences regarding teachers ostensibly inconsiderate language stance in the classroom: Yeah! During my freshman year, my first semester here in [this university], whenever our teacher used Tagalog in class, it would upset me because I ve been trying to understand. Why can t he see me? No, it s just hard to fully understand... I normally focus in class. One of my teachers before, he kept changing languages, English-Tagalog, English-Tagalog. And I have to say, Sir, I am not dumb but I fail in your class because you continuously use Tagalog. I think it depends to [upon] all of us. If you know some Tagalog, you see you are a foreigner and you cannot understand Tagalog and it s a major turn off. Whenever you come to class, the teacher just starts talking and like you know your mind just goes off even if you are really focused. You think, Oh, I will just wash my clothes and stuff, but automatically, your brain just loses its focus and it is not really good because we came here to study. So we end up nothing in class. First day, second day... eventually you miss classes, absences and you don t know if you have assignments and at the end, [everything is] piling up. Two students pointed out that a teacher s English language limitations, or Philippine variety of English, can affect influence how he/she uses English as medium of instruction and writes instructions in English, thereby affecting student understanding: It is something with sentence structure. If someone is thinking in Tagalog and end up writing it to English, the way they construct the sentence would be difficult for you to understand. So even if I speak quickly, I m trying to understand the alternating words. The structure sometimes is confusing even in some examinations. The question asked, it looks straight and it s very confusing and as a teacher, they will be saying it s clear. So it s kind of I m getting to use to it now but the structure is sometimes different. They say something and mean something else. Sometimes, they tend to... not all, tense is not really correct. He uses something in the past but he is not really talking about the past. Okay, that s confusing. I m like trying to understand and comprehend what he is really trying to mean. On a different note, the Filipino-American group observed that general subject teachers tended to use Tagalog or Tagalog when teaching. They shared that their major subjects were not really a problem, since their teachers would solely use English as medium of instruction: I noticed that most of our major subjects are more taught in English but a lot of my minors are like its mostly like Tagalog or Taglish. I have a class where the teacher has a really different accent and he spoke Taglish so whenever there were slides or powerpoint or anything, when we took notes it s really hard to understand what he was saying and he would talk fast like, What are you saying? Grammar constraints of teachers were also pointed out as barriers to instructional clarity: Sometimes, it is grammatically wrong. 20

Sometimes, it can be misleading like it is confusing sometimes. But that is easily fixed. You just ask. But it s just minor and little grammatical errors. One Filipino-American student whose mother hailed from Mindanao was quite prudent in stating sweeping statements, specifically about those who speak a dialect. She, herself, knew how to speak the Visayan dialect but she expressed how teachers with prominent regional dialect can affect the understanding of the lesson: English with their thick Tagalog or Visayan accent because students would just focus on the funny intonation instead of listening to the lesson and then yeah... they just talk and talk. The Hispanic group s statements further gave proofs of the interplay between teacher s English language competence and instructional clarity: Some teachers are giving explanation in Tagalog and then spend time with that and then speak quick English. So we feel like we did not get the essence. But it s only a few teachers, mostly in general subjects. I just wanna skip class because it s just like I cannot understand. Better read your book at home because at school, you cannot understand. So why go to class? Because sometimes, they [teachers] don t know how to explain well in English... that is why they speak in Tagalog. But it is becoming difficult for foreigners. I think teachers should learn how to express themselves clearly. With due fairness to those teachers who ensure that they are not only proficient in English language, but they are also making classroom communications clear, one student commended those who are doing the extra mile to explain nicely: Sometimes for me on the exams, the wording is a little bit weird like when they are asking a question you don t sometimes like how they word it. They explain too long, they just lost what they want to ask. And we have told teachers that and they have like actually listened to us or if I have a question, they are really nice. They do come and they really explain what the question is asking but some teachers, they don t know how to explain any other way. One student from the Filipino group also mentioned of the same concern a student in the Black group had pertaining to vague instructions and questions in the examinations. This student cited the grammatical mistakes in sentence constructions, making the test items too ambiguous: I have also observed in one of my classes. In the exam, the sentences are so complex. I mean you can t really understand what kind of answer a teacher is looking for and so the tendency is, hindi maintindihan so hindi ko na alam kung ano ang isasagot (Since the question can t be understood, I don t know what to answer). And so aside from the sentence structure, very complicated, grammar pa niya... And so especially with, kasi may mga times na tinatanong niya (there are times that a teacher asks), it is not correct)grammar, kung papansinin mo yung grammar. And so malilito talaga ang estudyante. Again, the issue on teacher s fast-paced talking was brought up, such that if the teacher speaks too fast, instructional clarity is compromised. As a result, a student would lose the lustre of his/her motivation to learn: I experienced kasi that time noong second year when I took English subject. Yung parang instead namamotivatekang mag-aral, walana, kasiparanghindimosiyamaintindihankahitgaanosiyakafluent mag English. Some teachers are very fast talking po. The interview data revealed how students struggled with teacher language limitations and their relation to the quality of instructional clarity in the classroom. In this study, it was found that students equated insufficient English competence with instructional quality in spoken and written forms. Instructional clarity, as stated by 21

Cruickshank, Jenkuns, and Metcalf (2009), has been the focus of much research ever since Rosenshine and Furst (1971) identified it as the most promising teacher variable related to student achievement. Instructional clarity refers to the teacher s ability to provide instruction that helps students come to a clear and accurate understanding of important concepts or ideas. Thus, clarity is something students achieve, not something the teacher does. However, research has identified specific teacher behaviours that students say help them achieve this clarity of understanding (Hines, 1981; Hines, Kennedy, & Cruickshank, 1985). For students with learning disabilities, the clarity of the teacher is of critical importance (Banikowski, 1999; Winter, 2001). Further, according to students, clear teachers emphasise important points by repeating them, writing them on the board or in presentations, pausing after stating them, and reviewing them. They monitor students clarity of understanding by asking questions and providing students with activities and experiences that allow them to apply their knowledge. When students do not understand, clear teachers repeat, review, or rephrase important points. Not surprisingly, teachers who most often and most proficiently use these behaviours to help students understand are associated with significantly greater student learning and satisfaction than teachers who do not (Chesebro & McCroskey, 2001; Hativa, 1998; Holpin, Easterday, & Elrod, 1994; Metcalf, 1992; Metcalf & Cruickshank, 1991). In similar vein, language proficiency constitutes the foundation of the professional confidence of non-native teachers who use or should use English as medium of instruction. Language competence has been rated as the most essential characteristic of a good teacher according to Lange, as cited in Eslami and Fatahi (2008). Berry, as cited in Eslami and Fatahi (2008) conducted a study of two groups of English teachers teaching at the secondary level in Poland. His aim was to determine which of three components (methodology, theory of language teaching, or language improvement) they needed most. Language improvement was ranked as the most important for both groups, and methodology was second, while the two groups ranked theory a poor third. According to Doff, as cited in Eslami and Fatahi (2008), a teacher s confidence in the classroom is undermined by a poor command of the English language. Poor command of the language can affect the self-esteem and professional status of the teacher and interfere with simple teaching procedures. Furthermore, it can keep the teacher from fulfilling the pedagogical requirements of a more communicative approach to language teaching. Conclusion Learning needs abound in a multicultural classroom. In the learning context of the university where the study was conducted, this research was deemed imperative to specifically identify and address the varying needs of the student population from over 50 countries. Findings indicated that the learning needs in the multicultural classroom are culturally responsive teaching, teacher immediacy behaviours, differentiated instruction and teacher language competence and instructional clarity. Each of these themes bears implications to equitable teaching. Students need a culturally responsive teaching, such that if a teacher is culturally sensitive, he/she will endeavour to know student backgrounds and capabilities and eventually make teaching preparation relevant to the needs of actual students with no one left behind. Upon knowing individual students, a teacher can then employ differentiated instruction to meet the needs of all, considering their strengths and learning styles. This learning need is the root of all the other themes as the latter build on the former. Moreover, a good teacher who has committed and taken steps towards culturally responsive teaching will, by all means, employ various teaching strategies. Teacher verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviours will then be manifested as these put across messages of love and concern towards individual students in spite of who they are. Furthermore, since the teacher desires to reach out to students needs, he/ she will use the language of instruction masterfully so that effective communication will eventually lead to mutual understanding and respect. Multicultural education aims for equitable teaching which means that there is equal learning opportunity among all students of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The findings entail the overarching need for school administration to formulate curriculum and instruction policies for foreign students; teachers need to do learning needs assessment at the start of classes in relation to students knowledge and skills of the subject matter; negotiate modifications in the course syllabus with the students; and teachers to become more equipped with pedagogical tools and up-to-date teaching media; need to further improve instructional communication skill in English, both in spoken and written forms. Teacher immediacy behaviours need to be enhanced and practiced as these are integral to students psychological well-being affecting their attitudes towards learning. Finally, data analysis showed students need for teacher s English language competence as 22

this impinges on instructional clarity. Respondents cited teachers frequent use of the Filipino language as a manifestation of the latter s apathy towards their needs as international students, Filipino students included. Hence, teachers need to seriously reflect upon their current practices and see how these affect not only student learning, but also student harmonious development at large. It is thus recommended that teachers rethink their approaches so that students from diverse cultural and language backgrounds will have equal learning opportunities. Further, it is deemed imperative to look into the curriculum and instruction to bring about changes in the way educational programs are conceptualised, organised, and taught. References August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Banks, J. (1989). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies (6 th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Banks, J., & McGee Banks, C. (1989). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Baralis, A. (2009). On the boarder of a new culture: Spanish-speaking middle school newcomers perceptions, expectations and attitudes. Dissertation Abstracts International: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 71(4), 1164-A, ProQuest LLC. Batten, M., Marland, P., & Khamis, M. (1993). Knowing how to teach well: Teachers reflect on their classroom practice. Hawthorn, Australia: Brown Prior Anderson. Borich, G. (2011). Effective Teaching Methods (7 th Ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Boschee, F., Beyer, B., & Engelking, J. (1997). Special and compensatory programs: The administrator s role. Boston: R&L Education. Brophy, J. E. (1992). Probing the subtleties of subject-matter teaching. Educational Leadership, 49(7), 4-12. Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Buskist, W., Benassi, V. (2012). Effective College and University Teaching. Washington D.C.:SAGE Publications, Inc. Cain, C. (2007). Is teaching an art or a science? Retrieve 14 August 2012 from http://www.associatedcontent. com/article/111558/is_teaching_an_art_or_a_science.html Cooper, J. (2011). Classroom Teaching Skills (9 th Ed.). USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Cruickshank, D., Jenkins, DB., & Metcalf, K., (2009). The Act of Teaching (5 th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Culatta, R., Tompkins, M., & Werts, G. (2003). Fundamentals of special education: What every teacher needs to know. Boston: Merrill-Prentice Hall. Cummins, J. (1984). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education. Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Sacramento: Author. Davis, J. (2001). Clear thinking about teaching. Retrieved 10 August 2012 from http://www.ntlf.com/html/ lib/btml_xrpt.htm Dekker, D. (2003). A case study of the first language component bridging program in rural Philippines. Philippine Journal of Linguistics, 34(1), 13-18. Dissertation Abstracts International (2010). The Humanities and Social Sciences, 71(4), 1164-A, ProQuest LLC. Eslami, Z. &Fatahi, A., (2008). Teachers Sense of Self-Efficacy English Proficiency, and Instructional Strategies: A Study of Non-native EFL Teachers in Iran. Retrieved 7 May 2013 from www.tesl-ej.org/wordpress/ issues/ issues/volume11/ej44/ej44a1 Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2006).How to design and evaluate research in education (6 th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Fromm, E. (1956). The art of loving. New York: Harper & Row. Gersten, R. (1996). A delicate balance: Enhancing literature instruction for students of English as a second language. The Reading Teacher, 47, 438-449. Glover, D., & Law, S., (2002). Improving Learning. Buckingham: Open University. Gottlieb, M., (2006). Assessing English Language Learners. California: Corwin Press. Griffin, G., & Barnes, S. (1986). Using research findings to change school and classroom practices: Results of an experimental study. American Educational Research Journal, 23(4), 573-574. 23

Hancock, B. (2002). An introduction to qualitative research. Retrieved 26 August 2012 from http://faculty.cbu. ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/mba603/mba603_files/introqualitative Research.pdf Heward, W. I., & Orlansky, M. D. (1989). Exceptional children (3 rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill. Hymes, D. (1981). Foreword, in Charles A. Ferguson and Shirley Brice Heath, eds., Language in the USA: Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press. Insch, G., Moore, J. E., & Murphy, L. (1997). Content analysis in leadership research: Examples, procedures, and suggestions for future use. The Leadership Quarterly, 8(1), 1-25. Johns, K. M., & Espinoza, C. (1996). Management strategies for culturally diverse classrooms. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa. La Belle, T., & Ward, C. (1994). Multiculturalism and education: Diversity and its impact on schools and society. New York: State University of New York Press. Macias, R. (1986). Teacher preparation for bilingual education. A Report of the Compendium of Papers on the Topic Bilingual Education, 43-44. Mattes, L., & Omark, D. (1984). Speech and language assessment for the bilingual handicapped.usa: College-Hill Press. McIntyre, H. (2012). Creating a multicultural environment in the classroom. Retrieved August 28, 2013 from http://www.brighthubeducation.com/teaching-methods-tips/75909-creating-a-multiculturalenvironment-in-the-classroom/ Moule, J. (2012). Cultural competence: A primer for educators. USA: Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning. Ovando, C. (1989). Bilingual/bicultural education: Its legacy and its future. Phi Delta Kappan. Rieger, A. (2006). Understanding English language learners needs and the language acquisition process: The two educators perspectives. Retrieved 26 August 2012 from http://www.urbanschools.org/pdf/ understanding_ell.pdf. Roy-Campbell, Z. M. (2006). Educational language. Retrieved 22 August 2012 from http://www.springerlink. com/content/w0k503847t315471 Ruddell, M. R. (2008). Teaching content reading and writing. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Santos, A. (2002). Personality ForTodays Youth (2 nd Ed.). Mandaluyong City: National Book Store. Schiff-Myers, N., Djukic, J., McGovern-Lawler, J., & Perez, D. (1993). Assessment considerations in the evaluation of second-language learners: A case study. Retrieved 18 August 2012 from http://www. Findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3130/is_n3_v60/ai_28631381 Serdet, J. V. (1998). Qualitative data analysis. Retrieved 18 August 2012 from ProQuest database. Tahtinen, D. (2009). Making visible the invisible: Dual language teaching practices in monolingual instructional settings. Dissertation Abstracts International: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 71(4), 1164-A, ProQuest LLC. Torrey, J. (1983). Black children s knowledge of Standard English. American Educational Research Journal, 20(4), 627. Trueba, H. T. (1988). Cultural bases explanation of minority students academic achievement. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 19(4), 270-287. Vyhmeister, S. (2006). Writing with integrity. The InFo Journal, 10(2), 64-68. Waters, A., & Vilches, M. L. (2008). Factors affecting ELT reforms: The case of the Philippine basic education curriculum. RELC Journal, 37(2), 260-272. White, E. G. (1903). Education. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. Wood, J., (2007). Interpersonal Communication Everyday Encounters. USA: Thomas Wadsworth. Ysseldyke, J., & Algozzine, R. (1995). Special education: A practical approach for teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. About the Author Gracel Ann S. Saban is currently the Dean of the College of Education and Chair of the Graduate Education Department at Adventist University of the Philippines, Puting Kahoy, Silang, Cavite, Philippines. Email: vercel25@yahoo.com 24

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Experiences in Adventist Colleges/Universities: An International Alumni Perspective Jimmy Kijai, Vinita Sauder and Robert Weaver [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This study examines the college experiences of a sample of graduates of Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. Data were collected using an online questionnaire using Survey Monkey. Responses from 171 alumni suggested that they attended Adventist higher learning institutions for their Adventist values and the opportunity to grow spiritually. About 77% rated their college experience to be good to excellent. They rated their college experience as quite effective in career/life preparation skills and development of community and social values. They were often involved in activities related to religiosity and friends/ relationships. Professor/classroom experience was the best predictor of overall college ratings. Current involvement in religious/community services and life satisfaction are associated with involvement in religious/ spiritual activities, extra-curricular activities and enhanced social/community values while in college. Background of the study In 2005, the Association of Adventist Colleges and Universities (AACU) in North America conducted a study to examine the awareness and perceptions among Adventist college-bound youth regarding Adventist higher education. In this study, Sauder (2008) reported that college-bound youth attending public schools in North America had low awareness of Adventist colleges and universities. In addition, there were few contacts from Adventist colleges and universities with these students. Resulting from the study, a centralised marketing enrolment system managed by a full-time AACU employee in collaboration with the enrolment teams from the colleges and universities was established. This move strengthened one of AACU s strategic initiatives: a collaborative enrolment management and marketing strategy, including system-wide branding, promotion, and prospective student search efforts, primarily among Seventh-day Adventists attending public high schools. A follow-up to the 2005 AACU study, the College-Impact study was completed in 2012. It was designed to examine the college experiences, involvement and satisfaction of alumni who graduated from Adventists colleges and universities in North America as well as Adventists who graduated from public colleges/universities. However, since the College-Impact survey link was promoted in churches and forwarded to many Adventists around the world, the study also included responses from a convenient sample of graduates of Adventist international colleges and universities. It is this sample of graduates (those who received undergraduate degrees from Adventist colleges outside North America) that is the focus of this paper. The result of this study is intended to inform college and university administrators of the strengths and challenges of the Adventist college environment and assist in programme modification and implementation so that current students will continue to have positive college experiences. Together with the 2005 AACU study, we hope this investigation will help us better understand Adventist higher education and assist in improving student life programming, branding and marketing. 25

Literature review Much has been written regarding the impact of college and what conditions provide the most satisfactory and successful higher education experiences. In their book, How College Affects Students: A Third Decade of Research, Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) comprehensively review decades of research and synthesise what has been learned about college influence on student learning and overall experience. Similarly, What Matters Most in College? Four Critical Years Revisited (Astin, 1997) presents a definitive assessment, based on a study of more than 20,000 students in 200 institutions, of how students change and develop in college and how colleges enhance that development through academic programmes, faculty, student peer groups and other variables. Student Success in College: Creating Conditions That Matter (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, and Whitt, 2010) delves into the documented practices at 20 colleges with institutional conditions that are important to student development and success, from research by the DEEP project (Documenting Effective Educational Practice) at the Center for Postsecondary Research, Indiana University. Effective practices in these institutions included high standards for student performance, balancing academic challenge with support for students, respect for cultural differences, active learning, emphasis on the first year of study, feedback, collaboration among students and out-of-class contact with faculty. The value of a residential environment is demonstrated with outcomes of higher persistence rates. Several factors have been cited as reasons why students go to a particular college/university. They include academic reputation, financial aid, cost, location and distance from home and national rankings (Briggs, 2006; Callender & Jackson, 2008; Griffith & Rask, 2007; Hoover, 2008; Ridley et al., 2005). Specific to community colleges, Barreno & Traut (2012) found that students attend these institutions primarily for the following reasons: transferability of courses, available academic programs and quality, campus location, cost, available educational facilities and technology and advice from family and friends. For Christian colleges, Schipull (2009) reported that students chose to attend these institutions for the Christian liberal arts nature of the college, location of the college and the quality of the degree programme. Rood (2009), in his study of first generation students attending Christian colleges, reported that the Christian community nature of the college was a primary reason why they chose to attend the college. In investigating minority students decision to enrol in 4-year faith-based institutions, Confer and Mamiseishvili (2012) reported that campus interaction, extra-curricular activities, academic reputation and facilities, availability of majors and student-friendly institutional Web sites were top reasons. The impact of the college experience has been well documented. Pascarella & Terenzini (2005) in their synthesis of research on how college affects students concluded that students become more mature, knowledgeable and focused during college and that they develop a higher level of overall workplace readiness (p.534). Although somewhat dated, Astin (1997) in his study of how college environment affect student outcomes concluded that the single most powerful source of influence on the undergraduate student s academic and personal development is the peer group (p.8). He further concluded that next to the peer group, interaction with faculty represents the most significant aspect of the student s undergraduate development (p. 11). Several significant studies have examined impact of the college experiences in Christian colleges. A study among Lutheran colleges (Lutheran Educational Conference of North America, 2005) indicated that graduates of Lutheran colleges rate their college experiences as effective in helping them develop leadership skills, speaking and writing skills, team spirit, career preparation skills, political and social awareness, appreciation for the fine arts, moral principles, sense of purpose in life, deepened sense of spirituality, integrate faith with other aspects of their life and a sense of community. The study also reported that personal interaction with professors challenged and mentored them in their academic and faith development. Hunt (2006) echoed the Lutheran study when he stated that undergraduate students identified faculty influence as having the most effect on their faith development (p. 78). Similarly, Birkholz (1997) suggested that faculty and staff have significant influence in students spiritual maturity and closeness with God. The Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (2001) study reported that CCCU graduates credit their college for having the ability to work in teams, thinking analytically, developing career-related skills, integrating faith with other aspects of their lives, modelling spiritual values and developing a sense of community. Similar results were found in studies conducted by the National Catholic College Admission Association (2010). College experience is multi-faceted and inter-related. Several studies suggested that student interactions in classroom discussions and involvement in research projects enhanced critical thinking skills and behaviours, and sense of spirituality (Kinzie et al, 2007; Ma, 2003; Smith, 1980; Tsui, 2002). And professors who integrate 26

ethnic and racial content in their course materials support greater student satisfaction with their college (Villalpando, 2002). Students who took part in an off-campus study tour may lead to growth in self-confidence (Hadis, 2005), self-efficacy (Kehl, 2005), respect for and ability to relate to different culture (Clarke et al, 2009; Engle and Engle, 2004; Hadis, 2005; Wortman, 2002) and support future volunteerism (Dwyer, 2004). The influence of college experiences on post-college involvement in religious and community services and life satisfaction have been examined in several studies. Students who were involved in service learning and community services during college were more likely to be engaged in their community and church and report positive well-being including personal growth, purpose in life and life satisfaction (Bowman et al, 2010; Carpenter, 2002), donate to their alma matter, help others in difficulty and promote racial understanding (Astin, Sax and Avalos, 1999; Vogelgesand and Astin, 2000). Studies by the Lutheran Educational Conference of North America (2005) and the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (2001) appear to suggest that their graduates, compared to graduates of public colleges and universities were more likely to participate in church, financially support the church, foundations and non-profit organsations. The Present Study The College-Impact study involved alumni of Adventist colleges and universities as well as Adventist graduates of public universities and non-adventist private universities in North America. However, a segment of the respondents who participated in the College-Impact study were graduates of Adventist colleges and universities outside of North America. The focus of this paper is this subsample of alumni. In this paper, we addressed the following research questions: (1) what reasons do alumni give for attending Adventist colleges and universities? (2) how do they rate their college experiences? (3) currently, what is their level of involvement in their churches and community? (4) how satisfied are they with their current life? (5) to what extent is overall rating of their college experiences related to specific areas of college experiences? (6) to what extent are current religious/community involvement and life satisfaction related to college experiences? Method Survey research methodology using online survey via Survey Monkey was used as the research framework for this study. Survey research has the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, easily scored, confidential and anonymous, easy to target respondents and use of standardized items and procedures. A primary disadvantage is that it generally yields poor response rate (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012). Procedure We developed an online survey which was then administered via Survey Monkey. Items were generated after conducting a comprehensive review of the literature and other college experience surveys and questionnaires. The final format and items of the survey were the result of feedback from alumni directors, marketing personnel, university professors whose expertise were in curriculum and instruction, higher education, educational research, measurement and applied statistics. While the survey was being developed, we contacted alumni directors of the various Adventist colleges and universities seeking their participation in the College-Impact study. Eleven of the 15 Adventist colleges and universities in North America agreed to participate. Once the survey was finalised, the URL for the survey was sent to the alumni directors who were requested to forward the link to all alumni of their institution who had graduated with undergraduate degrees. According to several alumni directors, up to 20% were bad email addresses. Return rates were less than 10%, according to two alumni directors who tracked the survey delivery and return. We did not think return rates in the other remaining institutions were any different. For Adventists who graduated from public and non-adventist private universities, we worked with the Adventist Christian Fellowship (ACF), the official organisation of Adventist Campus Ministry operating in non-adventist colleges and universities in North America, Bermuda and Guam. Invitations to participate in College-Impact Study were also published in the Spectrum Magazine (the journal of the Association of Adventist Forums), and church bulletins of several randomly selected churches. Individuals who received the survey were also encouraged to forward the link to people who they believe graduated from non-adventist private and public colleges/universities. During data analysis, we discovered that there were respondents who graduated from Adventist colleges 27

and universities outside North America. We then created a separate data set for this group of alumni. The analyses reported in this paper are of alumni who graduated from Adventist colleges/universities outside North America. Participants Participants in this particular study were 226 alumni of Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. They represent graduates of Avondale College in Australia to River Plate University in Argentina and Adventist colleges in between these two countries. After excluding participants who had large number of missing values, the effective sample size is 171. The demographic characteristics are summarised in Table 1. Approximately half (50.3%) are male. About one-third is black (32.2%) primarily from Africa (19.9%) and the Caribbean (35.7%). At the time they were in college, 84.8% reported they were Adventists. At the time of the study (2012), 73.1% reported they are Adventists. Slightly over half (55%) graduated with undergraduate degrees within the last 20 years. About 44% currently live in the United States or Canada. Instrumentation We developed an online survey to collect the data for this study. The online survey was administered via Survey Monkey. The survey consisted of 265 items designed to elicit demographic characteristics, reasons for choosing and attending Adventist colleges/universities, 9 college experiences areas (career preparation, social and community values, purpose/philosophy values, classroom experience, professor interaction, friends and relationships, personal/professional development, extra-curricular experiences, and spiritual experiences), current involvement in church and community, life satisfaction, importance and benefits of college experiences, commitment to Adventist education and denominational loyalty. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics (N=171) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Variable n % ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Gender Male 86 50.3 Female 52 30.4 Ethnicity Asian 18 10.5 Black 55 32.2 Hispanic 16 9.4 White 26 15.2 Other 22 12.9 College/University Graduated From Africa 34 19.9 Asia 10 5.8 Australia 3 1.8 Caribbean 61 35.7 Central America 12 7.0 Europe 22 12.9 India 11 6.4 Middle East 2 1.2 South America 4 2.3 Year Graduated 1954-1969 5 2.9 1970-1979 14 8.2 1980-1989 35 20.5 1990-1999 47 27.5 2000-2009 44 25.7 2010-2012 3 1.8 28

Religious Affiliation College SDA 145 84.8 Non-SDA 16 9.4 Now SDA 125 73.1 Non-SDA 12 7.0 Current Residence USA/Canada 75 43.9 Other 65 38.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Percentages to not necessarily add to 100% due to missing values Items for the survey were generated and developed from (a) a comprehensive review of the literature, (b) reviews of college experience surveys, (c) feedback from alumni directors, (d) feedback from a panel of judges whose expertise are in marketing, educational research, higher education and curriculum and instruction. Feedback was used to modify response options, and delete or revise items for clarity. For the purpose of this particular study, only items related to the following are used: demographic characteristics, reasons for attending Adventist colleges, the 9 college experiences areas, overall rating of college experiences, current involvement in church and community, and life satisfaction. Reasons for attending Adventist colleges consisted of a check list (Yes/No). Items for the 9 college experiences areas, involvement in church/community and life satisfaction were scaled along a 5-point modified Likert scale (e.g. never to always, not at all to very effective). Kijai (2013) reported that exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the data for all participants (North America and the sample used in this particular paper) indicated that items measuring the 9 college experiences areas can be adequately explained by six factors (career/life satisfaction, religious/spiritual experiences, social community values, friends/relationships, professors/classroom and extra-curricular experiences). Items measuring current religious/community experiences can be explained by two factors (religious involvement, community involvement) while items measuring life satisfaction can be explained by two factors (personal life satisfaction, relationship life satisfaction). For the sample in this study, scale means, standard deviations, number of items and reliability estimates (Cronbach s alpha) are reported in Tables 2 and 3. Internal consistency reliabilities range from a low of 0.75 for community involvement to a high of 0.96 for religious/ spiritual experiences. Table 2: Ratings of College Experiences ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Variables N Mean SD #Items Crobach s Alpha ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Career and life preparation 171 3.86 a 0.68 24 0.95 Religious and spiritual experience 171 3.82 b 0.90 27 0.96 Social and community values 171 3.57 a 0.80 8 0.92 Friends and relationships 171 3.90 b 0.67 11 0.91 Professor/classroom experiences 171 3.38 b 0.79 15 0.90 Extra-curricular activities 171 2.72 b 1.05 8 0.80 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a 1-Not at all, 2-slightly effective, 3-somewhat effective, 4-quite effective, 5-extremely effective b 1-Never, 2-rarely, 3-sometimes, 4-often, 5-Always 29

Table 3: Religious/Community Involvement and Life Satisfaction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Variable N Mean SD #Items Cronbach s Alpha -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Religious involvement 136 3.75 a 0.94 11 0.93 Community involvement 136 2.99 a 0.91 8 0.75 Personal life satisfaction 139 3.72 b 0.72 6 0.83 Relationship life satisfaction 139 3.80 b 0.98 3 0.76 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- a 1-Never, 2-rarely, 3-sometimes, 4-often, 5-always b 1-Not at all, 2-slightly, 3-moderately, 4-very, 5-completely Result Reasons for college choices Reasons reported for choosing and attending Adventist colleges and universities are summarised in Table 4. About 75% indicated they chose to attend Adventist colleges and universities for their Adventist values. Sixty-one percent attended for opportunities for spiritual growth. About half (48%) chose Adventist colleges for their friendly atmosphere. Another 45% chose them for their programmes and majors. Unimportant reasons appear to be sports program (2.3%), location from home (6.4%), and admission standard (9.9%). Table 4: Reasons for Attending Adventist Colleges/Universities (N=171) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Reasons n % ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Adventist values 129 75.4 Opportunities for spiritual growth 104 60.8 Friendly social atmosphere 82 48.0 Programs/majors available 78 45.6 Advice of parents/relatives 62 36.3 Strong academic reputation 60 35.1 Personal attention/interaction with faculty/staff 57 33.3 Location close to home 56 32.7 Low cost/price 47 27.5 Be with friends/meet new friends 32 18.7 Small size 32 18.7 Flexible admission standards 31 18.1 Small class sizes 27 15.8 Availability of scholarship/financial aid 26 15.2 Competitive admission standards 17 9.9 Advice of school personnel 13 7.6 Location far from home 11 6.4 Fast track to a career 9 5.3 Large size 4 2.3 Sports program 4 2.3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- College experiences We asked alumni how effective their college experiences were in helping them develop (a) career and life skills and (b) social and community values. We also asked them how often they were engaged in activities related to (a) religious/spiritual experience, friends and relationship, professor/classroom experiences, and extra-curricular activities. Means and standard deviations for each of these six areas are summarised in Table 30

2. Generally, Adventist colleges and universities were quite effective (M=3.86, SD=0.68) in helping alumni develop career and life preparation skills. They were only somewhat effective (M=3.57, SD=0.80) in helping the alumni develop social and community values. Alumni were often involved in activities related to religious and spiritual experiences (M=3.82, SD=0.90) and friends and relationships (M=3.90, SD=0.67). They were involved only sometimes with activities related to professor/classroom experiences (M=3.38, SD=0.79) and extra-curricular programs (M=2.72, SD=1.05). To be specific, over 80% of the alumni reported that the institutions they attended were quite effective to extremely effective in helping them develop (a) moral principles that can guide actions (85.29%), (b) knowledge specific to their careers (81.29%), and (c) a sense of purpose in their lives (81.07%). Adventist institutions were quite effective to extremely effective in helping them develop (a) the ability to relate to people of different culture (77.84%), (b) a deeper understanding of the importance of healthy living (75.30%), (c) personal compassion for the underprivileged (65.87%), and (d) understanding of social justice (53.01%). While in college, they regularly attended church (88.27%), participated in Bible study (71.25%), contributed money to their church (68.12%) and participated in evangelistic outreach programs (53.42%). They also often felt a sense of God s calling for their lives (82.35%), a deepened sense of spirituality (81.18%) and a stronger commitment to their church (77.06%). Seventy-five percent or more of the alumni reported that they had positive experiences with their professors and their classrooms. Approximately 80% indicated that professors positively influenced their intellectual growth; another 76% said their professors really challenged them academically. Seventy-five percent reported their professors integrated values and ethics in classroom discussions and 69.64% said their professors positively influenced their relationship with Christ. About 80% reported they had positive social experiences. Most had friends with similar values and beliefs (85.45%); who attended worships with them (81.21%); and positively influenced their attitudes and values (77.58%); and intellectual growth (76.97%). With respect to involvement in extra-curricular activities, 52.83% reported leading at their church in some ways; 49.08% participated in campus clubs; 37.42% held leadership positions in student government; and 35.44% led in community services. Current involvement and life satisfaction In our survey, we asked alumni the extent of their involvement in their churches and communities over the last five years. We also asked them how satisfied they are with their current life. Table 3 summarizes their ratings. Overall, in the past five years, alumni were often involved in religious activities (M=3.75, SD=0.94) and sometimes involved in community services (M=2.99, SD=0.91). Specifically, alumni reported being involved in the following religious activities often/regularly in the last five years: attending worship services (90.44%); contributing money to their church (85.82%); volunteering at their church (75.19%); participating in prayer group/bible study (68.89%); and participating in evangelistic outreach programmes (51.13%). About 70% are in leadership positions in their work place while 56% participate in professional organisations related to their careers. About 40% participate in community services and projects. Most are very satisfied with their personal life (M=3.72, SD=0.72) as well as their relationships (M=3.80, SD=0.98). Most are very satisfied with their mental health (79.14%), faith and spirituality (72.46%), physical health (68.12%) and career (64.23%). Over 70% are satisfied with their family life (74.10%) and marriage or dating relationships (70.15%). About 57% are satisfied with their social support. College experiences and overall rating We asked the alumni to rate their overall college experiences. About 77% reported their college experiences to be good to excellent. We were also interested in which of the six college experiences areas may explain this overall rating. For this we performed a standard regression analysis. Zero order correlations between college experience areas and overall ratings are found in Table 5. These coefficients ranged from negligible (0.18) to moderate (0.48). As shown in Table 6, the regression model is statistically significant (F (6,139) =7.98, p 0.001) and explains about 26% of the variance in alumni ratings of their overall college experience. That is, the linear combination of the 6 college experience areas accounts for 26% of the variance in overall rating of alumni college experience. However, the only statistically significant factor (p<.01) and the most important factor (β=0.37) appears to be professors/classroom experiences, which alone explains about 23% of the variance (r=0.48) in overall college experience. This result suggests that overall college experiences may be primarily defined by professor/classroom experience. 31

College experiences, current involvement and life satisfaction In our study, we asked alumni their level of religious and community involvement during the last five years. We also asked them to rate their current life satisfaction. We were interested in the extent to which current religious/community involvement and life satisfaction are related to college experiences. For this, we conducted a canonical correlation analysis. Correlation coefficients between involvement and satisfaction variables are reported in Table 5. Coefficients among involvement variables range from moderate (r=0.48) to high (r=0.78); coefficients among satisfaction variables also range from moderate (r=0.5) to high (r=0.75). Coefficients between involvement and satisfaction variables range from a low of r=0.26 between social/ community values and religious involvement to a high of r=0.71 between religious/spiritual experience and religious involvement. Table 5: Zero-order Correlation among Experiences, Involvement and Satisfaction Variables ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1Career and life preparation.64.68.57.78.43.36.45.46.47.45 2Religious and spiritual experience.58.63.59.59.71.58.60.54.34 3Social and community values.62.73.51.26.48.33.32.39 4Friends and relationships.69.48.37.42.42.43.30 5Professor/classroom experiences.49.26.42.37.38.48 6Extra-curricular activities.36.48.37.40.18 7Religious involvement.67.56.51.12 8Community involvement.58.51.19 9Personal life satisfaction.75.21 10Relationship life satisfaction.25 11Overall rating of college experience - ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Table 6: College Experiences and Overall Rating -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Variable b SE β t p -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Career/life preparation 0.15 0.13 0.15 1.12 0.26 Religious/spiritual experience 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.68 0.50 Social community values 0.04 0.10 0.05 0.43 0.67 Friends/relationships -0.06 0.11-0.05-0.51 0.61 Professors/classroom 0.32 0.12 0.37 2.61 0.01 Extra-curricular activities -0.06 0.06-0.10-1.06 0.29 (Constant) 1.65 0.35 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- R 2 =0.26, F (6,139) =7.98, p 0.001 The canonical correlation analysis result is reported in Table 7. Two canonical functions are statistically significant (p<0.001). In the first canonical function, overlapping variance between the set of experiences variables and the set of involvement/satisfaction variables is 0.0.59 (r c =0.77). That is, approximately 59% of the variance in involvement/satisfaction variables can be explained by the college experiences variables. Using canonical loadings of 0.3 or larger (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013), high scores on all involvement/ satisfaction variables are associated with high scores on all experiences variables. That is, higher religious involvement (0.95), higher personal life satisfaction (0.78) and relationship satisfaction (0.70 and higher community involvement (0.69) are associated with higher college religious/spiritual involvement (0.97), more positive career/life preparation experience (0.57), friends/relationship experience (0.56), professor/ classroom experiences (0.42) higher involvement in extracurricular activities (0.53), and more developed social/community values. Primarily, according to the standardised canonical coefficients for Function 1, current religious involvement (0.77) and personal life satisfaction (0.31) can be largely explained by college religious/spiritual involvement (1.07). 32

Table 7: Canonical Correlation Analysis Result ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Canonical Standardised Canonical Loadings Coefficients 1 2 1 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Experiences Career/life preparation 0.57 0.59 0.16 0.32 Religious/spiritual 0.97 0.17 1.07-0.85 Social community Values 0.40 0.78-0.21 0.60 Friends/relationships 0.56 0.47 0.09 0.05 Professor/classroom 0.42 0.68-0.25 0.18 Extracurricular 0.53 0.62 0.02 0.56 % of Variance 0.37 0.34 Redundancy 0.22 0.08 Involvement/Life Satisfaction Religious involvement 0.95-0.11 0.77-1.05 Community involvement 0.69 0.62-0.07 1.20 Personal satisfaction 0.78 0.27 0.32-0.21 Relationship satisfaction 0.70 0.40 0.10 0.49 % of Variance 0.62 0.16 Redundancy 0.37 0.04 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Canonical Correlation 0.77 0.49 Wilk s 0.28 0.70 Chi-Square 162.60 45.40 df 24 15 p <0.001 <0.001 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In Function 2, approximately 24% of the variance in involvement/satisfaction variables can be explained by the set of college experience variables (r c =0.49). In this function, current community involvement (0.62) and relationship satisfaction (0.40) are associated with social/community values (0.78), professor/classroom (0.68), extra-curricular activities (0.62), career/life preparation (0.59) and friends/relationship (0.47). The standardised canonical coefficients for Function 2 appear to indicate that current community involvement (1.20) and relationship satisfaction (0.49) can be explained largely by social/community (0.60), extra-curricular activities (0.56) and religious/spiritual (-0.85). Taken together, the canonical correlation analysis result appears to suggest that greater involvement in religious/community services and higher life satisfaction are associated with more positive college experiences. Specifically, higher levels of current religious involvement and more positive personal life satisfaction can be explained primarily by more positive college religious and spiritual experiences; and levels of current community involvement and relationship satisfaction may be explained by enhanced social/community values and greater involvement in extra-curricular activities while in college. Discussion In this study, we examined the college experiences, current religious and community involvement and life satisfaction of alumni of Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. Participants reported that they chose to attend Adventist colleges and universities for their Adventist values and the opportunities they provide for personal spiritual growth. Most rated their college experience as good to excellent. Generally, Adventist colleges and universities were somewhat effective to quite effective in helping the respondents develop career/life preparation skills and social and community values. Alumni were often involved in activities related to religious/spiritual experiences and friends/relationships. They reported to have been involved only sometimes with activities related to professor/classroom experiences and extra-curricular 33

programs. However, it is interesting to note that professor/classroom experience was the best predictor of overall rating of their college experiences. Most are currently involved in their churches and communities and are quite satisfied with their life. Current involvement in religious/community services and life satisfaction are primarily explained by involvement in religious/spiritual activities, extra-curricular activities and enhanced social/community values while in college. In our study, students chose to attend Adventist colleges for their Adventist values and the opportunities for spiritual growth. These institutions appear to have fulfilled their expectations. In our study, 65% reported they benefitted quite a bit to very much from the emphasis on personal values and ethics; 76% said they benefited from the opportunities for spiritual development. Our findings are consistent with Schipull (2009) and Rood (2009) who reported that many attend faith-based colleges for their Christian community. Adventist educational institutions around the world are faith-based and are described as such. At Avondale College, students may enjoy Christian fellowship while receiving quality education ; at Babcock University, the emphasis is on the integration of faith and learning, knowing that to educate a man without God is to educate an intelligent devil ; at Andrews University, its mission is to transforms its students by educating them to seek knowledge and affirm faith in order to change the world ; and the educational community of River Plate University are based on the Holy Bible, based on Christian values. The experiences of the alumni of Adventist colleges around the world are largely positive, particularly in areas related to career/life preparation, religious/spiritual and values development. This is consistent with findings found in the Lutheran Educational Conference of North America (2005a, 2005b); the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (2001) and the Minnesota Private College Research Foundation (2004). Faith-based institutions provide an environment that is conducive not only for academic and career development but also for spiritual/religious and values development. In our study, overall rating of college experiences is related to interaction with professors and classroom-related experiences. Interaction with faculty and faculty influence significantly affect students undergraduate academic and faith development (Astin, 1993; Birkholz, 1997; Hunt, 2006; NCCAA, 2010). We found in this study that post graduate involvement in religious and community services and life satisfaction are related to positive college experiences, particularly those involving religious/spiritual activities, development of community and social values, and involvement in extra-curricular activities. Consistent with previous studies (e.g. LECNA, 2005; CCCU, 2001, MPCRF, 2004) alumni are more likely to be involved in their church and community if they, as college students, had been involved in similar activities. They are also quite satisfied with personal and relationship lives. A high percentage (up to 75%) of the alumni in this study were involved in academic, religious, community and extra-curricular activities. Our findings seem to parallel those found in the Lutheran, Christian Coalition and Minnesota Catholic studies. That is, college experiences in Adventist colleges are largely positive and that these experiences may influence post-graduate life satisfaction and involvement in religious/community services. Our results suggest that the more involved and engaged the alumni were in college, the more likely they are involved in their churches and community and are satisfied with life. This seems to imply that Adventist higher learning institutions should continue to engage students in all facets of the college/university life. We believe student life programming should be strengthened and that students should be encouraged to be actively involved in the college life. Limitation and implication At only 171, our sample is small, relative to all the graduates of the Adventist colleges and universities outside North America. The respondents in this particular study were obtained indirectly, in that, they responded to our survey only because they were also graduates of colleges and universities in North America. They may be the cream of the crop of their undergraduate alma mater, and thus, may not be representative of the general population of alumni of these international Adventist colleges and universities. Further studies should be designed with a larger sample size and a more representative sample of the general population of alumni. With a larger sample size, it would be possible to examine gender and geographical differences. It would also be possible to examine differences across decades of degree completion. About 44% of the respondents in this study currently live in the United States and Canada. Their level of involvement in their churches and community and life satisfaction may be very different from those alumni who have remained in their respective countries. Further studies should be undertaken to understand post graduate religious and community involvement. 34

The influence of the college experience on denominational loyalty should be examined. What aspects of the college experience are related to retention, conversion and apostasy? College experiences and engagement of current students in Adventist higher learning institutions should be conducted, particularly, because the population of non-adventist students in many Adventist educational institutions has become larger over the last several years. How does this changing demography in Adventist institutions influence values development? References Astin, A. W. (1997). What matters most in college: Four critical years revisited. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Astin, A. W., Sax, L.J., & Avalos, J. (1999). Long-term effects of volunteerism during the undergraduate years. The Review of Higher Education, 22(2), 187-202. Barreno, Y. and Traut, C. A. (2012). Students decisions to attend public two-year community colleges. Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 33(11), 863-871. Birkholz, D. M. (1994). Walking with God: Students stories of spiritual growth at a small Christian college. Dissertation Abstracts International A, 55 (09). Retrieved April 9, 2010, from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses. (UMI No. 9501457). Bowman, N. A. (2009). College diversity courses and cognitive development among students from privileged and marginalized groups. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2(3), 182-194. Briggs, S. (2006). An exploratory study of the factors influencing undergraduate student choice: The case of higher education in Scotland. Studies in Higher Education, 31, 705-722. Callender, C., & Jackson, J. (2008). Does the fear of debt constrain the choice of University and subject of study? Studies in Higher Education, 33, 405-429. Carpenter, J. D. (2002). Co-curricular involvement of West Virginia four-year state college students and the statistical relationship with post-graduate community and professional involvement, leadership, salary, and job satisfaction. Dissertation Abstracts International A, 63 (06). Retrieved September 29, 2010, from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses. (UMI No. 3055909). Clarke, I., Flaherty, T. B., Wright, N. D., & McMillen, R. M. (2009). Student intercultural proficiency from study abroad programs. Journal of Marketing Education, 31(2), 173-181. Confer, C. and Mamiseishvili, K. (2012). College choice of minority students admitted to institutions in the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. Journal of College Admission, Fall, 4-16. Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. (2001). Comparative alumni research: What matters in college after college. Retrieved April 23, 2010, from http://www.cccu.org/news/research_measures_cccu_ alumni_outcomes Dwyer, M. M. (2004). More is better: The impact of study abroad program duration. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10, 151-164. Engle, L., & Engle, J. (2004). Assessing language acquisition and intercultural sensitivity development in relation to study abroad program design. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10(1), 219-236. Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E. and Airasian, P. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Griffith, A., & Rask, K. (2007). The influence of the U.S. News and World Report collegiate rankings on the matriculation decisions of high-ability students: 1995-2004. Economics of Education Review, 26I, 244-255. Hadis, B. (2005). Gauging the impact of study abroad: How to overcome the limitations of a single-cell design. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(1), 3-19. Hoover, E. (2008, February). Colleges face tough sell to freshman, survey finds. Chronicle of Higher Education, 54, A1. Howell, D. (2013). Statistical methods for psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning Hunt, B. G. (2006). Supports and challenges in the faith development in Jesus Christ in traditionally aged college students (Doctoral Dissertation). Azusa, California: Azusa Pacific University. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?did=1158515781&fmt=7&clientid=1898&rqt=309&vname=pqd Kehl, K. L. (2005). Differences in self-efficacy and global-mindedness between short-term and semester-long study abroad participants of selected Christian universities (Doctoral Dissertation). Baylor University. Retrieved April 20, 2010 from http://hdl.handle.net/2104/3013 35

Kijai, J. (2013). Exploratory factor analysis of the College Impact Study survey (Unpublished research monograph). Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Kinzie, J., Gonyea, R., Kuh, G. D., Umbach, P., Blaich, C., & Korkmaz, A. (2007). The relationship between gender and student engagement in college. Retrieved April 20, 2010 from http://www.womenscolleges.org/ files/pdfs/gender-and-student-engagement-in-college.pdf Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. H., and Whitt, E. J. (2010). Student success in college: Creating conditions that matter. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lutheran Educational Conference of North America. (2005a). Lutheran student comparison: Lutheran students at Lutheran colleges and Flagship publics. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from http://www.lutherancolleges. org/resources. Lutheran Educational Conference of North America. (2005b). Overall comparison: Lutheran colleges to Flagship publics. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from http://www.lutherancolleges.org/resources Ma, S. Y. (2003). The Christian college experience and the development of spirituality among students. Christian Higher Education, 2(4), 321-339. National Catholic College Admission Association. (2010). A Comparative Advantage Alumni Study for the National Catholic College Admission Association. Retrieved April 20, 2010 from http://www.catholiccollegesonline.org/parents-students/10-reasons-for-attending-catholic-college.html. Pascarella, E. T. and Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ridley, K., White, K., Styles, B., & Morrison, J. (2005). Factors affecting applications to Oxford and Cambridge Repeat survey. Slough, Berkshire, UK: National Foundation for Educational Research. Retrieved April 23, 2010 from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/143184.pdf Rood, R. E. (2009). Driven to achieve: First-generation students narrated experience at a private Christian college. Christian Higher Education, 8, 225-254. Sauder, V. (2008). Marketing Seventh-day Adventist higher education: College-choice motivators and barriers (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. Schipull, R. L. (2009). Factors Determining Student Choice of Christian Liberal Arts Colleges (Masters Thesis). OhioLINK / University of Toledo. Retrieved April 27, 2010 from http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/ view?acc_num Smith, D. G. (1980). College Instruction: Four Empirical Views of instruction and outcomes in an undergraduate setting. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. Retrieved April 26, 2010 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/ servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed192676. Tabachnick, B. G. and Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Tsui, L. (2002). Fostering Critical Thinking through Effective Pedagogy: Evidence from Four Institutional Case Studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 73(6), 740-763. Villalpando, O. (2002). The Impact of Diversity and Multiculturalism on All Students: Findings from a National Study. NASPA Journal, 40(1), 124-144. Vogelgesang, L. J., & Astin, A. W. (2000). Comparing the Effects of Community Service and Service-Learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 7(1), 25-34. Wortman, T. I. (2002). Psychosocial effects of studying abroad: Openness to diversity. Pennsylvania, United States: The Pennsylvania State University. About the Authors Jimmy Kijai, PhD, is professor in the School of Education at Andrews University, Michigan, USA. Vinita Sauder, PhD, is Vice President for Strategic Initiatives at Southern Adventist University, Tennessee, USA. Robert Weaver, MBA, is a member of the Association of Adventist Colleges and Universities. 36

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Effect of Performance-Based Rewards on the Performance of Teachers in Selected Private Secondary Schools in Uganda Leonard Richard Mghweno, Mark Obboko and Stella Adongo [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International ScholarsCofeenceheld at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract A cross-sectional and correlation research was conducted to investigate the effects of performance-based rewards on the performance of teachers in selected private secondary school in Gayaza Township in Uganda; using questionnaire and interview guide to 113 respondents. The study revealed the types of performance-based rewards common in private secondary schools to be public appreciation (mean, 3.67), packages (gifts or presents) (mean, 3.44), duty allowance (mean, 3.41), certificate of merit (mean, 3.21), and overtime pay (mean, 2.98). The study revealed also that there is a significant relationship between the performance-based rewards and performance of teachers which was moderately rated (mean, 3.22), with r-value = 0.743 and p-value = 0.012 at α = 0.05. It is concluded that, when used properly, performance-based rewards can improve teachers performance, consequently the general performance of students. Key Words: Performance, rewards, appreciation, merit Introduction People influence important aspects of organisational performance in a multiple ways. Workers conceive and implement the organisational strategy, while the mix of workers and system mostly determine organisation s capabilities. Competencies required to execute the strategy are primarily a function of the skills and knowledge of an organisation s human capital. If an organisation is to treat its employees as its most important asset, it has to know what motivates the workers to reach their full potential (Lawler, 2003). It is not easy to know all the things that motivate people in life or at work but effort has to be made to maximise human resource potentials. Traditionally, individual performance in organisations has centred on the evaluation of performance and the allocation of rewards. Organisations nowadays acknowledge that planning and enabling individual performance have an effect on organisational performance. The planning process is one of the primary elements of the total reward system and it affects performance between pay checks. It provides the basis on which individuals results are measured and acts as a bonding agent in programmes that direct rewards to true performance. The primary focus of reward and recognition is how organisations define their reward schemes and communicate it in a manner that employees clearly understand the link between reward and performance (Flynn, 1998, in Kirunda, 2004). Reward is something that increases the frequency of an employee action (Zigon, 1998), and retention (Jimenez, 1999). It can take a form of monetary or non-monetary. Non-monetary recognition can be very motivating, helping to build feelings of confidence and satisfaction than even monetary (Keller, 1999, cited in Ryan), and should be part of comprehensive performance improvement strategy. In fact, in a study by Nelson (2004), 78% of employees indicated that it was very or extremely important to be recognised by their managers when they do good work. In general, employees perform more energetically when they feel strongly connected to and valued by the organisation. One can imagine how the disciples of Jesus worked after he had given them a rest after a day s toil, come and rest awhile Mark 6:30, 31 (KJV). 37

In the education sector, the quality of education depends on the teachers performance of their duties. Over time pupils academic performance in both internal and external examinations had been used to determine excellence in teachers and teaching (Ajao, 2001). Teachers have been shown to have an important influence on students academic achievement and they also play a crucial role in educational attainment because the teacher is ultimately responsible for translating policy into action and principles based on practice during interaction with the students (Afe, 2001). Both teaching and learning depend on teachers; no wonder an effective teacher has been conceptualised as one who produces desired results in the course of duty as a teacher (Uchefuna, 2001). Performance refers to the result of an activity according to Boddy (2008). Upon individuals results, there are three main models of performance-based rewards that are commonly found in education systems. The first model is merit-pay, which generally involves individual pecuniary awards based on student performance, and classroom observation (McCollum, 2001, in Harvey-Beavis, 2003). The second model is knowledge and skill-based compensation, which generally involves individual pecuniary rewards for acquired qualifications and demonstrated knowledge and skills, which are believed to increase student performance (Ibid.). Knowledge and skill-based pay differs from merit pay because it provides clear guidelines on what is being evaluated. The third model is school-based compensation, which generally involves group-based pecuniary rewards, typically based on student performance (Odden & Kelley, 2002). For purposes of this study, performance based reward refer to what a teacher earns as a result of his/her performance despite his/her skilfulness, knowledge and the level of education. Performance-based rewards have a long history in education, particularly in the United States, but nowadays a number of countries have adopted pay-for-performance strategies to modify the traditional salary scales. The distinguishing feature of a performance-based scheme is that it rewards or sanctions teachers based upon some form of performance evaluation (Chamberlin, et.al, 2002). Kirunda (2004) observed: Distinctions in performance-based reward programmes are found in the skills assessed and the rewards provided. Most individually-based programs have used pecuniary rewards for high levels of performance, usually defined in terms of student outcomes or teacher skills and knowledge. Today, some analysts have proposed that intrinsic rewards, such as seeing students improve in performance, and increased feelings of well-being are better motivators of teachers. Other rewards include increased holiday time and professional development courses. Different performance-based rewards have been applied worldwide with different results and preferences recorded. Many of the earlier programmes tended to focus on individual performance, in particular merit pay (Richardson, 1999), with recent debates more likely to consider group-based reward programmes, or knowledge and skill based rewards (Odden, 2000; Odden and Kelley, 2002). However, Azordegan, et.al. (2005) in their study on diversifying teacher compensation discovered that many countries have consolidated individual performance bonuses into base pay. Others prefer to administer them in the form of one-off payments either as a token for a good year s work or a reward for contribution to a project. However, according to Langdon (1998), only 40% of teachers as by 1998, favoured performance based compensations. The reasons given being; it is difficult to evaluate teacher s performance, teachers morale problem may arise, and possibility of arising political problems in schools. Furthermore, Solmon and Podgursky (undated), synthesises fifteen disadvantages of using performance-based compensations to teachers, among them being; discontentment of the choice of beneficiaries, insufficiency of the pay comparing to the work required, bias and favouritism, killing the spirit of collaboration and inculcating competition, teachers working for pay and not for teaching. The imposition of the motivation strategy was also mentioned with a great concern. Teachers feel like been not valued if the motivation scheme is decided by other people for them. A good example is in the United States where there has been a push from parents to pay teachers according to the performance of teachers, but even up to 2010 this idea has greatly been opposed by teachers (Turner, 2010). On the other hand, the recommendations made by the independent School Teachers Review Body in UK (STRB) in 2012, called the government to link teachers pay more closely to performance. Under this policy, heads and governors are given freedom to reward their staff, in that head teachers at all state schools will be able to link teachers pay to performance allowing them to pay good teachers more. Heads can develop pay policies tailored to their schools needs; helping them attract and retain talented teachers in the subject areas they know they need (DES, 2013). Whereas this idea has been received with two hands by head teachers, there is no evidence that the same will be received by teachers. 38

In addition, Harvey-Beavis (2003), records comprehensive findings from different studies on the effect of performance-based rewards. He noted that performance-based rewards increase motivation of teachers and collegiality, among others, consequently, increased students performance. He further reports arguments by some researchers that while teachers are not motivated by money, financial reward must have some influence on career choices for at least some teachers (Richardson, 1999), but money is just one motivator among many (Odden and Kelley, 2002). Again, it is good to note that whereas one motivating system can fit one group, it may be rejected in other places. Where performance-based rewards were used, it was realised that team-based performance rewards were less common, and were normally associated with completing a particular task or project, or achieving a prescribed performance target. However, many opposed the idea of awarding an individual which is the current trend in many schools. As it is stated by Harvey-Beavis (2003), rewarding individual performance can be detrimental to teacher collaboration; thereby reducing overall school performance. Conversely, reward s ystems based entirely on whole school performance can result in free riders who reduce the overall reward of high performers by not contributing at the same level. In Uganda, employers in private secondary schools have not put up any standard measure upon which employees are rewarded. Some employers have used pecuniary rewards for high levels of performance, usually defined in terms of student outcomes or teacher skills and knowledge (Chamberlin, et.al, 2002). It has been evident in some schools that when students perform well, the concerned teachers in candidate classes are given some rewards which may not be the case with other teachers who teach in other classes yet they also play a role in preparing these candidates in lower classes for the final exams. Other individuals in private schools have also been rewarded on grounds of nepotism and other unclear grounds. It is upon such a background that some teachers have performed reluctantly while others continue to be promoted due to their pseudo performance. In this note, Kirunda (2004) notices inconsistencies in the reward systems in the private secondary schools of Kampala district and recommends that rewards should be based on performance considerations after a fair and accurate evaluation of its effects on the beneficiary. She further suggests that the nature of performance-based reward systems in schools should be based on the essence of ensuring that teachers are looked at as the prime components in the success of any school, administratively and academically. Administrators should also be trained and sensitized about the value of performance-based reward systems and also be made aware that pay motivates teachers to perform at their best. In other words, employers have the opportunity to leverage the value of their total rewards program to provide solutions to all the challenges affecting teachers; this would increase their motivation and their performance. On the other hand, some school employers realised that they could not merely mimic the rewards practices of other schools since each school differ from the other, especially economically. What is feasible in one school or situation may not apply in another. This study was based on the assumption that employers attitudes towards performance based rewards determines employees work performance, in other words, it motivates or de-motivates them. The value that the employers attach to the rewards that they give to their teachers determines the teachers perception of these rewards and their overall performance. The study also assumes that the effect of performance based rewards differ from one situation to another, from one socio-economic setup to another. The study therefore, sought to evaluate the effect of performance based rewards in school performance in African and sub-urban environment and relate it with such studies done in other places. The study aimed to answer the following questions: What are the types of performance-based rewards systems used in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township? What is the performance of teachers in secondary schools in Gayaza Township? Is there a relationship between performance based reward systems and teachers performance in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township? The objective of the study was to identify the types of performance-based rewards used, establish the performance of teachers and determine the relationship that exists between the rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools of Gayaza Township in Uganda. Methodology The study used a cross-sectional survey and correlation design adopting qualitative and quantitative methodologies (adapted from Kirunda, 2004). The study population constituted mainly private secondary schools, head teachers and teachers. This population was chosen because it was assumed to have adequate knowledge of the subject under investigation and the research variables under investigation. There are 10 privately owned secondary schools in Gayaza Township, since they were few all of them were used for the 39

study. A sample size of 113 respondents was drawn from a population of 157 individuals using Yamane s formula (Israel, 2009), employing simple random sampling technique (Table 1). The study used a self-administered questionnaire with open and closed ended questions to collect data from the respondents. Specifically, the questionnaire was designed in a way that it limited the nature of responses provided on the close-ended part and allowed respondents to give in their feelings and opinions in the open-ended section. The questionnaire was constructed based on the objectives of the study. Content validity index (C.V.I) was ascertained before the questionnaire was administered, which generated an overall CVI of.811. On the other hand, reliability involved, quality control which was done by carrying out a pre-test of the questionnaire to test the reliability using Cronbach s alpha coefficient. The pre-test result was 0.841 which was above Cronbach s alpha coefficient, 0.70; hence the tool was considered as reliable. An interview guide consisting of semi-structured questions was designed and administered to the head teachers. The choice of this instrument was made because it was considered a good method for producing data, which dealt with the topic in depth. Interviewing was also a good method for producing data based on informants priorities, opinions and ideas. The findings were analysed thematically. The unit of analysis was secondary schools teacher and head teachers who were in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township. The descriptive statistics such as the frequency, percentage and mean were used so as to ascertain types of performance-based rewards used and measuring the performance of teachers in private secondary schools. Furthermore, Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to assess the relationship between performance based reward and performance of teachers using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Table 1: Sample distribution School No of teachers Sample Kabanyolo S.S. 15 11 Katikamu S.S 19 14 Atlas High 16 12 Tender Talents 17 12 Gayaza Junior 15 11 Bulamu S.S 14 10 Eden High School 13 9 Magnet Sec School 14 10 Bafra Sec School 15 11 Younani Bulaumu 19 14 Total 157 113 The Locale of the Study Gayaza is situated in North Kyaddondo Constituency, Kyaddondo County, Wakiso District, in Central Uganda. The township is located 16km northeast of Kampala, the capital city of Uganda. The coordinates of the township are: 00 26 57N, 32 36 42E (Latitude: 0.4490; Longitude: 32.6115) (Wikipedia, 2013). It is a sub-urban town situated about 16km north of Kampala. The accessibility of the town makes it possible for its fast development although the total population. It is a home of a prestigious all-girls boarding high school, Gayaza High School, established in 1905, three other government aided and ten private owned schools. Results and Discussion The study intended to establish the types of performance-based rewards used, the performance of teachers and the relationship that exists between performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township in Uganda. Since the nature of the study called for maturity, it was pertinent to study the biographical structure of the respondents, to include sex, age, years of experience, and the academic qualification. As indicated in table 2, males (59.8%) appeared to dominate 40

the study although the females (40.2%) were substantively represented. It is also interesting to see that the schools are populated with young people below 40 as they accounted for 69.1% of the total sample. Concerning the years of the service of the respondents it was found out that 46.7% of the respondents had serviced their schools for 4-6 years then followed by those who had serviced their schools between 1-3 years (40.2%). This implies that majority of respondents had moderately serviced their schools as few had exceeded 6 years. This could be attributed to the fact that some of the schools in the area are new and it is easy to get jobs in private sector. It is good to note also that the respondents were mainly trained teachers, with degree (52.3%) and diploma (33.6%) dominating. Table 2: Respondents profile Frequency Percent Gender Male 68 59.8 Female 45 40.2 Age bracket Below 30 years 22 19.6 30-39 Years 56 49.5 40-49 years 19 16.8 50 and above years 16 14.0 Years of service 1-3 years 45 40.2 4-6 years 53 46.7 7 and above years 15 13.1 Academic qualification Untrained 3 2.8 Diploma 38 33.6 Degree 59 52.3 Post graduate 13 11.2 n=113 Types of Performance-Based Rewards The study sought to establish the types of performance-based rewards used in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township in Uganda. In this aspect, the findings revealed that public appreciation was the common rewards provided (mean, 3.67). This was attributed to the fact that it had no or little financial implication costs to the school as it would have been for salary increment, duty allowances and pay checks. In an interview with head teachers it was pointed out that appreciation does well as it helps the teachers to feel more valued as compared to financial type of rewards. In addition, they noted that they preferred to use public appreciation as a type of reward because it is considered cheap. For example, good performing teachers could be appreciated during visiting days where teachers are recognised before parents and students. This finding is supported by Murnane and Cohen (1986) who note that teachers impressions of performance-evaluations systems play a crucial role in the success of performance-based pay programme. On the other hand, packages, presents or gifts were rated second as part of the rewards provided (mean, 3.44). This was a common type of practice as noted through interviews with head teachers. Such tokens were provided during the final release of results from Uganda National Examination Board. In this matter, a number of schools pointed out that the teachers were given presents or gifts and packages based on the performance of students. Packages, presents and gifts common to private schools in this area of study included giving out home utensils, clothes, Christmas gifts, organised performance parties and even checks. The findings in this study differs from that of Kirunda (2004) who reports public appreciation and promotions to be the common used rewards in Kampala private schools followed by packages, presents or gifts. In another study on performance-based rewards for teachers conducted in Australia (DEST, 2007), knowledge and skill based compensation were pointed out. It was suggested that in knowledge and skill-based compensation schemes, teachers are rewarded for the acquisition of a specific knowledge and skill required to meet higher expectations of performance. 41

Table 3: Performance-based rewards available in schools Rewards Mean Salary Increment 2.51 Overtime pay 2.98 Certificate of merit 3.21 Packages/presents/gifts 3.44 Duty allowance 3.41 Individual/group photograph 2.31 Public appreciation 3.67 Promotions 2.56 Average Mean 3.01 n=113 Duty allowance and overtime pay were also found popular in private secondary schools with mean of 3.41 and 2.98, respectively. With regard to these two, it was revealed during interview that they too had a cheaper financial implication to the school since they were dished out once in a while and minimally, yet they yielded high satisfaction to the performer. It was also noted, however that, duty allowance and overtime pay were common in well-established private secondary schools. In small schools, it was discovered that the school budget could not support it. In contrary, the most common practice in small private schools was to overload teachers which actually de-motivate them. One teacher could teach more than one subject and in most cases teaching almost all papers in the specified subjects. The certificate of merit (mean, 3.21) rated the fourth and above the average in this study. It is really surprising to see certificate of merit rated higher than salary increment (mean, 2.51), promotions (mean, 2.56) and overtime pay (mean, 2.98) because in African culture it is believed that Africans never eat flowers, neither do they eat papers. That is to say, you cannot give an African a bouquet of flowers, a card or letter of appreciation and value it as being given a valuable thing. But this could signal some change of trends or that the increments and pays that are given are not large enough to outweigh the paper (certificate) display. On the other hand, the salary increment, and promotions and memorial photographs were perceived to be rare. Although most teachers preferred salary increment to any other form of reward, they noted that promotions would be good but schools have put no proper yardstick upon which promotions are given. It was pointed out that some schools might have a mechanism of promotion but there is no salary increment attached equivalent to the position is given. At times, the promotions add on more responsibilities with no financial increment attached. According to Odden (2002), in most current systems of a salary scale, teachers are rewarded for the number of years spent teaching and the number of tertiary degrees, rather than their performance. In contrast the respondents noted that in the Ugandan context, rewards or promotions are given according to the number of distinctions scored by students in a given subject, one s relationship with the head teacher, directors. Odden (2002) suggests that on laying out an effective and workable system of performance pay in schools, one of the more crucial questions to be answered is that of whether the contributions of individual teachers can be measured in a way which will provide a valid, fair, and generally accepted basis for varying pay rates. Very often the yardstick the private schools have used to gauge the performance of individual teachers is the performance outcomes of students in a given subject without considering other circumstances that could contribute to failure in other subjects. Teaching is a process and a collective effort of many individuals; it is at times difficult to determine which teacher performed better than the other and be rewarded accordingly. Teachers Performance in Private Secondary Schools The study also sought to establish the performance of teachers in private secondary schools in Gayaza Township in Uganda using views of participants skills and expertise in teaching. A number of items upon which teachers were rated included possession of adequate problem solving skills, commitment to teamwork, understanding students problems, teachers level of enthusiasm for teaching in this school, willingness to help students learn, doing their job effectively without complaining, having good working practices, having 42

pride in their work and being consistently accurate in all aspects of their work. These were assessed purely on how the respondents viewed themselves. On average the respondents rated the performance of teachers above average. All items used to assess teachers performance were above average except teachers level of enthusiasm (mean, 2.51), doing their job without complaining (mean, 2.98) and having pride in their work (mean, 3.12). Otherwise, teachers on average expressed their commitment to their professionalism through understanding their clients (mean, 3.58) and possession of adequate problem solving skills (mean, 3.54). This implies that the teachers were competent enough in what they were doing which is reflected also through their academic qualification they possess (table 2). In other aspects of performance that were evaluated commitment to teamwork rated third (mean, 3.47), followed by willingness to helping students learn (mean, 3.32), striving for accuracy in their work (mean, 3.24) and having pride or loving in their work (mean, 3.12).In a an interview with the head teachers it was disclosed that schools encouraged working in teams (teamwork) for example, administrators would provide tasks such as ensuring punctuality among students, school cleaning, and enforcing discipline and other kinds of group work and in the process teamwork was enhanced. The fact that understanding students and willingness to help them rated above average, it is evidence that teachers loved their work and they possess necessary training and skills required to perform their work. However, the same teachers seriously lacked the spirit of work as reflected by their rating of enthusiasm towards teaching (mean, 2.51). This can be attributed to the low level of motivation and incentives as well as too much load; both teaching and non-teaching activities at school. Table 4: Performance of teachers Attributes Possession of adequate problem solving skills 3.54 Commitment to teamwork 3.47 Understanding students problems 3.58 Teachers level of enthusiasm for teaching in the school 2.51 Willingness to help students learn 3.32 Doing their job effectively without complaining 2.98 Having pride in their work 3.12 Strive to be consistently accurate in all aspects of their work 3.24 Average mean rating 3.22 n=113 Mean rating It is perplexing to see that teachers who lack enthusiasm are willing to help their students and are proud of their work. This is probably suggesting what OECD Paris (2005) indicated: that while people who have chosen teaching as a career are chiefly motivated by intrinsic rewards (such as wanting to make a difference), extrinsic factors such as remuneration are the most significant factors influencing people not to choose teaching as a career, and to leave the profession. It thus means that performance-based rewards play a significant role in the performance of teachers in secondary schools. So, performance-based rewards seem to be a plausible way both to motivate teachers to direct effort at performance goals and to attract and retain teachers who are high performers. Relationship between performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers: The study finally looked at the relationship that exists between performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools of Gayaza Township in Uganda. The study used Pearson Product Moment Correlation in this aspect and it was found that there existed a significant relationship between performance-based rewards and performance of teachers (r-value=0.743 at p =0.05). 43

Table 5: Correlation between performance-based rewards and performance of teachers Performance of teachers Performance Based rewards r. value.743** p. value.012 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). n=113 This implies that performance-based rewards significantly affected the performance of teachers in private schools. In private schools, performance-based rewards were considered important because they motivate teachers, promote good performance, improve on administrator-teacher relations, demonstrate a fair and equal treatment and contribute to individual records. Since the performance-based rewards have got an impact on the performance of teachers, it is imperative for head teachers and proprietors to assess the treatments and rewards they give to their teachers. In this line, Stedman & McCallion (2011) assert that interest in performance-based pay for teachers rose, in part, from a basic dissatisfaction with the traditional salary schedule can therefore be approved. They maintain that many policy-makers believed that the traditional salary schedule provided no incentive for teachers to demonstrate subject matter competence, improve teaching, or increase academic performance by students. Findings of this study also indicated that teachers salaries in private school were not attractive, they could only be supplemented by other rewards such as bonuses, allowances, gifts just to mention a few. Proponents of pay-for-performance programmes believe they will attract and retain better teachers if they are able to offer increased salaries to the best teachers. They argue that paying teachers poorly in the same way as those who work longer hours, engage more effectively with their students and consistently produce improved academic outcomes, is unfair, inequitable and does little to improve the overall quality of teaching. This is also highlighted by Lavy (2007) who identified benefits of performance-based rewards as improved productivity; that is, if rewards are based on student performance, they provide teachers with powerful signals about what is valued and what is not. If these signals are absent, even well meaning teachers may emphasise materials that are generally not valued by parents or the labour market. However, Harvey-Beavis (2003) argued that performance-based compensation programmes encourage competition rather than collaboration among teachers. Many would argue that the concept of individual merit is at odds with the collegiate approach of effective schools, stifling collaboration and creating conflict and tension in the school environment. Nevertheless, Harvey-Beavis (2003) argument contradicts with the findings, realised that performance-based reward systems can increase collegiality by rewarding cooperation between teachers especially through administering group-based rewards. Opponents of pay-for-performance, on the other hand, argue that it is almost impossible to evaluate and measure teachers performance fairly. They point to the many variables involved in student academic outcomes, such as family support, socio-economic status, ethnicity, natural ability, location, and ask how teacher performance can be measured fairly. Another problem in relation to pay-for-performance is the fact that the true outcomes of education might not materialize for many years. If we accept that one of the key goals of education is to empower students with skills that they can use to enhance a productive career and sustain their economic well being (Lavy, 2007), it may be many years before we can measure whether or not a teacher has been successful. Nevertheless, it can then be concluded that performance-based rewards affect the performance of teachers in private schools. In conclusion, the most commonly used types of performance-based rewards were public appreciation, package or presents, and duty allowances and overtime pay. Salary increment was the least considered by many head teachers because it often constrains the school budget and it cannot easily be re-adjusted in case of any financial crisis. The fact that public appreciation rated highly among the rewards, it is clear that teachers valued more recognition than money which would look like selling and buying service. Conceptually, this study has empirically verified the influence of performance-based rewards on the performance of teachers in private secondary schools. It therefore, forms a basis for subsequent research to explore other factors that could affect teacher and students performance. Also, the study will help the government and employers to design and formulate future and feasible staff reward system strategies or mechanisms to increase the teachers performance. The study recommends that head teachers and proprietors should always think of being close to their teachers, sit on round table and negotiate what is best fit for them. These findings can be used to motivate teachers in our schools and thus increase teachers 44

performance, consequently improve schools and students performance. It is recommended that similar study be conducted explicitly in church-related and government schools to see if the same results will hold. Acknowledgement The researchers would wish to thank Bugema University for moral and financial support extended towards accomplishment of this work. Also special thanks and appreciations are extended to the management of the schools that participated in this study. References Afe, J.O. (2001). Reflections on Becoming a Teacher and the Challenges of Teacher Education. Inaugural Lecture Series 64. Benin City: University of Benin, Nigeria. Ajao, W. (2001). Cadbury is Determined to Move Education Forward. Vanguard, December 27, 2001, p.16. Azordegan, J., Byrnett, P., Campbell, K., Greenman, J., & Coulter, T. (2005). Diversifying Teacher Compensation (Issue Paper No. 1). Education Commission of the States (December 2005). Retrieved April 6, 2013 from, http://www.ecs.org/ecsmain.asp?page=/html/issues.asp Boddy, D. (2008). Management: An introduction, fourth edition, New York: Prentice Hall. Chamberlin, R., Wragg, T., Haynes, G. & Wragg, C. (2002). Research Papers in Education, 17(1), 31-49. Performance-related pay and the teaching profession: a review of the literature. Department for Education Schools (DES). (2013). School Teachers Review Body reports: 21st report (2012) and 22nd report (2013). Retrieved on November 6, 2013, from https://www.education.gov.uk/schools/ careers/payandpensions/a00203870/strb-remit-21st-report Department of Education Science and Training (DEST). (2007). Performance-based rewards for teachers: Surveys and Workforce Analysis Section, Skills Analysis and Quality Systems Branch, Australia. Flynn, G. (1998). Is your recognition program understood? Workforce, 77(7), 30-35. Harvey-Beavis, O. (2003). Performance-Based Rewards for Teachers: A Literature Review, Workshop of Participating Countries on OECD s Activity Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers 4-5 June 2003, Athens, Greece. Israel, G.D. (2009). Determining sample size. Program evaluation and organizational development, IFAS,University of Florida. James, B.S. and Gail, M. (2001). Performance-Based Pay for Teachers, paper for CRS Report for Congress. Jimenez, R. (1999). Managing Employee Retention Through Recognition. T+D, 53 (10). 53-55. Keller, J. (1999). Motivational Systems. In H.D. Stolovitch & E.J. Keeps, (Eds.), Handbook of Human Performance Technology. (373-394). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer. Kirunda, H.K. (2004). Performance-based rewards and the performance of teachers in private secondary schools in Kampala district. MA Dissertation, Makerere University. Lavy, V. (2007). Using Performance-Based Pay to Improve the Quality of Teachers. The Future of Children 17(1), 87-109. Retrieved on August 19, 2013, from https://muse.jhu.edu/journals/future_of_children/ v017/17.1lavy.html Lawler, E.E. (2003). Treat people right. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Murnane, R.J., & Cohen, D.K. (1986). Merit pay and the evaluation problem: Why most merit pay plans fail and a few survive. Harvard Educational Review, 56(1), 1-17. Nelson, B. (2004). Everything you thought you knew about recognition is wrong. Workplace Management. Retrieved on February 16, 2012, from http://www.workforce.com. Odden, A. and Kelley, C. (2002). Paying Teachers For What They Know And Do: New And Smarter, OECD, Retrieved on May 23, 2013, from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/47/34077553.pd Richardson, R. (1999) Performance Related Pay in Schools: An Assessment of the Green Papers, A report prepared for the National Union of Teachers, The London School of Economics and Political Science. Ryan, S. (n.d.). Rewards and Recognition. http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/arossett/pie/interventions/ incentivesrewards_2.htm Solmon, L.C. and Podgursky, M. (no date). The Prons and cons of Performance-based Compensation. Acessed on 6 November 2013, from http://web.missouri.edu/podgurskym/articles/files/pros_cons.pdf. Stedman, J. B. and Mc Callion. G. (2011). Performance-Based Pay for Teachers, paper for CRS Report for Congress. 45

Uchefuna, M.C. (2001). A Study of Clinical Supervision and Teachers Effectiveness in Umuahia and Abia Educational Zones of Abia State. M.Ed Dissertation, Unpublished, Port Harcourt: University of Port. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. (2013). Gayaza. Retrieved on November 6, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/gayaza. About the Authors Leonard Richard Mghweno is Corresponding Author in the School of Education at Bugema University, Uganda. E-mail: leomghweno@yahoo.com; lmghweno@bugemauniv.ac.ug Mark Obboko and Stella Adongo are lecturers in the School of Education at Bugema University, Uganda. 46

Appendix 1 Questionnaire for Teachers Effects of Performance-based Rewards on the Performance of Teachers in Private Secondary Schools in Uganda This self-administered was given to 133 teachers who expressed their freedom of expression after being assured of confidentiality. SECTION A: Respondents Profile Respondents were asked to tick ( ) in the box corresponding to what fits them best. 1. Sex/gender: i) Male ii) Female 2. Age bracket: i) Below 30 years ii) 30-39 years iii) 40-49 years iv) 50 and above years 3. Years of service in the school: i) 1-3 years ii) 4-6 years iii) 7 and above years 4. Educational attainment: i) Untrained ii) Diploma iii) Degree iv) Post graduate SECTION B In this section, respondents were asked to rate the statements according to what they understand using the following scale: 1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Sometimes, 4=Agree and 5=Strongly agree. Types of performance based rewards 1 2 3 4 5 The school provides salary increment regularly The school provides overtime pay for doing activities outside the normal periods The school gives certificate of merit once you excel There are packages/presents/gifts given to teachers for their good work done The school provides duty allowance for responsibilities accorded to teachers There is always individual/group photograph taken as a record of good work done The head-teacher always gives public appreciation for teachers who have done well There are promotions given to teachers due to their good performance Teachers performance: I possess adequate problem solving skills that I use at school I am committed to teamwork at school at any time Understanding students problems is part of my duty which I do honestly Willingness to help students learn is what I offer to students I do my job effectively without complaining for lack of school input I have good working practices with my colleagues I have pride in my work at school I strive to be consistently accurate in all aspects of their work at school In your opinion, are satisfied with performance based rewards system at school? Explain... 47

Appendix 2 Interview Guide This part was openly discussed with Head-teachers of each participating school. 1. Which type of performance rewards do you provide to your teachers? 2. Why does the school provide such rewards? 3. How often do the school provide rewards to teachers? 4. How can you rate your teacher performance? 5. Why do you think the teacher performance the way they do? 6. In your opinion what should be done to improve teachers performance? 48

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press 49 Primary and Lower Secondary School Teachers Attitudes toward English Language Learning: A Case Study of Teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang Districts, Saraburi Province Nakhon Kitjaroonchai [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia- Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This study surveyed the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts of Basic Education Service Area Office 2, Saraburi province, toward the English language, and examined the significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes toward English and the significant difference between those with 1-4 years and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. A modified 20-item attitude survey adapted from Gardner s (1985) Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) was administered to 203 primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province. The data was analysed using MINITAB version 16, and the significance of differences between means was analysed using Two-Sample T-test. The findings of the study revealed that the attitude of the primary and lower secondary school teachers toward the English language was slightly positive. The study also showed that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes, and no significant difference in the teachers attitudes between those with 1-4 years of teaching experience and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. Keywords: attitudes, English language learning Introduction Over the past years, English language teaching and learning has not been successfully implemented in Thai schools. The results of students undertaking the Ordinary National Educational Test (O-NET) proved that Thai students performed poorly in the English subject (Kaewmala, 2012) and the trend showed the O-NET scores for the last three years were becoming worse (Phanphruek, cited in Kaewmala, 2012). Students should not be criticised alone for their failure, but teachers must also bear the responsibility because they are knowledge providers to this young generation. The University of Cambridge as part of a field trial launched a survey in February 2006 to gauge 400 Thai teachers English s language proficiency. The results showed that over 60% of the teachers had insufficient knowledge of English and teaching methodology and what they had was below the syllabus level they were teaching (Kaewmala, 2012). Many of the primary teachers in the government schools in Thailand admitted that they were forced to teach English although they had limited knowledge or no knowledge of the language at all. Many state schools in remote and sparsely populated areas lack qualified teachers, and in them one teacher ends up teaching all grade levels despite the fact that the teachers themselves lack skills and knowledge of those particular subjects. Such a situation has a strong impact on student learning ability in any educational system since teaching refers to the action of a real life teacher imparting learning to students (Patanathabutr, 2008). Teachers need to develop positive attitudes toward their teaching profession in order to strive for excellent teaching and expertise in the level they aspire to teach at as their positive attitudes and actions ultimately make a positive difference on the lives of their students (Gourneau, nd.) and their roles in the classroom play a crucial part in developing the personality of the students (Hussain et al., 2011).

Teachers are required to have a higher level of professionalism due to the rapid change of globalisation, and they must adjust to a new educational development system if such a change enhances their professionalism and benefits the students. After the presentation of Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015, the Thai government has been actively gearing its commitment to achieve its roadmap for ASEAN 2015 (Kitjaroonchais, 2012). Over the past few years the Thai Ministry of Education has been promoting English as an international language, in which all educational institutions from basic to tertiary level must emphasise English to learners at their schools as Thailand is becoming part of the ASEAN Community in 2015. Thailand s English Speaking Year 2012 programme was launched in December 2011 by Former Education Minister Worawat Auapinyakul. This initiative encouraged teachers and students to use English inside and outside the classroom without being concerned about any grammatical errors in their conversation. In 2012, volunteer teachers from England were employed to train non-english speaking Thai teachers in public and private schools nationwide, and the Ministry of Education also allotted over USD 3 million to train 1,137 local Thai teachers in native English speaking countries (Searchlight Process, 2013). As can be seen, not only were the students urged to develop their English proficiency to get ready for the AEC 2015, but teachers also were encouraged to improve their language skills as they are the pillars of the education system in the nation. In such circumstances, it is important to know how teachers feel about the trend towards English language teaching. Thus, this study aims to investigate the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language. Although a plethora of research in language attitudes has been conducted nationally and internationally over the past decades (Balcazar, 2003; Marley, 2004; Mee-ling, 2009; Mamun, et al., 2012), most of those studies aimed to investigate students or learners attitudes toward a foreign (FL), or second language (L2) they were acquiring. There are still limited studies that attempt to explore school teachers attitudes toward the English language, particularly in this part of the region. To the best of the researcher s knowledge, no other study has been conducted to investigate the attitudes of Thai primary school teachers toward the English language. As the country is approaching the ASEAN Community 2015, it is necessary to perceive the attitudes of the teachers (the basic knowledge providers) toward the English language, which is believed to be a language for communication in the ASEAN countries. To address this gap, the present investigation would contribute to the understanding of such issues with regard to the attitudes of the primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province, toward the English language. This could serve as a reference for responsible people who are committed to developing a Basic Education Curriculum in the region, and to improving the English language proficiency of the primary and lower secondary school teachers, and their attitudes toward the English language. Objective of this study This study aims to investigate the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province, toward the English language. Research Questions and Hypotheses This study endeavoured to answer the following questions: 1. What are the attitudes of the primary and lower secondary school teachers toward the English language? What are some of the problems of English language teaching in Thailand? 2. Is there any significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes toward the English language? 3. Is there any significant difference in the teachers attitudes toward English language between those with 1-4 years and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience? Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language. Ho2: There is no significant difference in the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language between those with 1-4 years of teaching experience and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. 50

Literature Review This section provides a review of literature relevant to the scope of the research objectives. The review includes a brief overview of the concepts of attitudes. Attitudes and Attitude Over the past years a plethora of studies on language attitudes have been conducted, such as attitudes toward the mother tongue, attitudes toward different languages (Balcazar, 2003; Marley, 2004) or attitudes toward a second or foreign language (Mee-ling, 2009). Some of these studies attempted to look into the attitudes of the people toward the languages, and what constructs, or changes people s attitudes toward the languages. According to Gardner (cited in Al- Tamimi & Shuib, 2009, p. 33), attitudes are a component of motivation, which refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language, and one of the key predominant factors for success in the language learning process (Zainol, et al., 2012, p. 120). When learners construct positive attitudes through learning experiences, they will learn and accomplish their goals much easier than those with negative attitudes, because negative attitudes lead to decreased motivation as well as input and interaction (Brown, 1994). According to Montano and Kasprzyk (cited in Zainol, 2012, p. 120), attitude is the individual s beliefs about outcomes or attributes of performing the behaviour, weighted by evaluations of those outcomes and attributes, whereas Gardner (cited in Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009, p. 33) defines attitude as the sum total of a man s instincts and feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, fear, threats, and convictions about any specified topic. Gardner s definition of attitudes is in line with Papanastasiou (2002) who states that attitude is the emotional tendency of an individual in favour of or against any circumstances, events, objects, places or ideas. Thus, attitude is linked to a person s values and beliefs and promotes or discourages the choices made in all realms of activity an individual encounters. The Online Business Dictionary defines attitudes as a predisposition or a tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation, and it influences an individual s choice of action, and responses to challenges, incentives, and rewards. Individuals may develop a sense of positive or negative attitude depending on experience and challenge they encounter, and attitudes can be changed when stimulated by persuasion or surrounding phenomenon (Eagly & Chaiken, 1995) and this change can result from changes in a cognitive component such as receiving new information from other people (Triandis, cited in Khunasathitchai, 2009). Hogg and Vaughan (cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 1) define attitude as a mental and neural state of readiness organised through experience exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual s response to all objects and situations with which it is related, while Eagly and Chaiken (cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 2) state that attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. Attitude forms a part of one s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living (Brown, 2000, p. 180) and it determines the personal and behavioural intention (Garcia-Santillan, et al., 2012). After exploring the various definitions of the term attitude defined by different educators and psychologists, it can be concluded that attitude is a feeling or perception or belief gained through past experience, and in that a person inclines to correspond through behavioural expression either favourably or unfavourably towards the persons, objects, situations or circumstance that the person is engaged with, and it can be changed through stimuli or persuasion. Components of Attitude Gardner (1985) describes the attitude concept in three components, namely the affective component (feelings about the attitude object); the behavioural component (predisposition to act towards the attitude object in a certain way); and the cognitive component (beliefs about the attitude object). a). The affective or emotional aspect of attitude can help learners to express whether they like or dislike the objects or surrounding situations and the inner feelings and emotions of foreign language learners influence their perspectives and their attitudes toward the target language (Zainol, et al., 2012). This is because learning a foreign language is an emotional process in which the teacher and his students engage in emotional activities in a classroom setting (Feng & Chen, 2009). Emotional expressions can be 51

identified through facial movements such as smiling or scowling or reactions through crying or laughing. b). The behavioural aspect of attitude deals with people s reaction and behaviour toward situations they encounter. Their reaction can be expressed either favourably or unfavourably. According to Kara (2009), positive attitudes lead to the exhibition of positive behaviours toward courses of study in that learners will absorb the acquired knowledge and put themselves into it and strive to learn more. These students will be more eager to solve problems and apply information and skills useful for daily life than those who have neutral or negative attitudes. Thus, the behavioural aspect might view any positive act toward a person or object as positive attitude. In contrast, it views any negative acts as negative attitude. c). The cognitive aspect of attitude is the beliefs of the language learners regarding their acquired knowledge and their comprehension and understanding toward the process of language acquisition. According to Zainol, et al., (2012) this aspect of attitude can be classified into four steps; namely, connecting the previous knowledge with the new one, creating new knowledge, checking new knowledge and applying the new knowledge in different situations. From a different angle, Van Els et al. (cited in Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009, p. 33), suggests that it does not really matter whether all or only one of the three components are measured; the relationship between the components is so close that sufficient information on an attitude can be obtained by measuring only one component, no matter which. Functions of Attitudes Attitudes may also express some important aspects of an individual s personality (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8). Gardner (cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 3) describes four functions of attitudes that may serve a person; namely, value-expressive, ego-defensive, knowledge and utilitarian functions. a). Value-expressive function may enable us to express who we are and what we believe in (Gardner, cited in Melhim & Rahman, 2009, p. 3). The value-expressive function will occur when a person holds a certain attitude towards someone or something and that attitude allows that person to express an important value (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8). This can be illustrated by a person who likes solar panels for power energy provision in a remote area where state-funded electricity is inaccessible because he values the energy conservation, and in that his attitude will serve a value-expressive function. Values vary from one person to another and they are important as they form, shape and change the attitudes of individuals toward different circumstances (Bektas & Nalcaci, 2012, p. 1244). b). Ego-defensive function helps protect individuals from unflattering truth about themselves or about others who are important to them (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8) and sometimes this ego-defensive attitude acts to resolve inner conflict and minimize or obliterate certain aspects of emotional life (Sarnoff & Katz, 1954, p. 118). Eagly & Chaiken, (cited in Lapinski & Boster, 2001, p. 315) state that ego-defensive attitudes are generally not accessible directly to those who hold them and that they are highly resistant to change as they serve as a means of projecting a person s self-concept from inconsistencies and disconfirming information. The ego-defensive attitudes can be illustrated by a person who sees himself as fine-looking and persevering with a promising future, yet his inner self, reminds him of his roots as an ethnic minority in his society. When the person is confronted with a message that threatens the consistency of the cognition, he may put forth cognitive effort in order to cope with the internal conflict within his conscience. c). Knowledge function will enable us to know the world (Gardner, 1985). The attitudes that serve a knowledge function will allow individuals to better understand situations and people who they associate with or people around them. Such attitudes also help people ascribe causes to events and direct attention towards features of people or situations, and in consequence, they help make the world more understandable, predicable, and knowledgeable, as well as increasing the efficiency of information processing (Sammons, nd). The attitudes that serve as knowledge function can be illustrated by a group of environmentalists which finds all means to oppose the construction of a 52

modern poultry farm intended to offer local residents career opportunity and generate revenue, claiming that the new project will rather jeopardise the surrounding environment where these residents inhabit than bring it goodwill as claimed. Their opposition is grounded with convincing evidence or scientific knowledge which has been professionally researched. Their claims may gradually sway other people s perception. Such attitudes of knowledge function help simplify our perception of the world around us so that it becomes more manageable and understandable (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8). d). Utilitarian function helps us to gain rewards and avoid punishment (Gardner, 1985). The attitudes that serve a utilitarian function may enable us to avoid unpleasant circumstances but obtain things that look more pleasurable. In other words, such attitudes will maximise rewards and minimise punishment. Sammons (nd) states that people who express other attitudes may help them avoid negative circumstances. The attitudes which serve a utilitarian function can be demonstrated by an employee in a well-established company who has perfectly adopted his manager s policies as well as his attitudes prior to asking for an increase in salary, and it is obvious that the employee s new attitudes are for a utilitarian function. Katz s functional view of attitudes (cited in Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 8) avers that different people may hold the same attitudes, but the attitudes may serve very different purposes for them. It is obvious to us that attitudes can serve in different but useful functions. According to Zainol, et al., (2012) language attitudes could enhance the learner s language acquisition and influence the nature of their behaviours and beliefs towards the language, culture, and community, and this will identify learners propensity to acquire that particular language. From the above literature review it is apparent that individuals may have different attitudes toward languages and their attitudes may serve in different useful functions. However, the attitudes of the primary and lower secondary school teachers toward English language learning have not been explored yet. Thus, the present study intends to fill up this identified research gap by investigating the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi province, toward the English language learning. Research Methodology Participants The participants were 203 primary and lower secondary school teachers from 52 different schools in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts of Saraburi province, Thailand, who attended the workshop entitled Basic English Communication Skills for ASEAN Community 2015 organised by the Interdisciplinary Schools of Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, at Asia-Pacific International University, on Sunday, March 24, 2013. The respondents were 50 male and 153 female teachers, with different years of teaching experience ranging from 1 to more than 20 years. These teachers teach different subjects defined in Basic Education Core Curriculum 2008, such as Thai language, Mathematics, Science, English, Social studies, Religion and Culture, History, Health and Physical Education, Arts and Occupations and Technology. The participating teachers came from different backgrounds of English language knowledge and many of whom never or hardly ever use English at school to communicate with their colleagues due to the environmental and cultural context. Design The design of this study was quantitative in nature. Therefore, the adapted questionnaire items were employed as a measuring instrument. We assumed that the subjects answered all the items in the questionnaire honestly, giving their own perceptions about their attitudes toward English language. They were asked to respond to the questionnaire after they had participated in the workshop, and data were collected for further analysis. 53

Instrument The measuring instrument used in this study was an attitude questionnaire which focused on the attitudes toward the English language. The questionnaire items were adapted from the Attitude and Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) developed by Gardner (1985). However, some statements were compiled by the researcher based on his teaching experience in order to select those most suitable for the participants and the reality of their cultural context. There were 20 five-point Likert (1932) scale items on a scale of 1 5, ranging from strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5 (for positive statements), and 5 1 from strongly agree = 1 to strongly disagree = 5 (for negative statements). There were 11 positive statements and 9 negative statements decoded by odd and even numbers respectively on the questionnaire (see Appendix 1). The open-ended question was used to obtain supplementary information concerning the respondent s attitudes toward English language teaching and learning in Thailand. Their comments in this section could express barriers or difficulties of English language teaching and learning which they perceive through their teaching experiences in their schools. This would help the researcher to better perceive their attitudes toward English language teaching problems. The questionnaire consisted of the following parts: Part I: Demographic profile of the respondent: gender, teaching class level, years of teaching experience and responsible subject. Some of these demographic data in this study would be partially used for analysis. Part II: Twenty closed-ended attitude questionnaire items; items 1-16 are examining attitudes of the respondents toward English in general, and items 17 20 are investigating their attitudes toward the adequacy of English materials and quality of English teachers at their respective schools. The 20 statements were divided into 11 positive attitude statements and 9 negative attitude statements respectively. The positive statements are defined in odd numbers, whereas the negative ones are defined in even numbers, except item 16. These questionnaire items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree for positive statements, and vice versa for the negative statements). Part III: Two closed-ended questions concerning the respondent s frequency of using English and level of English communication skills. One open-ended question was to investigate the respondent s attitudes toward English language teaching and learning in Thailand. It should be noted that the questionnaire items were translated into Thai in order to ensure that all the participants would be able to understand the statements clearly. Data Analysis Procedure The first section of the questionnaire was analysed through percentages to explore the participants demographical profile. The second section was analysed through statistical analysis in terms of percentage, means, and standard deviations by using MINITAB version 16, to explore the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English and any significant differences between male and female teachers, and their years of teaching experience. The Two-Sample T-test was conducted to answer the third and fourth question. The additional open-ended question in Part III of this questionnaire was analysed quantitatively aiming to examine the teachers attitudes toward problems of English language teaching and learning. To interpret the mean score, the researcher adopted the interpreting procedure developed by Chaihiranwattana & Nookua (2010) as shown in Table 1 below. Table 1: Interpretation of mean score of primary school teachers attitude Mean levels: Score Range very positive 4.21-5.00 positive 3.41-4.20 neutral 2.61-3.40 negative 1.81-2.60 very negative 1.00 1.80 54

The mean score for each item indicated the level of the teachers attitude: the higher score indicated that they had positive attitude, while the lower score indicated negative attitude toward English language. Results and Discussion The demographic characteristics of the participants are summarised in Table 2. Two hundred and three people participated in this study. Of these, 50 were male and 153 were female. They were teaching in different grades ranging from nursery to lower secondary levels (grades 7-9). Six of these (3%) were school administrators. These teachers varied in years of experience ranging from 1 year to more than 20 years of teaching. Of these, 36.9% stated that they had more than 20 years of teaching experience, while 33% only had 1-4 years of teaching experience. Others had taught between 5-8 years (10.3%), 9-12 years (7.9%), 13-16 years (4.9%) and 17-20 years (6.9%) respectively. Interestingly, as shown in Table 2, 22.2% of the respondents stated that they teach all levels of students from grades 1-6, while 28.1% said they teach all subjects defined in Basic Education Core Curriculum 2008. Such a finding corresponds with Permanent Secretary of the Office of Basic Education Commission, Chinnapat Bhumirat s response to the interview on the topic Ministry of Education on Rural Schools in which he claimed that in rural schools, one teacher has to teach classes from kindergarten to grade six due to the shortage of teachers (Sea, 2011), and a lack of teachers in some subject areas means they were taught by teachers in schools who were occasionally unqualified to teach the subject (Srisa-Ard, et al., nd). Table 2: Frequency of subjects divided according to gender, level of teaching, years of teaching experience, subject area of teaching, frequency of using English, and level of English proficiency (N = 203) Gender Frequency Percentage Male 50 24.6% Female 153 75.4% Level of Teaching Frequency Percentage Grade 1 24 11.8% Grade 2 18 8.9% Grade 3 16 7.9% Grade 4 14 6.9% Grade 5 18 8.9% Grade 6 12 5.9% Low secondary 20 9.9% Nursery 30 14.8% Multi-grades 1-6 45 22.2% Administration 6 3.0% Years of Teaching Experience Frequency Percentage 1-4 years 67 33.0% 5-8 years 21 10.3% 9-12 years 16 7.9% 13 16 years 10 4.9% 17 20 years 14 6.9% More than 20 years 75 37.0% Subject Area of Teaching Frequency Percentage Thai 25 12.3% Mathematics 20 9.9% Science 9 4.4% Sociology and Culture 8 3.9% Art 7 3.4% Occupation and Technology 15 7.4% English 16 7.9% Health Studies 5 2.5% Physical Education 6 3.0% All Subjects 57 28.1% Nursery Education 29 14.3% Administration 6 3.0% 55

Figure A: Percentage of frequency of using English (N = 203) Figure A shows the frequency of the participants using English for communication. Of these 203 respondents, 59 or 29% stated they never used English to communicate with others in daily life, whereas 12% said they only used English about once a month. Fifty two of the participants (26%) stated they used English less than 1-2 hours a week, and 15% said they spent 1-2 hours a week to communicate in English with other people. Some 11% used English daily, while 7% of the respondents stated that they used English only once in a while or when it is necessary or on a particular occasion such as travelling abroad, taking exams or meeting with foreigners. From the findings, it can be concluded that the majority of the primary and lower secondary school teachers participating in this study hardly ever used English to communicate with their colleagues or other people in their community due to an unsupportive atmosphere and cultural context. As Punthumasen (2007) stated in her research findings that the environment in school and outside school does not facilitate learners in practising their English daily. In addition, a number of the respondents stated in the open-ended question that they felt shy to speak English with other people and they did not realise the importance of English for they hardly ever used it in daily life and they live in a community surrounded by their Thai fellow citizens by whom the national language (Thai) is proudly and widely spoken. Figure B: Percentage level of English proficiency (N = 203) As seen in Figure B, none of the respondents admitted that their English proficiency is very good. Of the 203 participants, 1% or only 2 of them admitted that their English is good, whereas 27% said their language proficiency is about average, while 57 % admitted that their language proficiency needs improvement, and 15% of them stated that their English is unacceptable. Many of these teachers do not use English in daily life and it is hardly possible for them to practise the language with their colleagues at workplace. Language skills cannot be developed if learners neglect to use it regularly as part of their daily communication. As seen from Table 2, about 8% of the respondents teach English and they might as well use the language only in classroom when they instruct the lessons. Once the language lesson is over, they would resume to habitual routine where colleagues and students speak to them in the mother tongue. To verify the teachers attitudes towards English language learning, the respondents were asked to scale a 56

list of twenty statements in the second section of the research questionnaire. Each statement had a 5-point Likert scale and their attitudes were ranked as (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, and (1) strongly disagree for positive statements, and vice versa for the negative statements. Percentages of teachers attitudes in a 5 point Likert rating scale were given to investigate the data analysis as seen in Table 3 below. Table 3: The percentage of primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language learning (N = 203). Statement (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) 1. I like to speak English. 8.9 20.2 39.4 22.6 8.9 2. I do not like someone who speaks to me in English. 7.4 14.3 37.9 22.2 18.2 3. English is a universal language for communication. 67.0 19.2 7.4 3.9 2.5 4. English is not important for the older generation. 12.8 11.8 27.6 22.7 25.1 5. Knowing English is beneficial for me to find a good job. 65.5 19.2 12.3 2.0 1.0 6. Knowing English does not help me to find a good job. 14.3 11.8 19.2 19.7 35.0 7. The primary and secondary school levels should define English as a medium for communication. 8. The primary and secondary school levels should not define English as a compulsory subject in their program curriculum. 9. The teaching and learning of English should start as early as the first grade in school (grade 1) 35.0 26.1 26.6 8.4 3.9 11.3 8.9 19.2 21.7 38.9 62.6 20.2 7.9 5.4 3.9 10. I am not interested in taking additional English lessons. 8.9 12.3 30.0 14.8 34.0 11. Learning English is important because it will help me become more knowledgeable. 60.6 25.1 10.8 2.5 1.0 12. I think studying English is boring. 6.4 10.3 29.6 27.1 26.6 13. English is a fun language to learn. 26.6 27.1 38.4 5.4 2.5 14. I will never able to learn English because I do not understand grammar. 10.3 15.3 36.5 20.7 17.2 15.I expect my children to learn English more attentively. 69.5 18.7 10.3 0.5 1.0 16. I think my children can still find jobs without knowing English. 10.8 11.8 31.0 18.7 27.6 As can be seen in Table 3, the results showed that 88.2% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed that they expect the children to learn English more attentively (item 15), 86.2% agreed and strongly agreed that English is a universal language for communication (item 3), and over 84% considered English a beneficial language for them to find a good job (item 5), in which this strong agreement was supported at 69.5% with the idea that I expect my children to learn English more attentively (item 15). Over 85% of the respondents stated that learning English is important because it will help them become knowledgeable (item 11), and 83.1% agreed and strongly agreed that English should be taught as early as the first grade in school (item 9). This agreement was supported at 61.1% and 60.6% with the idea that The primary and secondary school levels should define English as a medium for communication, and English should be a compulsory subject in their program curriculum (items 7 and 8). However, only 8.9% strongly agreed with the statement I like to speak English (item 1), and 26.6% strongly agreed that English is a fun language to learn (item 13). This implies that many of these teachers do not really like to speak English as evidence shows in the percentage of those using English in Figure A, that only 11% stated they used English daily(assumed to be English teachers), while the majority hardly ever used or never used English. It might be possible that they do not strongly agree that English is a fun language to learn despite the fact that the language is highly demanded currently. Thus, more than half of the respondents admitted that their English proficiency needs improvement and 15% said their language proficiency is unacceptable (see Figure B). For negative statements, it is interesting to note that 21.7% showed agreement and strong agreement whereas 18.2% strongly disagreed with the statement, I do not like someone who speaks to me in English, 57

and in that 37.9 % showed neutral or neither agree or disagree with the statement (item 2). This might be due to the fact that these teachers do not use English in daily life and they do not understand the language when being communicated with. Furthermore, nearly a quarter of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed, whereas more than one quarter neither agreed nor disagreed with item 4, English is not important for the older generation and their response to the statement was supported at 21.2% with the statement I am not interested in taking additional English lessons (item 10). This might be due to the fact that through their life in the teaching profession they perceived English as an inactive medium of communication in school and the language was not earnestly implemented, but they could still progress professionally. Furthermore, the official language used nationwide in all arenas is their mother tongue. Surprisingly, over a quarter agreed and strongly agreed that English does not help them to find a good job whereas 19.2% showed a neutral perception with such an idea (item 6). These teachers might observe that a number of people around them possess good positions despite not knowing English. The survey also showed that 22.6 % of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed with the idea that their children can still find jobs without knowing English, whereas 31% neither agreed nor disagreed with this (item 16). This might be because a number of local companies or private sector businesses still recruit and accept applicants with only monolingual skills to work with local customers although payment may not be competitive. Some 16.7% showed agreement and strong agreement with the statements, I think English is boring, whereas 29.6% neither agreed nor disagreed with it (item 12). About a quarter (25.6%) admitted that they would never be able to learn English because they find grammar difficult to understand, whereas 36.5% showed a neutral perception with such a statement (item 14). These respondents perception corresponded with Punthumasen s (2007) who claimed that Thai people do not want to learn English because they find the subject sort of boring, and local teachers who teach English still use rote learning methods for teaching the language. Such archaic teaching methods prevent learners from creativity and learners will be unable to apply the knowledge into real life situations (Kaewmala, 2012). Table 4: The percentage of primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward adequacy of English materials and quality of English teachers at their respective schools (N = 203). Statement (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) 17. The Thai English teachers at the school where I teach are expert and knowledgeable. 18.7 39.4 26.6 7.4 7.9 18. The school where I teach lacks native English teachers. 43.4 16.7 14.3 11.3 14.3 19. The school where I teach has adequate teaching and learning materials for English class. 20. The school where I teach does not have adequate teaching and learning materials for English class. 10.3 27.1 36.0 14.3 12.3 18.2 20.7 36.5 13.8 10.8 Regarding the percentage shown in Table 4, about 60% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed that the school where they teach lacks native English teachers, whereas 14.3% strongly disagreed with this statement (item 18). This might be due to the fact that only a few of these schools could hire native English teachers to assist in the language classroom on a voluntary basis after the government heavily campaigned to improve English language proficiency in schools nationwide beginning last year 2012 by allocating funds to hire native speakers to help teach English in schools (Searchlight Process, 2013; Kaewmala, 2012). However, many small-sized public schools in remote areas might not benefit from the government subsidy, and so they could not afford to recruit foreign teachers to aid their language classes. The study also showed that more than half (58.1%) considered the non-native English teachers at schools where they teach are knowledgeable enough to teach the language, while 15.3% disagreed and strongly disagreed with this, and other 26.6% neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement (item 17). Many of these teachers hardly ever or never used English themselves and they might perceive that those colleagues who speak little English and teach English at schools are knowledgeable enough to lead young students at their level of study. While 37.4% admitted that the schools where they teach have adequate teaching and learning materials for English class, some 26.6% disagreed and strongly disagreed, and another 36% neither agreed nor disagreed with this (item 19). Such findings bring attention to respective schools and language teachers in which they must understand that teaching materials play a vital role in learners learning experience. The materials used in language classroom 58

should effectively engage learners interest in self-initiated learning. Table 5: Mean score and standard deviation of the primary and lower secondary teachers attitudes toward English language (N= 203) Descriptive Statistics: Mean Variable Mean Standard Deviation 3.662 0.525 As shown in Table 5, the mean score for all positive and negative attitude statements stands at 3.66 or 73.23% which can be interpreted that these primary and lower secondary school teachers had slightly positive attitudes toward English language. Figure C: Respondents comments on problems or reasons why teaching and learning English in Thailand has not been successful over the past years. Figure C shows the problems and reasons indicated by the research participants regarding the teaching and learning of English in Thailand that has not been successful over the past years. The open-ended question in the research questionnaire was quantitatively analysed, and the data were based on the 94 respondents (46%) of the total who responded to the question. Their comments were categorised into ten different topics regarding problems of teaching and learning English in Thailand. However, some of these respondents indicated more than one problem in the comments and the repetition of comments is indicated by the number as shown in Figure C. As seen, the three most encountered problems of teaching and learning indicated by the respondents were learners who do not apply the knowledge of English in daily life (29), learners who are shy to speak English (15) and grammar and structures that are emphasized too much in language classrooms (14) respectively. 59

This might be due to the fact that Thai teachers and students in school do not speak English and they are not familiar with using it or they have seldom been encouraged to do so (Hodal, 2012; Kaewmala, 2012), and Thai peoples fear of speaking English in daily life whereas lessons focus too much on grammar and vocabulary rather than speaking drill (Punthumasen, 2007; Kaewmala, 2012). Such findings were supported by a large percentage of respondents lack of using English (see Figure A, page 7). Other problems were language teachers not well qualified (13), learners lack of comprehension and motivation to learn (11), schools lack of English native speakers (10), school administrators not aware of the need of English (8), schools lack of teachers with degrees in English (6), learners readiness to begin to learn the language (5) and class hours for English lessons limited (4). Although these problems were perceived by a minority, they should not be ignored. The responsible organisations and concerned parties from the Ministry of Education down to the classroom school teacher must join hands and creatively tackle the problems and offer tactful solutions. The qualifications of a language teacher must be scrutinised before inviting them to teach the language, and school administrators must demonstrate a good model to their inferiors by showing genuine interest in learning the language as well as supporting their subordinates to develop professionally. The Ministry of Education might consider allocating sufficient funds to aid rural schools in recruiting native English teachers or non-native fluent English speakers with some degree or certification in education or language teaching. Otherwise language teachers should receive a short-term training course from experts to develop their language teaching strategies on a continual basis. This might demand a large sum of financial investment from the Ministry s appropriation, but it is worth-while spending if it brings a paradigm shift to the education scenario. Table 6: Analysis of the significant difference between male and female primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward the English language Two-Sample T-Test and Confidence Interval: Male, Female Two-sample T for Male vs Female N Mean StDev SE Mean Male 50 3.703 0.523 0.074 Female 153 3.648 0.461 0.037 Difference = mu (Male) mu (Female) Estimate for difference: 0.0550 95% CI for mu (Male) - mu (Female) : (-0.098,0.208) T-Test mu (Male) = mu (Female)(vs not =): T = 0.71 P = 0.48 DF = 201 Both use Pooled StDev = 0.477 As can be seen in Table 6, the statistical analysis shows that there is no significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes toward the English language (P-Value = 0.48) at 95% Confidence Interval (-0.098, 0.208). Such finding suggests that both male and female teachers have equally positive attitudes toward English language learning respectively. Hence, we fail to reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is no significant difference between male and female primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language learning. Table 7: Analysis of the significant difference the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language learning between those with 1-4 years and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience Two-Sample T-Test and Confidence Interval: between 1-4 yrs, more than 20 yrs Two-sample T for 1-4 yrs vs more than 20 yrs of teaching experience 60

N Mean StDev SE Mean 1-4 yrs 67 3.646 0.486 0.059 More than 20 yrs 75 3.739 0.417 0.048 Difference = mu (1-4 yrs) mu (More than 20 yrs) Estimate of difference: -0.0924 95% CI for mu 1-4 yrs - mu More than 20 yrs: (-0.242, 0.058) T-Test mu 1-4 yrs = mu More than 20 yrs (vs not =): T = -1.22 P = 0.23 DF = 140 Both use Pooled StDev = 0.451 From Table 7, the analysis shows that there is no significant difference in the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language learning between teachers with 1-4 years of teaching experience and the ones with more than 20 years of teaching experience (P-Value = 0.23) at 95% Confidence Interval (-0.242, 0.058). Thus, we fail to reject the null hypothesis, and therefore we conclude that there is no significant difference in the primary and lower secondary school teachers attitudes toward English language between those with 1-4 years of teaching experience and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. Such finding can be interpreted that those early-stage teachers attitudes toward English have not been improved compared to those with over twenty years of teaching experience. Interestingly, the mean score of young experienced teachers attitudes toward English language learning slightly dropped at 0.09 point. This finding reflects the dilemma of English teaching and learning instructions in Thailand (Kaewmala, 2012; Nagi, 2012) since the teaching methodology and teachers attitudes toward their profession impact students learning outcomes (Patanathabutr, 2008; Hussain, et. al, 2011), and teachers play a significant role in developing the knowledge and skills of students (Punthumasen, 2007). This is despite the fact that the English language has been emphasized in schools over the last decade (Darasawang, 2007), and Former Education Minister Worawat launched the project, Thailand s English Speaking Year 2012 with the hope of boosting English language proficiency in the country. Moreover, there were other initiative projects launched by the Ministry of Education over the past years aiming to improve the English language pedagogy in Thailand but they did not yield positive outcomes (Boriboon, 2011). Conclusion This research aimed to investigate the attitudes of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang districts, Saraburi Province, Thailand, toward English language learning, problems of English language teaching in Thailand, and the significant difference between male and female teachers attitudes toward English and the significant difference between those with 1-4 years and those with more than 20 years of teaching experience. The findings of this study showed that the participating teachers had slightly positive attitudes toward English language learning. They also showed that there are no significant differences between male and female teachers attitudes toward English language, nor in the attitudes between those with shorter teaching experience and the ones with longer teaching experience. Some major problems of English language teaching in this region that were identified in the survey were that learners do not apply their knowledge of English in daily life; they are shy to speak the language, grammar and structures which are emphasised too much in the language classroom; language teachers are not well qualified; and learners lack language comprehension and motivation to learn. The findings may not be conclusive enough to generalise distinctive attitudes of other teachers in other regions. However, the study results should be valuable to the Saraburi Primary Educational Service Area Office 2 in their quest to improve English Language teaching, or to those researchers whose interests dwell on teachers and students attitudes toward English, both in the classroom and outside. It should be remembered with this study that teachers positive attitudes toward English language play a crucial role in developing students positive learning motivation and experience in acquiring the language for use in school and outside in the wider community. 61

Recommendations As the research findings revealed that these primary and lower secondary school teachers had positive attitudes toward English language, the concerned parties such as the Office of Basic Education Commission (OBEC) and Primary Educational Service Area Officer 2 of Saraburi province should consider carrying on planning a variety of English intensive workshops in different schools to foster these teachers exposure to English and improve their basic communication skills. Activities in the workshops should be presented in the way that matches learning preferences so that they can use them in practical real life situations. A needs survey and analysis should provide helpful information prior to planning the programme. Additionally, each workshop should be conducted and offered to smaller groups of participants for more productive and efficient learning interaction. The responsible parties might also consider some elements that contribute to optimal learning such as English language ability between those who are from urban schools and the ones from rural schools. Learners of the language will feel more at ease when they work with partners who share a similar background. Age differences, position, and subject area of teaching may also count toward learning efficiency when learners bear these in common. Schools could establish public address systems or provide radio broadcasts to boost teachers and students listening and speaking drills. School may want to start a daily simple English news program or daily English communication via public address system, or distance education via satellite broadcast with the support from OBEC. Encourage teachers and students to take turn hosting a news talk each morning before classes commence or during class breaks. Through this channel teachers and students will be exposed to English and get familiar with the language although there might be challenges at the initial phase. Fear and reluctance to use English may eventually decline if the program is effectively implemented. Schools may negotiate with an international education institution requesting support for academic service programs, and also for an allocation of funds from their controlling body. The Office of the Higher Education Commission (OHEC) and Office for National Education Standards and Quality Assessment (ONESQA) urge teachers in colleges and universities to conduct academic services to their community and integrate them into teaching and learning and research. This could be an open door for primary and secondary schools to grasp opportunities and seek assistance from professionals to help train their teachers through intensive English courses. These would be held at convenient hours for both parties on a weekly or biweekly basis, with remuneration for trainers should be considered for their services. The Primary Education Service Area Officer 2 of Saraburi province may consider rewarding best practice or outstanding teachers who could improve their language proficiency by faithfully attending a series of language training workshops or courses. Their achievement could be gauged through a standard proficiency testing procedure designed by language experts. The responsible sector may grant these noteworthy teachers some incentives such as professional development gift, plaque of achievement, or scholarship. Although such incentives are instrumental motivation, it is positively related to integrative orientation and often boosts a student s learning process. The award presentations can be made at annual teacher conventions or other public occasions to honour their commitment and achievement. Regarding the problems of language teaching and learning which hinder Thai educational development, the responsible education sectors must endeavour to boost English communication skills and find all means to motivate teachers and students to use English as part of daily communication. This must be modelled by policy makers such as officials in the Ministry of Education, academic providers, school administrators and supervisors. The initiative Thailand s English Speaking Year 2012 was launched in December 2011 and it should be carried out and implemented in schools nationwide on a continuing basis. Teachers and students must engage in daily English communication not only in their classrooms but also in the school social gatherings, assemblies, and the playground. Teachers and students should integrate their knowledge of English as part of their daily routines and use it confidently without embarrassment when making errors. They must understand that making mistakes is part of the language learning process which motivates to achieve success. Language teachers must admit that the young students of this era of globalisation are equipped with advanced instruments that facilitate their learning process. The older methods of rote learning and memory based learning should be avoided in language classrooms where possible. Such learning methods stop students from becoming creative and inquisitive with language. It may be appropriate to introduce language grammar or structures in writing class, but these do not translate to students speaking skills which language teachers need to emphasise in their classrooms. 62

For Further Study I would like to suggest that consideration be given to further study being made in the following areas: 1. The participants of the current study were teachers who attended a seminar in basic English Language skills for communication. This would indicate that their attitudes toward the English language may be more positive than those of the teachers who did not attend. I would recommend, therefore, that another survey could be carried out, selecting teachers to participate on a random basis, or administering the same survey instrument with those teachers who missed attending the seminar. 2. Parents and other family members also have an influence, and their attitudes could influence the attitudes of their children. I would recommend, therefore, that a survey be carried out of the families of randomly selected students from the same schools where these teachers attitudes were investigated. This would give another insight into the problems of English language acquisition in Thailand. References Al-Tamimi, A. & Shuib, M. (2009). Motivation and attitudes towards learning English: A study of petroleum engineering undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Sciences and Technology. Retrieved: March 19, 2013, from: http://www.ukm.my/ppbl/gema/pp%2029_55.pdf Ashton, S. & Elyidirim, S. (2006). Creating positive attitudes towards English as a foreign language. English Teaching Forum, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 2-11. Balcazar, I.H. (2003). Language shift and language attitudes of Kaqchikel Maya adolescents. The 4 th International Symposium on Bilingualism, Arizona State University, USA. (April, 2003) Bektas, F. & Nalcaci, A. (2012). The relationship between personal values and attitude towards teaching profession. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice. Spring Supplementary 2, vol. 12, pp.1244-1248. Boriboon, P. (2011). Language, Ideology and Domination: Problems of English language teaching in Thailand and solutions. Songklanakarin Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, vol.17, no. 6, pp. 23-59. Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. Prentice Hall Regents, USA. Brown, H. D (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. 4th ed. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman. Chaihiranwattana, M. & Nookua, S. (2010). An investigation on English language learning attitudes of Siam University Students. Retrieved: March 18, 2013, from: http://tldc.siam.edu/attachments/050_ ART-001.pdf Darasawang, P. (2007). English language teaching and education in Thailand: A decade of change. Retrieved: May 6, 2013, from: http://arts.kmutt.ac.th/crs/article/english%20language%20teaching%20and%2 Education%20in%20Thailand_A%20Decade%20of%20Change.pdf Eagly, A. & Chaiken S. (1995). Attitude strength, attitude structure, and resistance to change. Mahwah, New Jersey: Eribaum. Feng. R. & Chen, H. (2009). An Analysis on the Importance of Motivation and Strategy in Postgraduates EnglishAcquisition. English Language Teaching. 2, 93-97. Retrieved: August 29, 2013, from: http:// www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/viewfile/3700/3301 Garcia-Santillan, A., et al. (2012). Cognitive, affective and behavioral components that explain attitude toward statistics. Journal of Mathematics Research, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 8-15. Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold. Gourneau, B. (nd). Five attitudes of effective teachers: Implications for teaching training. Retrieved: March 20, 2013, from: http://www.usca.edu/essays/vol132005/gourneau.pdf Hodal, K. (2012). Thai schools urged to boost speaking. Retrieved: April 30, 2013, from: http://www.guardian. co.uk/education/2012/feb/14/thailand-speak-english-campaign. Hussain, S., et al. (2011). Attitude of secondary school teachers towards teaching profession. International Journal of Academic Research, vol.3, no. 1. (pp. 985-990). Kaewmala. (2012). Thai education failures Part 1: Ridiculous O-NET questions. Retrieved: March 19, 2013, from: http://thaiwomantalks.com/2012/02/26/the-sorry-state-of-thai-education-part-1-ridiculous-onet-questions/ 63

Kaewmala. (2012). Thai education failures Part 4: Dismal English- language training. Retrieved: April 30, 2013, from: http://asiancorrespondent.com/78647/thai-education-failures-part-4-dismal-englishlanguage-education/ Kara, A. (2009). The effect of a learning theories unit on students attitude towards learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(3), 100-113. Retrieved: August 29, 2013, from: http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ cgi/viewcontent.cgi?articles=1357&context=ajte Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163-204. Khunasathitchai, K. (2009). A survey study of students attitudes towards English I of the first year students, the Faculty of Technical Education majoring in computer technology at Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep. Language Institute, Thamasat University. Kitjaroonchai, N. & Kitjaroonchai, T. (2012). Motivation toward English language learning of Thai students majoring in English at Asia-Pacific International University. Catalyst, 7 (1), 21-40. Lapinski, M.K.& Boster, F.J. (2001). Modeling the ego-defensive function of attitudes. Communication Monographs, vol. 68, no.3, pp. 314-324. Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, vol. 22, p.140. Mamum, A., et al. (2012). Students attitudes towards English: The case of life science school of Khulna University. International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, vol. 3 no. 1, pp.200-209. Marley, D. (2004). Language attitudes in Morocco following recent changes in language policy. Language Policy, 3, 25-46 Mee-ling, L. (2009). I love Cantonese but I want English-A qualitative account of Hong Kong students language attitudes, The Asia Pacific Education Research, 18(1) (2009), 79-92. Melhim, A. & Rahman, A. (2009). Attitudes of Jordanian college students towards learning English as a foreign language. College Student Journal, June 2009, Part B, vol. 43, issue 2. Retrieved: March 20, 2013, from: http://web.ebscohost.com Nagi, K. (2012). Learning English language in Thailand: hype or necessity. Retrieved: May 6, 2013, from: http://www.nationmultimedia.com/opinion/learning-english-language-in-thailand-hype-or- Nece-30179150.html Online Business Dictionary. (2013). Attitude. Retrieved May 20, 2013, from: http://www.businessdictionary. com/definition/attitude.html Papanastasiou, C. (2002). School, teaching and family influence on student attitudes toward science: Based on TIMSS data for Cyprus. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 28, 71-86. Patanathabuts, R. (2008). Attitudes toward teacher styles and teaching styles in an International Business Management Program: case study comparison. Paper presented at the International Conference, Cowan University, Perth Western Australia, 19-21, November 2008. Petty, R. E. & Cacioppo, J. T. (1996). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. UK: Westview Press. Punthumasen, P. (2007). International program for teacher education: An approach to tackling problems for English education in Thailand. The 11 th UNESCO-APEID international conference. Retrieved: May 8, 2013, from: http://www.worldedreform.com/pub/paperie13dec07.pdf Sammons, A. (nd). Functions of attitudes. Retrieved: March 21, 2013, from: http://www.pschlotron.org.uk/ resources/social/as_aqb_social_attitudes_function.pdf Sarnoff, I.& Katz, D. (1954). The motivational basis of attitude change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49(1), 115-124. Sea, C. (2011). Ministry of Education on rural schools. Retrieved: April 30, 2013, from: http://bk.asia-city.com/city-living/article/mental-breakdown/ministryofeducation-interview Searchlight Process. (2013). English speaking initiatives in Thailand. Retrieved: March 20, 2013, from: http://futurechallenges.org/local/searchlight/english-speaking-initiatives-in-thailand/ Srisa Ard, B. et al. (nd). Problems and suggested solutions for the development of Basic Education in Educational Region 11, Thailand. Retrieved: April 30, 2013, from: http://www.watpon.com/boonchom/problem. pdf Wikipedia. (2013). Education in Thailand. Retrieved: March 19, 2013, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Education_in_Thailand Zainol, A., et al. (2012). EFL students attitudes towards learning English language: The case of Libyan secondary school students. Asian Social Science, vol. 8, no. 2, pp.119-134. 64

About the Author Nakhon Kitjaroonchai is a lecturer in the Faculty of Arts and Humanities at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand. 65

Appendix 1 A Questionnaire แบบสอบถาม A questionnaire to investigate attitudes toward English of primary and lower secondary school teachers in Muak Lek and Wang Muang district, Saraburi Province. แบบสอบถามเพ อสำารวจท ศนคต ท ม ต อภาษาอ งกฤษของคร สอนระด บช นประถมศ กษาในอำาเภอมวกเหล ก และอำาเภอว งม วง จ งหว ดสระบ ร Instructions: The questionnaire is divided into three parts: คำาช แนะ: แบบสอบถามแบ งออกเป น 3 ตอน Part I: Demographic profiles of the respondent ตอนท 1: ข อม ลท วไปผ ตอบแบบสอบถาม Part II: Items on attitudes toward English language ตอนท 2: ห วข อเก ยวก บท ศนคต ท ม ต อภาษาอ งกฤษ Part III: Questions about English proficiency of the respondent and problems of English language learning ตอนท 3: คำาถามเก ยวก บท กษะการใช ภาษาอ งกฤษของผ ตอบแบบสอบถาม Part I: Demographic profiles of the respondent ตอนท 1: ข อม ลท วไปผ ตอบแบบสอบถาม Instructions: Please indicate your answer with a tick (P) in the bracket provided. คำาส ง: กร ณาตอบคำาถามโดยทำาเคร องหมาย ถ ก (P) ลงในวงเล บ 1. Gender เพศ ( ) male ชาย ( ) female หญ ง 2. Teaching class level สอนระด บช น ( ) elementary 1 ป.1 ( ) elementary 2 ป.2 ( ) elementary 3 ป.3 ( ) elementary 4 ป.4 ( ) elementary 5 ป.5 ( ) elementary 6 ป.6 ( ) lower secondary ม. ต น ( ) nursery อน บาล ( ) other, please specify ช นอ น ๆ โปรดระบ 3. Years of teaching experience ( ) 1-4 years 1-4 ป ( ) 5-8 years 5-8 ป ( ) 9-12 years 9-12 ป ประสบการณ การสอน ( ) 13-16 years 13-16 ป ( ) 17-20 years17-20 ป ( ) more than 20 years มากกว า 20 ป 4. Responsible subject รายว ชาท ร บผ ดชอบ ( ) Thai ภาษาไทย ( ) Mathematics คณ ตศาสตร ( ) Science ว ทยาศาสตร ( ) Sociology and Culture ส งคมว ทยาและว ฒนธรรม ( ) Arts ศ ลปะ ( ) Occupation and Technology การงานว ชาช พและเทคโนโลย ( ) English ภาษาอ งกฤษ ( ) Health Studies ส ขศ กษา ( ) Physical Education พลศ กษา ( ) All subjects ท กว ชา ( ) Nursery Education ปฐมว ย ( ) Other, please specify อ น ๆ โปรดระบ 66

Part II: Items on attitudes toward English language ตอนท 2: ห วข อเก ยวก บท ศนคต ท ม ต อภาษาอ งกฤษ Instructions: Please indicate your choice with a tick (P) in the column provided which appears most applicable to you. Please read each statement carefully and give accurate answers. There s no right or wrong answer. คำาส ง : กร ณาระบ คำาตอบของท านโดยทำาเคร องหมาย [P] ลงในตารางตามท ท านเห นสมควรท ส ด กร ณาอ านข อความอย างละเอ ยดด วยความ ระม ดระว งและให คำาตอบท ถ กต องตามความเห นของท าน ไม ม คำาตอบใดถ กหร อผ ด Notes: หมายเหต For the statements which indicate positive attitude, the scores are rated as below: สำาหร บข อความท แสดงท ศนคต ทางบวก เกณฑ การให คะแนนเป นด งน 5 = strongly agree เห นด วยอย างย ง 4 = agree เห นด วย, 3 = undecided ไม แน ใจ, 2 = disagree ไม เห นด วย, 1 = strongly disagree ไม เห นด วยอย างย ง For statements which indicate negative attitude, the scores are rated as below: สำาหร บข อความท แสดงท ศนคต ทางลบ เกณฑ การให คะแนนเป นด งน 1 = strongly agree เห นด วยอย างย ง, 2 = agree เห นด วย, 3 = undecided ไม แน ใจ, 4 = disagree ไม เห นด วย, 5 = strongly disagree ไม เห นด วยอย างย ง Items on Attitude (ห วข อเก ยวก บท ศนคต ) 5 4 3 2 1 1. I like to speak English.ข าพเจ าชอบพ ดภาษาอ งกฤษ 2. I do not like someone who speaks to me in English. ข าพเจ าไม ชอบคนท พ ดก บข าพเจ าเป นภาษาอ งกฤษ 3. English is a universal language for communication. ภาษาอ งกฤษเป นภาษาสากลท ใช ในการส อสาร 4. English is not important for the older generation. ภาษาอ งกฤษไม ม ความสำาค ญต อคนร นก อน 5. Knowing English is beneficial for me to find a good job. ความร ภาษาอ งกฤษเป นประโยชน ต อข าพเจ าในการได งานทำาท ด 6. Knowing English does not help me to find a good job. ความร ภาษาอ งกฤษไม ได ช วยให ข าพเจ าได งานทำาท ด 7. The primary and secondary school levels should define English as a medium for communication. โรงเร ยนระด บช นประถมและม ธยมศ กษาควรกำาหนดให ภาษาอ งกฤษเป นภาษากลางท ใช ในกา ส อสาร 8. The primary and secondary school levels should not define English as a compulsory subject in their program curriculum. โรงเร ยนระด บช นประถมและม ธยมศ กษาไม ควรกำาหนดให ภาษาอ งกฤษเป นว ชาบ งค บใน หล กส ตรการศ กษา 9. The teaching and learning of English should start as early as the first grade in school (grade 1). การเร ยนการสอนภาษาอ งกฤษควรกำาหนดให ผ เร ยนเร มเร ยนต งแต ช นประถมศ กษาป ท 1 10. I am not interested in taking additional English lessons. ข าพเจ าไม สนใจเร ยนภาษาอ งกฤษเพ มเต ม 67

11. Learning English is important because it will help me become more knowledgeable. การเร ยนภาษาอ งกฤษเป นส งท สำาค ญเพราะจะทำาให ข าพเจ าม ความร มากข น 12. I think studying English is boring. ข าพเจ าค ดว าการเร ยนภาษาอ งกฤษเป นส งท น าเบ อหน าย 13. English is a fun language to learn. ภาษาอ งกฤษเป นภาษาท เร ยนแล วสน ก 14. I will never able to learn English because I do not understand grammar. ข าพเจ าค ดว าข าพเจ าจะไม สามารถ เร ยนร ภาษาอ งกฤษได เพราะไม เข าใจหล กไวยากรณ 15. I expect my children to learn English more attentively. ข าพเจ าปรารถนาให บ ตรหลานของตนต งใจเร ยน ภาษาอ งกฤษอย างจร งจ ง 16. I think my children can still find jobs without knowing English. ข าพเจ าค ดว าบ ตรหลานของตนสามารถหาเล ยง ช พได โดยไม ต องใช ภาษาอ งกฤษ 17. The Thai English teachers at the school where I teach are expert and knowledgeable. คร สอนภาษาอ งกฤษท เป นคนไทยในโรงเร ยนท ข าพเจ าสอนม ความร ความชำานาญ 18. The school where I teach lacks native English teachers. โรงเร ยนของข าพเจ าขาดแคลนคร สอนภาษาอ งกฤษท เป นเจ าของภาษา 19. The school where I teach has adequate teaching and learning materials for English class. โรงเร ยนของข าพเจ าม ส ออ ปกรณ การเร ยนการสอนภาษาอ งกฤษท เพ ยงพอ 20. The school where I teach does not have adequate teaching and learning materials for English class. โรงเร ยนของข าพเจ าขาดแคลนส ออ ปกรณ การเร ยนการสอนภาษาอ งกฤษท จำาเป น Part III: Please indicate your answer with a tick (P) in the bracket which appears most applicable to you. ตอนท 3: กร ณาตอบคำาถามโดยทำาเคร องหมาย ถ ก (P) ลงในวงเล บตามความเป นจร ง 1. How often do you use English? ค ณใช ภาษาอ งกฤษบ อยแค ไหน ( ) every day ท กว น ( ) 1-2 hours per week 1-2 ช วโมงต อส ปดาห ( ) lesser than 1-2 hours per week น อยกว า 1-2 ช วโมงต อส ปดาห ( ) once a month เด อนละคร ง ( ) never ไม เคย ( ) other, please specify อ น ๆ โปรดระบ 2. What level is your English communication skill? ค ณค ดว าความสามารถในการส อสารภาษาอ งกฤษของค ณอย ในระด บใด ( ) very good ด มาก ( ) good ด ( ) average ปานกลาง ( ) need improvement ควรปร บปร ง ( ) not acceptable ใช ไม ได 3. Indicate one problem or reason why teaching and learning English in Thailand hasn t been successful over the past years. จงระบ ป ญหาหร อสาเหต มา 1 อย างท ค ณค ดว าการเร ยนการสอนภาษาอ งกฤษในประเทศไทยย งไม ประสบผลสำาเร จในช วงหลายป ท ผ าน มา 68

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Internal Quality Assurance of Private Higher Education Institutions in Thailand: A Comparison of Quality Assessment Result in 2012 Damrong Sattayawaksakul, Wanlee Putsom, Narumon Keawduang [The following article was first presented as a paper at the 1 st International Scholars Conference held at Asia- Pacific International University, Thailand, on 3-4 October 2013.] Abstract This study compares the 2012 IQA assessment results of the private higher education institutions in Thailand classified by size of institutions, location or site of institutions and type (local or international type of institution). In addition, the study compares the IQA assessment results and the overall EQA assessment results of private higher education institutions in Thailand and compares the performance of Asia-Pacific International University with other private higher education institutions. There are several findings for the study. First, the results reveal the overall level of internal quality assurance was at very good level. For each of the components, the institution received very good in six of the components except the three components: Teaching and Learning; Research; and Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms. Second, There was a statistically significant difference of quality level in the component of Administration and Management related to different size of institutions. Third, Institutions located outside Bangkok Metropolitan Region possessed a higher quality score in Student Development Activities. Fourth, there was no difference in quality level between institutions emphasising the Thai medium programme and institutions which emphasise the international programme. Fifth, there was no relation between the quality level of the IQA system and EQA system. Finally, the study found the high quality level of education in terms of input and process of AIU when compared with other private higher educational institutions. Introduction Before 1969, higher education in Thailand constituted a state monopoly, the sole prerogative of government agencies. Towards the end of the 1960s, there was a steadily growing demand for higher education. Public universities in those days could no longer cope with such an enormous increase in demand owing to lack of space and other facilities in their institutions. To solve the problem, the government then passed a landmark Private College Act in 1969 under which the private sector was authorised to operate higher education institutions with the right to confer degrees. By 1984, a certain number of private colleges that had consolidated their positions as fully fledged tertiary institutions were raised to university status. Another regulation was passed by the parliament, namely, Private Higher Education Act of 1979 as amended in 1992, and higher education institutions spread far and wide throughout the country capable of catering to the needs of all people. Private higher education institutions in Thailand fall under the supervision of the Office of the Higher Education Commission (OHEC), Ministry of Education whose mandates are to manage and promote higher education with respect to the degree-granting institutions academic freedom and excellence. As the world has become increasingly complicated with greater competitions in all sectors of the society, Quality Assurance in Higher Education in Thailand was first introduced by the OHEC, on 8 July 1996. The policy stipulated that all higher education institutions including the private sector improve and enhance their efforts for quality of instruction and the academic learning environment. The introduction of the National Education Act in 1999 has given a new connotation to the terms internal quality assurance (IQA) and external quality assurance (EQA). According to the second amendment of the National Education Act 1992 in 2002, quality 69

assurance in educational systems comprises of internal and external systems. For internal quality assurance, it is the responsibility of each academic institution and its governing organisation to oversee that such internal mechanisms are put in place and remain a part of the continuing management system. Thus, internal quality assurance focuses on self-assessment (input) and continuous improvement process (process). As for external quality assurance, the Office of the National Education Standards and Quality Assessment (Public Organisation) (ONESQA) is responsible for the external assessment of institutions at all levels. External quality assurance focuses on educational achievements (outputs and outcomes). Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) The IQA system was developed based on the Higher Education Standards published in the announcement of the Ministry of Education on 7 August 2006 which consists of 3 standards: (a) Standard for the Quality of Graduates, (b) Standard for Administration in Higher Education, and (c) Standard for Establishing and Developing Knowledge Based and Learning Based Society. Each Standard for Higher Education is related to the National Education Standards so that it can fulfil the purposes and principles of the national education administration programme. Furthermore, IQA system was developed under other standards set by the OHEC. These standards were extended to cover other areas such as standard criteria of higher education curriculum, standard criteria for student affairs, criteria for asking permission to offer and manage degree programmes in the distance education System, and higher education qualification framework. These standards aim to assist higher education institutions to develop professionally and academically as well as to promote the quality and standards of the education administration in the higher education level to the global standard. The IQA system for higher education in Thailand was first introduced by the OHEC in 2007. The underlying system was based on three basic cornerstones of quality, namely, Quality Control, Quality Audit and Quality Assessment. The framework based on background and nature of development of Thai universities, taking into consideration university autonomy and academic freedom, serves as a broad outline for each institution to adapt and modify to fit their traditions. There are 9 components of quality indicators and assessing guidelines. Within these 9 components, there are 44 indicators to determine the quality of higher education institutions. In 2010, the OHEC reviewed these indicators and criteria and revised the indicators within the 9 components. As a result, 23 indicators were determined as a basis for internal quality assurance for higher education. The framework of IQA system consists of 9 aspects of quality component: (1) Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives; (2) Teaching and Learning; (3) Student Development Activities; (4) Research; (5) Academic Services; (6) Preservation of Art and Culture; (7) Administration and Management; (8) Finance and Budgeting; and (9) Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms. The IQA system requires preparing a self assessment report and an assessment by an auditing team annually. The current practice involves three levels of assessment: institutional level, faculty level and program of study level. External Quality Assurance (EQA) Since its inception in 2000, ONESQA has undergone three rounds of quality assessment at the national level. Each round focused on different educational problems and possessed different characteristics. Throughout the decade, the changing policy and rationale of ONESQA are reflected through its changing quality indicators. The first round of assessment happened between 2000 and 2005. It was mandated to last six years, as many policymakers envisioned that time was needed to establish ONESQA, revise the indicators and promote the policy to all the educational institutions. The first round of assessment included 8 quality standards and 28 quality indicators. The unit of the analysis was the institution itself. The second round of assessment occurred between 2006 and 2010. There were 7 standards and 48 quality indicators. The third round of assessment began in 2011 and will last until 2015. The indicators were reduced to 6 standards and 18 indicators. These standards are: (1) Quality Graduates; (2) Research and Innovation; (3) Academic Service; (4) Cultural Preservation; (5) Institutional Management and Development; and (6) Internal Quality Assessment (IQA). Research Objective Private higher education institutions in Thailand are undergoing a dramatic transformation. There have been several types of threat and pressure for the changes. The latest challenge for the private institutions is the soon coming of ASEAN Economic Community. However, the main challenge for the private institution 70

is the perceived position of the institutions at the lower end of the prestige hierarchy. The main reason for the perceived low quality is that private institutions rely on tuition payments, receive little funding from public sources and have no tradition of private philanthropy. As a result they are unable to compete for the best students (Altbach and Umakoshi, 2004). In order to change the perceived position and enhance quality, many private higher education institutions have been implementing some types of quality assurance systems especially the IQA. However, there have been some concerns about the ability of these institutions to improve their quality due to many factors as mentioned earlier. Thus, there are three main objectives of the study. First, the study aimed to compare the IQA assessment results of the higher education institutions in Thailand classified by size of institutions, location or site of institutions and type (local or international type of institution). Second, the study aimed to compare the IQA assessment results and the overall EQA assessment results of the higher education institutions in Thailand. Finally, the study aimed to compare the performance of Asia-Pacific International University with other private higher education institutions. Methodology The methodology used in this research is quantitative analysis by using statistical methods such as descriptive statistic, t-test, ANOVA and regression analysis. The data were collected from the assessment results of 41 private higher education institutions available on the CHE QA Online System for the assessing academic year of 2012. The average score for components/indicator groups or the overall picture of quality levels may be interpreted as shows in Table 1: Table 1: Quality Level Score Range Quality Level 4.51 5.00 Very Good 3.51 4.50 Good 2.51 3.50 Fair 1.51 2.50 Improvement Required 0.00 1.50 Improvement Urgently Required Research Findings Demographic characteristics Demographic characteristics of private higher education institutions are summarised in Table 2. The demographic characteristics show that 26.8 percent of private higher education institutions were small size institutions, 31.8 percent were medium size institutions, and 41.5 percent were large size institutions. Of the 41 private higher education institutions, 58.5 percent of the institutions are located within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, while 41.5 percent are located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. In addition, 87.8 percent of private higher education institutions offered mainly the Thai medium programme, while 12.2 percent offered mainly international programmes. Table 2: Demographic Information Variable Size of Institution Less than 1,200 student enrolments 1,201-5,000 student enrolments More than 5,000 student enrolments Number of Institution 11 26.8 13 31.7 17 41.5 Percentage 71

Location/Site of Institution Bangkok Metropolitan Region Outside Bangkok Metropolitan Region Type of Institution Mainly Thai medium programme Mainly International programme 24 58.5 17 41.5 36 87.8 5 12.2 Overall Level of Quality Performance As shown in Table 3, the private higher education institutions received a very good level of quality assurance score (Mean = 4.61, S.D. = 0.21) in 2012. The lowest quality assurance score was 3.97 and the highest score was 4.96. When considering each of the nine components, the private higher education institutions received very good level of quality assurance in six components: Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives; Student Development Activities; Academic Services; Preservation of Art and Culture; Administration and Management; and Finance and Budgeting. The institutions received good level of quality assurance in three components: Teaching and Learning; Research; and Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms. The lowest assessment score received by one or more institutions was Research component with an average score of 2.94. Table 3: Mean Scores, Standard Deviation, and the Quality Level Component Min. Max. Mean S.D. Quality Level Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives 3.00 5.00 4.85.42 Very Good Teaching and Learning 3.46 4.69 4.10.32 Good Student Development Activities 3.00 5.00 4.79.43 Very Good Research 2.94 5.00 4.18.58 Good Academic Services 3.00 5.00 4.84.39 Very Good Preservation of Art and Culture 3.00 5.00 4.85.53 Very Good Administration and Management 3.50 5.00 4.69.39 Very Good Finance and Budgeting 3.00 5.00 4.95.31 Very Good Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms 3.00 5.00 4.32.65 Good Overall Average 3.97 4.96 4.62.21 Very Good Level of Quality Performance Categorised by Size of Institution The results of the one way ANOVA in Table 4 show that there was no statistically significant difference of quality level in overall average quality assurance score for the private higher education institutions regardless the size of institution (p>0.05). However, there was a statistically significant difference of quality level in the component of Administration and Management related to different size institutions (p<0.05). 72

Table 4: The Quality Level of Private Higher Education Institutions Categorised by Size Valiance d.f. SS MS F P Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives Between Groups 2 0.092.046.248.781 Within Groups 38 7.030.185 Total 40 7.122 Teaching and Learning Between Groups 2.242.121 1.221.306 Within Groups 38 3.760.099 Total 40 4.002 Student Development Activities Research Between Groups 2.023.012.060.942 Within Groups 38 7.464.196 Total 40 7.488 Between Groups 2.497.248.732.488 Within Groups 38 12.900.339 Total 40 13.396 Academic Services Between Groups 2.175.087.549.582 Within Groups 38 6.045.159 Total 40 6.220 Preservation of Art and Culture Between Groups 2.427.213.758.475 Within Groups 38 10.695.281 Total 40 11.122 Administration and Management Between Groups 2 1.263.631 4.836.013 Within Groups 38 4.960.131 Total 40 6.223 Finance and Budgeting Between Groups 2.210.105 1.081.349 Within Groups 38 3.692.097 Total 40 3.902 Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms Between Groups 2.784.392.926.405 Within Groups 38 16.094.424 Total 40 16.878 Overall Average Between Groups 2.103.052 1.233.303 Within Groups 38 1.594.042 Total 40 1.697 73

The quality level of Administration and Management was further tested to determine which of the means of the institutional sizes are significantly different from the others by the Scheffe s method. The results (Table 5), show that there was statistically significant difference in the pair of the size, of small size and large size institutions (p<0.05). Table 5: A Scheffe s Method of Institutional Sizes Pairing Test to the Quality Level in Administration and Management Size of Institution (I) Less than 1,200 student enrolments 1,201-5,000 student enrolments More than 5,000 student enrolments Size of Institution (J) 1,201-5,000 student enrolments More than 5,000 student enrolments Less than 1,200 student enrolments More than 5,000 student enrolments Less than 1,200 student enrolments 1,201-5,000 student enrolments Mean Diff. (I-J) Std. Error.09790.14801.805.40107 *.13980.024 -.09790.14801.805.30317.13311.088 -.40107 *.13980.024 -.30317.13311.088 P Level of Quality Performance Categorised by Location of Institution Table 6 shows a comparison of the level of quality performance of both institutions located within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and institutions located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region in overall and in each of the nine quality components. The results of the t-test show that institutions located within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and institutions located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region possessed no statistically significant difference in overall average of quality level (p>0.05). However, institutions located within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and institutions located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region possessed a statistically significant difference in the level of quality in Student Development Activities (p<0.05). The results also indicate that institutions located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region received a higher quality score in Student Development Activities. Table 6: A Comparison of the Quality Level in Overall and Each of the Nine Components Categorised by Location Component BKK (n=24) S.D. Outside BKK (n=17) t p S.D. Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives 4.88.34 4.82.53.38.38 Teaching and Learning 4.16.32 4.01.29 1.55.40 Student Development Activities 4.69.53 4.94.17-1.91.00 Research 4.16.63 4.20.52 -.23.24 Academic Services 4.83.43 4.85.34 -.16.82 Preservation of Art and Culture 4.91.41 4.76.66.91.07 Administration and Management 4.80.29 4.53.47 2.29.12 Finance and Budgeting 4.92.41 5.00.00 -.84.09 74

Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms 4.29.69 4.35.61 -.29.56 Overall Average 4.63.22 4.61.20.28.84 Level of Quality Performance Categorised by Type of Institution Table 7 shows a comparison of the level of quality performance of those institutions which emphasise the Thai medium programme and institutions which emphasise international programmes in overall and each of the nine quality components. The results of the t-test show that there is no statistically significant difference in quality level of overall average and in each of the nine components of quality (p>0.05).. Table 7: A Comparison of the Quality Level in Overall and Each of the Nine Components Categorised by Type of Institution Component International Thai (n=36) (n=5) t p X S.D. X S.D. Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives 4.86.42 4.80.45.30.65 Teaching and Learning 4.07.29 4.29.46-1.47.14 Student Development Activities 4.82.42 4.60.55 1.06.16 Research 4.17.56 4.19.77 -.06.77 Academic Services 4.85.39 4.80.45.25.61 Preservation of Art and Culture 4.83.56 5.00.00 -.66.16 Administration and Management 4.70.36 4.60.63.53.21 Finance and Budgeting 4.94.33 5.00.00 -.37.45 Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms 4.31.62 4.40.89 -.30.23 Overall Average 4.62.21 4.63.20 -.14.88 The Relationship of IQA and EQA As shown in Table 8, the results of regression analysis indicates that there is no statistical relationship between the IQA assessment results and the EQA assessment results (p>0.05). Table 8: Regression Analysis Results Component B Std. Error t p Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives -.140.149 -.935.357 Teaching and Learning.229.201 1.139.263 Student Development Activities -.058.161 -.358.723 Research.100.143.695.492 Academic Services -.022.178 -.122.904 Preservation of Art and Culture Administration and Management.104.131.796.432.070.204.344.734 Finance and Budgeting.077.183.423.675 Overall Average.468.786.596.555 75

Level of Quality Performance: A Comparison between AIU and Other Institutions According to Table 9, even though AIU may be a small size institution, its quality level is no different from the same size and different size institutions. As a matter of fact, AIU was better off in terms of Teaching and Learning, Student Development Activities, Preservation of Arts and Culture, Finance and Budgeting and Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanism. Nevertheless, AIU scored lower than other institutions in the area of Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives, Research and Academic Services. Table 9: A Quality Level Comparison between AIU and Other Institutions Component Small Size (n=11) Medium Size (n=13) Large Size (n=17) Total (n=41) Philosophies, Commitment and Objectives 4.82 4.92 4.82 4.85 4.00 Teaching and Learning 4.21 4.01 4.10 4.10 4.47 Student Development Activities 4.82 4.81 4.76 4.79 5.00 Research 4.28 4.02 4.23 4.17 4.16 Academic Services 4.91 4.88 4.76 4.84 4.00 Preservation of Art and Culture 4.82 5.00 4.76 4.85 5.00 Administration and Management 4.89 4.79 4.49 4.69 4.75 Finance and Budgeting 5.00 4.85 5.00 4.95 5.00 Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms AIU 4.55 4.23 4.24 4.32 5.00 Overall Average 4.70 4.61 4.57 4.62 4.60 Discussion and Conclusions This study examined the overall and each of nine quality components of 41 private higher education institutions. There are several findings from the study. The results reveal that the overall level of internal quality assurance was at a very good level. There are at least three main reasons for the high quality level. First, the IQA focuses on the input and process of educational management. Most private higher education institutions have been in the process of enhancing their quality and position. The efforts should be revealed in the future for the EQA system result. Second, private higher education institutions have been implementing these quality components and indicators for the second year. They have learned lessons from the previous year to improve the score in 2012. Third, the assessors were selected by the institutions to audit the quality of the institutions. The institutions tend to select generous assessors to gain a high quality score. For each of the components, the institution received very good in six of the components except for three components: Teaching and Learning; Research; and Internal Quality Assurance System and Mechanisms. The main reason for receiving lower score for these components is the academic competence in terms of research and academic output. The low research and academic output are also connected to the qualifications of lecturers in terms of doctoral degree holders and academic title. However, the quality level in these areas will improve since most of the lecturers and institutions have realised the importance of the research commitment. Many of them are in the process of changing their role from mainly teaching to both teaching and researching. The results reveal a statistically significant difference of quality level in the component of Administration and Management related to different size of institutions. Larger size institutions are not effective in education management compared to smaller size institutions. Similar to other studies, the size of an institution poses a major obstacle to the development of institutional policies as long as there is strong involvement of the institution s management, and sufficient funding and adequate facilities (Martin, 2000; OECD, 2010). Institutions located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region possessed a higher quality score in Student Development Activities. This means the Institutions located outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region would emphasise more on the plan, implementation and evaluation of extracurricular activities than the institutions located within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. This might be because of the traffic condition and the limited space for activity in the capital city. 76

The study also found no difference in quality level between institutions which emphasise the Thai medium programme and institutions which emphasise the international programme. This is because the internal quality assurance is a mandatory part of the education administration process that should be maintained on an ongoing basis. In other words, the entire institution, regardless of programme, must maintain the quality standards required by the OHEC. That makes no difference in the quality level for these institutions. Though the OHEC developed the IQA system to improve the effectiveness in education administration and to prepare for the external quality assessment, the result of this study found no relation between the quality level of the IQA system and EQA system. There might be two reasons for the finding. First, the IQA s indicators are not related to the output and outcome indicators of the EQA system. Second, there IQA s indicators were set for the early stage of education development but the EQA s indicators were set with an expectation of high level of quality education. More time is needed for the private higher education institutions to develop their quality level according to the expectation. AIU is a small size private higher education institution located about 150 kilometres outside the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. International programme of education is the main emphasis of the University. The study confirms the high quality level of education in term of input and process of the University when compared to other private higher education institutions. The emphasis in the development of the physical, the mental and the spiritual powers of AIU, has created quality education systems for students and other stakeholders. References Matin, M. (2000). Managing University-Industry Relations: A Study of Institutional Practices From 12 Different Countries. UNESCO, Paris. Ministry of Education Thailand. (1999). The National Education Act of 1999. Bangkok: Author. OECD (2010), Learning our lesson: Review of Quality Teaching in Higher Education, Vol. 1, OECD, Paris. Office of Higher Education Commission (OHEC). (2008). Manual for the Internal Quality Assurance for Higher Education Institutions. Bangkok, Thailand: Author. Office of National Educational Standards and Quality Assessment (ONESQA). (2012). Manual for the third round of external quality assessment. Bangkok: Author. Philip G. Altbach,P., G. and Umakoshi, T. (2004). Asian Universities: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Pittiyanuwat, S. (2008). An overview of quality assessment in Thailand. International Journal of Quality Assurance and Accreditation, 1(1). Pittiyanuwat, S. (2009). The amicable assessment in education quality assurance. International Journal of Quality Assurance and Accreditation, 1(2). Saelao, R. (2013). The Logic of the Thai Higher Education Sector on Quality Assessment Policy. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. UNICEF (2000). Defining Quality in Education. The International Working Group on Education, UNICEF, Italy. Wongsothorn, T. (1999). Quality assurance for higher education in Asia and the Pacific. SEAMEO Regional Centre for Higher Education. About the authors Damrong Sattayawaksakul is the Dean of the Faculty of Business Administration at Asia-Pacific International University. Wanlee Putsom is the Director of the Quality Assurance Office and an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Business Administration at Asia-Pacific International University. Narumon Keawduang is the QA Specialist of the Quality Assurance Office at Asia-Pacific International University. 77

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Nine Lessons from the Preaching Ministry of Jesus Derek J. Morris [The following article is an excerpt from Derek J. Morris book, Powerful Biblical Preaching, (2012) and was presented as a plenary speech at the Symposium on Biblical and Evangelistic Preaching held at Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand, on 6-10 November 2013.] Lord, teach us to preach! We wish the disciples had made such a request. We could have all benefited from some practical pointers on preaching from the Master Preacher. Yet, as we examine the life and teachings of Jesus, we discover several pointers that can revolutionize our preaching ministry. Preach in the power of the Holy Spirit Jesus clearly testified that the Spirit of the Lord had anointed Him to preach (Luke 4:18). Would it be too bold to assert that we have no place preaching the Word of God until we have first been anointed by the Spirit of God? Jesus told His preaching students to wait in Jerusalem until they received the promise of the Father (Acts 1:4, 5, 8). After the heavenly anointing at Pentecost, the followers of Jesus went out to preach in the power of the Holy Spirit. A case in point is Stephen the deacon, who is described as full of faith and the Holy Spirit (Acts 6:5), and also as full of faith and power (verse 8). When Stephen preached, his hearers were not able to resist the wisdom and the Spirit by which he spoke (verse 10). Even Stephen s nonverbal communication was an irrefutable witness: And all who sat in the council, looking steadfastly at him, saw his face as the face of an angel (verse 15). His life demonstrated that when preachers are filled with the Holy Spirit, they are full of power. You will preach with a holy boldness (Acts 4:29-31; 13:6-12). Bathe your sermon preparation and delivery in prayer Jesus, the Master Preacher, devoted large amounts of time to prayer. As He prepared to preach in the synagogues throughout Galilee, Jesus rose early in the morning, departed to a solitary place, and prayed (Mark 1:35-39). Prior to preaching His strategic sermon on the bread of life, Jesus spent hours in prayer (Matt. 14:23-25). For Jesus, preaching and prayer were intricately connected. The preaching students of Jesus realized that those who minister the Word must also devote themselves to prayer (Acts 6:4). The intense season of prayer by the followers of Jesus prior to Pentecost was not only an essential preparation for the Spirit s anointing; it was also an essential preparation for powerful preaching. The apostle Paul affirmed the importance of prayer in sermon preparation and delivery when he made the special request for intercessory prayer that utterance may be given to me, that I may open my mouth boldly to make known the mystery of the gospel (Eph. 6:19). He understood that without prayer he could not speak boldly, as I ought to speak (verse 20). The dearth of powerful biblical preaching among us is directly related to the lack of powerful praying. Peter s denial of Jesus in the high priest s palace courtyard illustrates the troubling truth that we will have no powerful testimony about Jesus to share with others if we have been sleeping when we should have been praying. The lesson is clear. Pray for God s guidance before you begin your sermon preparation. Pray while you prepare your sermon. Pray while you preach. Learn from the example of Jesus that powerful preaching is prayed down, not worked up. Bathe your sermon preparation and delivery in prayer. 78

Preach the Word of God, instead of human opinions Jesus proclaimed the Word of God, both in word and in life. He boldly declared the word which you hear is not Mine but the Father s who sent Me (John 14:24). And again, as He prayed for His disciples, Jesus testified to His Father, I have given them Your Word (John 17:14). The preaching students of Jesus understood the importance of sharing God s Word, rather than their own opinions. The apostles spoke the word of God with boldness (Acts 4:31) and the word of God spread (Acts 6:7). People need to hear God s Word, not our opinions. What God has to say is more important than what we have to say. We hear far too many sermons today that give only a nod to the Word of God. These days biblical sermons with contemporary illustrations have become contemporary sermons with occasional biblical illustrations. The result is a lack of power in the pulpit and a lack of transformation in the church. These sermons may be entertaining, they may be interesting, but they will affect no lasting change. Communicate God s grace When Jesus preached, He did not simply speak about the grace of God. He actually communicated the grace of God. Luke records that in response to the preaching of Jesus at the synagogue in Nazareth, His hearers marveled at the gracious words which proceeded out of His mouth (Luke 4:22). This audience feedback is a testimony not to the finesse of His oral expression, but rather is a response to the essence of His speech. Jesus was full of grace (John 1:14), and when He preached, He communicated the grace of God. One of the most powerful words of grace from the preaching ministry of Jesus is found in a sermon preached at night to an audience of one: For God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish but have everlasting life. For God did not send His Son into the world to condemn the world, but that the world through Him might be saved (John 3:16, 17). The preaching students of Jesus understood that they were sent out to communicate the grace of God. The apostle Peter began his message to the pilgrims of the dispersion with the words Grace to you (1 Pet. 1:2). The apostle Paul began his messages on numerous occasions with the words Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ (Eph. 1:2). He reminds us to let your speech always be with grace (Col. 4:6), teach and admonish one another with grace in your hearts (Col. 3:16), and impart grace to the hearers (Eph. 4:29). Every sermon should communicate a clear word of grace. It is the grace of God that brings hope. It is true that every sermon should also contain a clear word of judgment, but even the word of judgment should be communicated with grace in our hearts. Be aware of your audience Jesus demonstrated a remarkable awareness of His audience. He understood that effective communication is dialogue, rather than mere monologue. Jesus addressed issues that were on the minds of His hearers (Matt. 24:3; Luke 10:39). He engaged His audience in interaction through the use of questions (Luke 10:36). On at least one occasion, He actually allowed someone s rude interruption to redirect the course of His sermon (Luke 12:13-21). Jesus was attentive to both the verbal and nonverbal feedback from His listeners. During His sermon at Nazareth, Jesus discerned the nonverbal messages of those present. The body language that accompanied the comment Is this not Joseph s son? suggested a resistant spirit and a lack of faith. Responding to this audience feedback, Jesus said, You will surely say this proverb to Me, Physician, heal your- self! (Luke 4:23). He then shifted the focus of His sermon from a proclamation of the acceptable year of the Lord to the importance of faith. The preaching students of Jesus learned the importance of being aware of the audience. Those present on the day of Pentecost entered into dialogue with Peter as he preached in the power of the Holy Spirit. Having boldly proclaimed that God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Christ (Acts 2:36), Peter paused to listen to the feedback of his hearers. Their comment, What shall we do? did not mark the end of Peter s sermon. Rather it was an essential part of the sermon. Remember, all effective communication is dialogue. A preacher cannot be oblivious to feedback from the audience. Peter continued, Repent, and let every one of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins; and you shall receive the gift of 79

the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:38). And again, Peter showed sensitivity to audience feedback. The final move of his sermon happened in the water, when about 3,000 people were baptized! That baptism was an integral part of the sermon, a visible evidence of a life-changing dialogue with God. Use a simple, memorable statement On the day after the miraculous feeding of the five thousand, Jesus preached a powerful sermon. He used a simple, memorable statement to drive home His main idea: I am the bread of life (John 6:35). We can learn several important lessons from the crafting of this main idea. First, it is a simple sentence. Second, it is stated in the positive, rather than the negative. Unfortunately, we don t have an audio or video recording of this watershed sermon of Jesus, but communicators agree that there are several oral interpretation skills that can be used to emphasize the main idea in a sermon. Jesus may have changed His rate of delivery when He said, I am the bread of life. He may have added a pause, or thoughtful silence. Doing this highlights the idea as important and pro- vides an opportunity for hearers to reflect upon it. Jesus may also have used a variation of force, or volume, in order to flag this idea, as He did on another occasion (John 7:37). Use repetition and restatement Jesus not only crafted a simple, memorable statement in order to drive home His main idea, but He also used repetition for added emphasis. It takes a skilled communicator to state the single dominant thought only once in a sermon and have the hearers recognize it and remember it. In the bread of life sermon, Jesus repeated His main idea at least once (John 6:35, 48). He also restated His main idea by paraphrasing it on several occasions during the sermon, saying, I am the bread which came down from heaven (verse 41), and I am the living bread (verse 51). If repetition and restatement were important to Jesus in order to drive home the main idea of His sermon, they are even more important in a day when attentive listening is rapidly becoming a lost art. We must make certain the simple, memorable statement of the sermon is clearly heard. Find practical illustrations Jesus was a master illustrator of spiritual truth. He frequently used practical illustrations from everyday life to convey spiritual truth. On one occasion when Jesus was speaking to His disciples, He called a young child to stand in the midst of them. What a brilliant way to focus their attention! Here was a living illustration of the truth Jesus was about to convey. Then Jesus said to the disciples, Unless you are converted and become as little children, you will by no means enter the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 18:3). Jesus developed a reputation as a preacher who drew practical illustrations from everyday life. Matthew records that Jesus spoke to the multitude in parables; and without a parable He did not speak to them (Matt. 13:34). He spoke about casting nets, sowing seed, and losing sheep. Jesus understood that the best illustrations are found where the speaker s world and the listener s world intersect. When Jesus spoke about crop yield, His agrarian audience did not have to decode His message. They were well acquainted with the problems of troublesome birds, rocks, thistles, and shallow root systems. If Jesus was teaching a class on preaching in the twenty-first century, He would undoubtedly encourage His students to draw practical illustrations from power tools, portfolios, and 20 gig hard drives. There is no such thing as a good illustration only a good illustration of some- thing. So we should select practical illustrations from everyday life that reinforce and shed light on the main idea of the sermon. All other anecdotes, as wonderful as they might sound, are simply extraneous noise that can do more harm than good. We are not called to entertain with a smorgasbord of interesting stories. Rather, we are called to proclaim a life-changing Word. A wise preacher will learn from the example of Jesus and use relevant, practical illustrations from everyday life to help accomplish that sacred task. Call for radical life change Jesus spoke as one having authority (Matt. 7:29). He preached in the power of the Holy Spirit, sharing the Word of God rather than His own opinions, but He also called for radical life change. At the conclusion of His historic Sermon on the Mount, Jesus challenged His hearers to apply the truths they had heard to their 80

own lives. It was a call to action, a call for radical life change. Jesus said, Therefore whoever hears these sayings of Mine, and does them, I will liken him to a wise man who built his house on the rock (Matt. 7:24). Conversely, everyone who hears these sayings of Mine, and does not do them, will be like a foolish man who built his house on the sand (Matt. 7:26). Preachers are commissioned not simply to convey information, but to call for obedience and transformation. While it is certainly true that transformation is God s work, not ours, we are called to join God in His work. When the Word of God has been faithfully pro- claimed, a call for radical life change is not only a privilege it is a responsibility. Peter made no apology when he called for radical life change at the conclusion of his sermon. The call was to repent, be baptized, and be saved from this perverse generation (Acts 2:38-40). It seems that today some preachers are afraid to call for radical life change. They are afraid to appear arrogant or authoritarian. But truth, by its very nature, is authoritative. Truth inevitably excludes all that is error. A hearing of the truth of God s Word necessitates a response. There is no place for manipulation, coercion, or emotional hype. However, we learn from the example of Jesus that when truth has been proclaimed, it is appropriate to call for radical life change. That call should be simple and clear. The result will be a transforming experience both for us as preachers and for our hearers. About the Author Derek J. Morris is editor of Ministry, an International Journal for Pastors. 81

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Abstract Jesus Methods of Dealing with Accusations Nola Tudu One aspect of communication that affects people deeply is false accusations. This study intended to discover the method of communication Jesus used in dealing with false accusations. There is very little data showing Jesus methods of dealing with accusation. The book of Matthew was used as the source of data. The data was analysed using content analysis with intercoder reliability of 0.4 percent. It was found that Jesus primarily responded to false accusation in six ways: by asking questions; by sharing parables, analogies, or maxims; by giving strong words of condemnation or affirmation; by referring to the scriptures; by withdrawing from the accusers; and by keeping silent. All these ways of communicating with people when accused falsely, follows a progression of behaviour from active engagement to a passive one. Keywords: accusation, communication, conflict, Jesus, Matthew, method Jesus Methods of Dealing with Accusations Communication touches every aspect of life. Effective communication skills can lead to success and contentment in business, at the workplace and at school. False accusations are a barrier to effective communication. Smith (2007, p. 324) suggested that threats and accusation can have profound and far-reaching consequences, and while rarely resulting in death, can kill off something essential in the worker s motivation and commitment to the work. False allegations can accuse innocent people of crime they never committed and cause intense suffering, pain, loss of health, loss of finances and most importantly defame a person s good name and character. Inside Time, (Morris, 2010, para. 6) a British national newspaper for prisoners revealed, Prior to 2004, the Home Office stated in its own bulletin that it was aware of 3000 wrongfully convicted people being put in prison every year, while allowing the guilty to walk free (Naylor L.A 2004). The paper further noted that many psychotherapists were found guilty of implanting false memories of physical and sexual abuse in their patients causing irreparable damage to families. The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin in its article False Allegation of Adult Crimes indicated that in cases such as rape these false allegations can severely affect communities and the people who live and work there (McNamara & Lawrence, 2012, para. 12). These evidences suggest that false accusations are prevalent in the society and no one is exempt. A survey reported a poll of 1,115 teachers where 28% of teachers were falsely accused by their students and 17% by a member of the student s family ( One in four, 2009). One can be falsely accused in the classroom, in the office, in a marriage or even in the hospital. False accusations can even become a moneymaking scheme by someone looking for compensation. The Gospels give a picture of how Jesus dealt with accusations. Jesus was a Master Communicator. Jesus methods of dealing with accusation especially as noted in the Gospel of Matthew gives valuable insight in dealing with accusations in interpersonal relationships. 82

Review of Literature A review of the literature reveals more studies done about communication in general than on Jesus method of communication and His method of dealing with His accusers. Stallard (2007) an experienced senior pastor and Director of Treasures of Truth Ministries, suggested responding to accusations in a godly manner. He advised that when accusations are true, confession is the correct biblical way to deal with it. He further added that even if the accusations are partly wrong or partly right we must deal openly and honestly with anything that is wrong in our life (p. 120). Sometimes accusations may be false. What is the best way of dealing with false accusations? The life of Jesus reveals important principles. Associate professor of New Testament studies, Bennema (2010), stated that in many instances Jesus silenced his accusers by asking them questions. Jesus used questions frequently when communicating with His accusers because it provoked an introspection and analysis of their actions and motives, often leaving them speechless. Jesus also spoke strongly against the Pharisees and scribes who accused Him constantly, calling them hypocrites because of their lack of obedience to God s law, suggested Lee (2013), Associate Professor in Teacher Education at Kentucky Christian University. Jesus condemnation against them resonates with what Rahim (2002), author and professor of Management, advocates as an ethical criteria to be met when managing organizational conflict. He emphasised, Stakeholders have an ethical duty to speak out against the decisions of supervisors when consequences of these decisions are likely to be serious (p. 209). In an article Out of Context the Gospel According to Jesus, Danaher (2011), Chair of the Deparment of Philosophy of Nyack College, suggested that the Pharisees accused Jesus and responded violently to Him because the gospel Jesus presented to them was so out of context for them. For example, they thought they were good, but Jesus described them as white washed tombs from outside but rotting inside (Matt. 23:27-28). In another example, they could not understand how the first would be last and the last first (Matt. 19:30) as Jesus suggested. Jesus also tried to emphasise the internal understanding of the spirit of the law rather than a strict outward observance of the law (Lee, 2013). This often led to frequent conflicts as the Pharisees accused Jesus of not keeping the Sabbath, or the disciples of not washing their hands. Leaders who learn to communicate effectively in a variety of contexts and through a variety of communication pathways are helping followers and their organizations navigate toward effectiveness, observed Irving, (2011, p. 126), associate professor of ministry leadership at Bethel Seminary, Minnesota. Therefore, this study examined the Gospel of Matthew to find Jesus method of dealing with accusations. The result of the research will be used to inform leaders, workers, or any person who wants to communicate effectively, on how to deal with accusations and how to enhance communication skills. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to look into the Book of Matthew and see the situations in which Jesus was involved with accusations. It aimed to answer the following questions: 1. How did Jesus deal with accusations? 2. How can Jesus methods of dealing with accusation be applied in interpersonal communication today? The knowledge gained from this study can be used to provide guidelines for communicators in any situation where there is some form of conflict or accusations. This study also aims to provide alternative ways of conflict management more than what is currently used in the field of communication studies. Method The method of research used was qualitative with content analysis in the treatment of the data. The book of Matthew from the New Testament was taken as the primary source for the data. The New King James Version (NKJV) of the Bible was used as it is considered a reliable translation. To maintain reliability of the research, an inter coder reliability test was used. A portion of the book of Matthew was coded by two researchers. To maintain an objective and reliable interpretation of the data, Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used. The r value determines the degree of agreement between the coders. The score for the inter coder reliability test 83

using Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was 0.4 percent. This shows there is a fair reliability of data between the coders. A table was constructed to record instances when Jesus met with different kinds of accusations and the methods he followed in dealing with those accusations. The table was then analysed and categorised to find various themes and patterns showing how Jesus responded to accusations. The categories of Jesus response to accusations were made as the data was analyzed rather than by any predetermined idea. Findings A study on the book of Matthew revealed a wealth of information on communication principles especially dealing with managing conflict. These principles were recorded not only from Jesus interactions with others in situations where accusations were made, but also from His teachings about dealing with false accusations. The content analysis of the 28 chapters in the Book of Matthew revealed the following ways Jesus responded to accusations: by asking questions by sharing analogies, maxims, and parables by giving strong words of condemnation or affirmation by referring to the scriptures as a source of authority by withdrawing from the place by keeping silent before his accusers Jesus Method of Dealing with Accusations A descriptive and interpretive summary of the six methods Jesus primarily used when facing a situation of accusation is given below. Jesus Responds to Accusations by Asking Questions The book of Matthew records seven times Jesus responded to accusations with a question or a series of questions. The instances happened in Matthew 9:1-8; 9:15; 12:3-5; 12:26-29; 15:1-3; 21:16; 26:10. Here are some of the accusations Jesus faced and the way he dealt with them. In the first one, Jesus was accused of blasphemy. Jesus had just forgiven and then healed a paralytic man brought to him. The scribes present at that time said within themselves, This Man blasphemes! (Matt. 9:1-8 New King James Version). Jesus response was to ask two questions back to the scribes. But Jesus, knowing their thoughts said, Why do you think evil in your hearts? For which is easier to say, Your sins are forgiven you, or to say, Arise and walk? Matthew 9:4-5. Jesus question was a veiled rebuke in response to their unspoken accusations of blasphemy. Jesus was showing that his authority to heal also demonstrated his authority to forgive (www.bible gateway.com). The second recorded accusation is in Matthew 9:15. The disciples of John accused Jesus disciples of not fasting as they and the Pharisees did. Jesus uses a question in response to their question saying, Can the friends of the bridegroom mourn as long as the bridegroom is with them? But the days will come when the bridegroom will be taken away from them, and then they will fast (Matt. 9:15). Jesus directs their attention to himself as the bridegroom or the promised Messiah and therefore the need for the disciples to be joyful and not fast while he was with them. In short, by his question Jesus implies there is a time for everything and a time would come for them to fast in the future. Next, the Pharisees accused Jesus disciples of breaking the Sabbath by plucking the grains and eating them. Jesus responded by asking two questions related to their knowledge of the scriptures : Have you not read what David did when he was hungry, he and those who were with him: how he entered the house of God and ate the showbread which was not lawful for him to eat, nor for those who were with him, but only for the priests? Or have you not read in the law that on the Sabbath the priests in the temple profane the Sabbath, and are blameless? (Matt. 12: 3-5) The response of Jesus to the accusation of breaking the Sabbath shows a greater understanding of the Scriptures and not blind reliance to traditions. Gempf pointed out, Jesus responded with questions to make 84

the people choose either the traditions of men or the commandments of God (as cited in Bennema, 201, p. 25). In addition to breaking the Sabbath, Jesus was also accused of using demonic power to cast out demons. The multitudes were amazed when Jesus healed the demon possessed blind and mute man. But the Pharisees attributed Jesus power to heal from the ruler of the demons Beelzebub (Matt. 12:24). Jesus responded to this accusation by asking three questions about how the Pharisees sons cast out demons. His rebuking questions nullified their accusations showing their reasoning was faulty and therefore their accusation was invalid. Jesus questioned: If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself. How then will his kingdom stand? And if I cast out demons by Beelzebub, by whom do your sons cast them out? Therefore they shall be your judges. But if I cast out demons by the Spirit of God, surely the kingdom of God has come upon you. Or how can one enter a strong man s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? And then he will plunder his house. (Matt. 12:26-29) The series of three questions were intended to emphasise the gravity of the situation and also to reason logically with them. Satan s Kingdom would be futile if it was divided and the exorcism by the Pharisees sons would be suspect if they accused Christ of using demonic power. Sometimes the questions Jesus asked were intended as a veiled rebuke (Bennema, 2010). These questions were a rebuke to the Pharisees for rejecting the witness of the Holy Spirit s power. Jesus power from God could bind Satan and overthrow him in the healing of the blind and mute man. The fifth instance when Jesus responded to accusations with a question is recorded in Matthew 15:1-3. A delegation from Jerusalem comprising of the Pharisees and scribes came asking Jesus: Why do Your disciples transgress the tradition of the elders? For they do not wash their hands when they eat bread. He answered and said to them, Why do you also transgress the commandment of God because of your tradition? Instead of replying to them, Jesus asks a counter question. Jesus used a counter question either to silence his audience or to redirect them to the key issues (Bennema, 2010, p. 23). Jesus wanted His accusers to be aware where their priorities lay with traditions of men or obedience to commandments of God. Another time Jesus faced his accusers with questions was when he cleansed the temple. The chief priests and scribes accused Jesus for accepting the praise of the children after he had done wonderful miracles of healing and shouting Hosanna to the Son of David! (Matt. 21:15). They accosted Jesus saying Do You hear what these are saying? (Matt. 21:16) Jesus turned to them and asked a question: Yes. Have you never read, Out of the mouth of babes and nursing infants You have perfected praise? (Matt. 21:16) By directing the chief priests and scribes thoughts to the Scriptures, Jesus was able to show them the fulfilment of a prophecy and the children s recognition of Jesus as the Messiah. The final example of Jesus responding to his accusers, this time his disciples, with a question is found in Matthew 26:10. The disciples were indignant at the woman breaking a costly jar of perfumed oil over Jesus head. They accused the woman Why this waste? (Matt. 26:8). They thought the perfume could have been sold and the money used for the poor. Jesus question was a mild rebuke to them: Why do you trouble the woman? For she has done a good work for Me. (Matt. 26:10) Jesus met the accusers and the accused with words of kindness. The question was a more acceptable method of communicating to the disciples rather than an open rebuke which may have created a negative response in them. Jesus Responds to Accusations by Sharing Analogies, Maxims, and Parables An analogy compares two things to obtain a greater understanding and clarification. Jesus skilfully used analogy in dealing with accusations. Jesus maxims, or short statements conveying a general truth, were very effective in his communication as he dealt with opposition from the scribes, Pharisees, and Sadducees of his time. These men were well versed in Jewish laws and traditions and they challenge Jesus emphasis on the sole authority of the Scriptures rather than the traditions of their fathers (Sanders, 2013). Jesus told parables, short stories to illustrate or teach the truth, when accused by the Pharisees. It was an indirect method of presenting the truth about God s kingdom, revealing their shortcomings, and warning them of the danger of rejecting him as the Son of God. Some instances where Jesus used analogies, maxims, and parables are as follows: 85

Analogy in Matthew 9:12 Matthew gave a great feast at his house to celebrate his conversion and calling (Knight, 1994, p. 119; Luke 5:29). Many tax collectors and people of questionable reputation were invited. Looking at them the Pharisees accused Jesus of eating with tax collectors and sinners (Matt. 9:11). Jesus responded with an analogy, Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. Knight (1994), emeritus professor of church history at Andrews University, suggests Jesus reply showed they did not comprehend the Old Testament Scriptures nor their own lack of mercy toward sinners. Jesus made His mission very clear in Matthew 9:13: But go and learn what this means: I desire mercy and not sacrifice. For I did not come to call the righteous, but sinners, to repentance. Analogy in Matthew 9:15-17 Jesus was questioned by John s disciples that his own disciples did not fast often like the Pharisees and themselves. They were obviously influenced to view Jesus and his disciples with a critical eye (Knight, 1994). Jesus replies, Can the friends of the bridegroom mourn as long as the bridegroom is with them? But the days will come when the bridegroom will be taken away from them, and then they will fast. (Matt. 9:15). Knight (1994) reveals that Jesus compares himself to the Bridegroom and makes allusion to Hosea 2:16:23 where God pictures Himself as a husband and not master to Israel. Knight further reveals that Jesus also alludes to his death when the disciples would mourn and fast. Jesus also used the imagery of the old and new wineskins and old and new garments further revealing the radical new mold into which the Jewish religious thinking and life will have to be cast especially in regards to the new values of the sermon on the Mount (Knight, 1994, p. 119-120). By the simple analogy Jesus was able to redirect John s disciples to the principles of God s kingdom mercy and a true knowledge of God (Matt. 9:13; Hosea 6:6) rather than just legalism with its rituals and sacrifices done without a heart of love. The new teachings of Jesus of not judging others (Matt. 7:1) and loving your enemies (Matt. 5:44) had to be replaced with the old traditions of the Pharisees like hating their enemies (Matt. 5:43). Jesus use of analogy was a very peaceful way of dealing with accusations brought by John s disciples as well as giving them clarity in understanding the requirements of God. Maxim in Matthew 12:25 The Pharisees rejection of Jesus was evident when Jesus healed a demon possessed blind and mute man. They could not attribute the healing to the power of God and were annoyed at the amazement people showed saying Could this be the Son of David (Matt. 12:23). They claimed Jesus was in league with the ruler of the demons (vs. 24). But Jesus reading their hearts exclaimed, Every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation, and every city or house divided against itself will not stand. Knight (1994) points out that Jesus takes an offensive position and tells the Pharisees that if he was healing by the power of the demons, then the kingdom of Satan would be divided and fall quickly. Knight (1994) further stated Jesus shows he is more powerful than Satan because he is able to bind him like a thief binds a strong man to plunder his goods. The use of the maxim effectively communicated Jesus divine power and the Pharisees stubbornness to accept it. Maxim in Matthew 15:11 The Pharisees and the scribes were relentless in their pursuit and condemnation of Jesus. They travel from Jerusalem to find fault with Jesus and his lack of regard for their traditions. Their allegation against His disciples was that they did not wash hand before eating bread (Matt.15:2). Jesus replied with this truth about his kingdom: Not what goes into the mouth defiles a man; but what comes out of the mouth, this defiles a man. Jesus indicated that the defilement people should be more concerned with should be the impurity of the heart revealed in impure words and actions. The unwashed hands would not bar anyone from the kingdom of heaven, but those with impure hearts would not see God (Matt. 5:8). Jesus used maxims to engrave His eternal truths in the minds of His hearers (Lee, 2013). Even the accusers left the presence of Christ by encountering God s truth. 86

Parables in Matthew 13; 21:28-46; 22:1-14 In addition to analogies and maxims, Jesus used parables. Matthew 13 is a chapter concentrated on parables. It follows chapter 12 where Jesus faced severe opposition from the Pharisees accusing Jesus of breaking the Sabbath by healing the man with the withered hand (Matt.12:9-14) and asking Jesus for a sign to prove He is the Messiah (Matt. 12:38-42). The use of parables was a radical shift in Jesus teaching method because of the rejection by the Jewish leaders (Knight, 1994). In addition, as Barclay pointed out Jesus also used parables to help individuals to find the truth or conceal truth from those blinded by prejudice or those not willing to think hard about the truth (as cited in Knight, 1994, p. 144). For example the parable of the Sower (Matt. 131-9) revealed that in contrast to the Jewish leaders who put the traditions in the place of God s words, Jesus came to sow the world with truth (White, 1991, p. 22). The parable of the Wheat and Tares explored the nature of God s kingdom which gave an opportunity for both the righteous and the unrighteous to accept God s salvation until the end of time or harvest when God s people would be separated. The Pharisees could not bear the idea of the righteous mingling with the sinners and thus had accused Jesus of eating with tax collectors and sinners. In spite of the hostile attitudes of the Jewish leaders, Jesus through the parables revealed God s patience, love, and judgement for all. Pennington, (2009) Assistant Profess of New Testament Interpretation and author of numerous articles, described a shift in Jesus communication as the religious leaders plot to destroy Jesus. He further reports that the parables of Jesus have two functions: to reveal the judgement soon to come and to proclaim the characteristics of the kingdom of God. The parables reveal and conceal at the same time the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 13:11). The accusers of Christ and those whose hearts are dull will close their ears and eyes to the gospel message of Christ (Matt. 13:14-15) because they do not want to accept the convictions of the Holy Spirit. Another set of parables is found in Matthew 21 and 23. Jesus used these parables to answer the accusations about His authority. Jesus had recently made his triumphal entry to Jerusalem. He had driven out the money lenders and healed the blind and the lame in the temple. Irked by all the attention focused on Jesus, the chief priests and elders questioned Jesus saying, By what authority are You doing these things? And who gave you this authority? (Matt. 21:23). Their lack of faith in God and the ministry of Christ led Jesus to share some parables to meet their accusations. The parables of the Two Sons (Matt. 21:28-32), the Parable of the Wicked Vinedressers (Matt. 21:33-46), and the Parable of the Wedding Feast (Matt. 22: 1-14) indirectly warned the Pharisees about their attitude to the invitation of God and the possible consequence of rejecting this gospel invitation by rejecting the Son of God. The parable of the Wedding Feast is about a King who gives a feast, but the guests reject the invitation, and even humiliate and kill the servant. The King then sends out his servants to call everyone. The story ends with one of the guests found without a wedding garment and is thrust out in the darkness. This parable Jesus told was similar to the stories the Rabbis told about kings and garments but with a slight difference. Barclay (1975) suggested that the parables of Jesus revealed to the Pharisees and the audience that the door of salvation is open for all sinner to come, but not remain sinners but be changed by God s grace. He further noted we need to be clothed with spiritual garments of faith, reverence, and humility or will be thrown out of the wedding feast by the King. White (1991) describes the wedding garment as the righteousness of Christ received by faith for those who accept Christ as their personal Saviour and who overcome sin in his name. White (1991) further stated that the parable illustrated the gospel invitation, its rejection by the Jewish people, and the call of mercy to the Gentiles (p. 227). She added that the gospel invitation was given by the disciples of Christ, but the rejection of the Gospel and persecution of the disciples like Stephen and James who were put to death led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the gospel going to the Gentiles. These parables revealed to the listeners that unless a transformation and a preparation was made by the people, they would find themselves outside the Kingdom of God. Through these parables, Jesus was able to communicate to the Pharisees his love and concern for their eternal welfare in spite of their denunciation of him. Jesus Responds to Accusations by Giving Strong Words of Condemnation Jesus reserved His strongest words of reproof for some of the religious leaders of His time. They were the people who taught the people to honor the traditions of men more than the traditions of God. Knight (1994) describes the conflict with the Scribes and Pharisees in Matthew 23 as reaching a verbal climax (p. 227). He 87

further added Jesus had done all he could to warn them, woo them, and win them to the kingdom of heaven. Now the time was urgent and because they still rejected him he had to make a frontal assault (p. 227). They were like the blind leading the blind. Jesus dealt harshly with their accusations because of the enormity of the accusations. Here are some of the examples. When the Pharisees accused Jesus of using the power of Beelzebub, Jesus used these strong words of condemnation in Matthew 12:34: Brood of vipers! How can you, being evil, speak good things? For out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks. Clarke (1950) in his commentary describes the words as severe but extremely proper to the Pharisees in the context of the story (p. 139). The request of the Pharisees for a sign in Matthew 12:38 was not a genuine request. They had seen many signs and wonders and would not have believed Christ if he had shown them a sign. That is why Jesus stated An evil and adulterous generation seeks after a sign, and no sign will be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah (Matt. 12:39). Just as Jonah was in the belly of the whale for three days, so will Jesus be in the grave for three days and then rise after his crucifixion (Knight, 1994). Jesus harsh words against the Pharisees as adulterers were scriptural. Clarke (1950) observed that the Jewish nation in the Scriptures was portrayed as wedded to the Most High. However, the Pharisees were like the disloyal wife forsaking their true husband and joining with Satan and sin. Jesus repeatedly condemned the Pharisees as Hypocrites! because the people only gave lip service to God, but did not honour God in their hearts and their worship was in vain because they were Teaching as doctrines the commandments of men (Matt. 15:7-9). Clarke (1950) commented, By the traditions of the elders, not only the word of God was perverted, but his worship also was greatly corrupted. Jesus described them as blind leaders in Matthew 15:14 He said, Let them alone. They are blind leaders of the blind. And if the blind leads the blind, both will fall into a ditch. Jesus said this when the disciples told Jesus the Pharisees were offended by what He had said. In Matthew 23, the eight woes to scribes and Pharisees are stated. Jesus pronounced woe to the Pharisees because they barred the kingdom of heaven against men neither going in themselves nor allowing other to go in. They unjustly made profit from widows houses, and offered long prayers to show their piety (Matt. 23: 13-14). In Matthew 23:27-28, Jesus likened the scribes and Pharisees to whitewashed tombs which indeed appear beautiful outwardly, but inside are full of dead men s bones and all uncleanness. In their hypocrisy, they appeared righteous outside, but inside were filled with lawlessness. Jesus Responds to Accusations by Referring to the Scriptures Ethics plays an important role in communication. What people do and say must be guided by a set or creed for communication to be ethical and not to degenerate to coercion, violence and intimidation. Jesus used the Scriptures (the Torah) to base his beliefs and values. When accused falsely, Jesus often quoted the scriptures, or he asked the people have you not read in the Scriptures Some examples follow: Jesus was accused of eating with the tax collectors. However, when Jesus heard this, he said, Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. But go and learn what this means: I desire mercy and not sacrifice. For I did not come to call the righteous, but sinners, to repentance. (Matt. 9:12-13). Jesus quoted the words, I desire mercy and not sacrifice, from Hosea 6:6 in the Old Testament. By directing their minds to the scriptures, Jesus tried to shift their attention not to the traditions of men, but the commandments of God. Jesus conflict with the Pharisees continued to grow. The scribes and Pharisees came all the way from Jerusalem to Jesus saying Why do Your disciples transgress the traditions of the elders? For they do not wash their hands when they eat bread. (Matt 15:1-2). Jesus quoted a passage of scripture saying, Why do you also transgress the commandment of God because of your tradition? For God commanded, saying, Honor your father and your mother ; and, He who curses father or mother, let him be put to death. Jesus pointed out that their traditions were disregarding the commandments of God when they planned on giving any profit as a gift to God and not meeting their parents needs. The first quote about honouring the parents is taken from Exodus 20:12 and Deuteronomy 5:16; the other quote is taken from Exodus 21:17. The conflict with Jesus reaches a high point when the chief priests and scribes ask Jesus to stop the children from shouting out their praises Hosanna to the Son of David! (Matt. 21:15). Jesus answered, Yes. Have you never read, Out of the mouth of babes and nursing infants You have perfected praise? (Matt. 21:16). Jesus quoted Psalm 8:2 to defend the children s actions and rebuke them indirectly that the children 88

had recognised what the older people had failed to understand about the role of the Messiah. Jesus used Scriptures throughout the encounters with the Jewish leaders trying to help them see their zeal in obeying God s commandments was a little misdirected. In fact, by using scriptures Jesus was trying to reason with them using the most authentic source of evidence. Jesus Responds to His Accusers by Leaving the Place Sometimes the best way to deal with accusations is to defend the case and leave. Staying and arguing can make matters worse as each side would try to prove they are right. Jesus did this in some occasions. Jesus response by leaving showed he had done his best to convince them of who he was, and now there was not much he could say and do because they were not willing to hear him or accept his testimony. The two opposing parties of the middle class Pharisees and the wealthy, aristocratic Sadducees from the priestly class join to test Jesus (Russell, 1986). They come to ask for a sign from heaven (Matt 16:1). Their intent was to test Jesus, not to search sincerely for the truth. Jesus correctly interprets their actions when he says they know how to discern the weather but how come they cannot discern the signs of the times (Matt. 16:3). Jesus leaves the place after rebuking them, A wicked and adulterous generation seeks after a sign, and no sign shall be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. And He left them and departed (Matt. 16:4). The chief priests and scribes heard the children praising God after Jesus cleansed the temple and healed the lame and the blind. They angrily ask Jesus, Do You hear what these are saying? (Matt. 21:16). Jesus knows that they have come to the point of no return. No matter how much he tries to reason with them through questions, words of condemnations, parables, or scriptures, they are unwilling to accept that he has come from God. Jesus then defends the children s actions saying, have you never read, Out of the mouth of babes and nursing infants You have perfected praise? (Matt 21:16). Jesus then knowing he has done all he could and there is nothing more to do leaves the city and goes to Bethany (Matt. 21:17). This was the way Jesus dealt with his accusers. Jesus Responds to Accusations by Keeping Silent before His Accusers Matthew 26 highlights the polarization that takes place as men and women are confronted by the claims of Christ (Knight, 1994, p. 254). The Jewish leaders and Judas were on one side and the disciples on the other. Knight revealed that Jesus was in command of the events and had a clear understanding of what was happening. There were a few instances when Jesus kept silent before His accusers. These instances came toward the very end of His life during His trial. The chief priests and elders brought false testimony against Jesus (Matt. 26:59). But Jesus remains silent. And the high priest arose and said to Him, Do You answer nothing? What is it these men testify against You? But Jesus kept silent. (Matt. 26:62-63). Jesus was wise enough to know not to answer to the wild accusations brought against him. There was no need for him to justify himself to the people so bent on putting him to death. Jesus responded with silence in front of Pilate, the Governor. And while He was being accused by the chief priests and elders, He answered nothing (Matt. 27:12). When Pilate questioned him, Do You not hear how many things they testify against You? Jesus did not say a word (Matt. 27:13-14). The silence of Jesus spoke volumes. His decision not to speak did not mean He was guilty. Jesus was innocent of any crime. It meant that no matter what He said, it would not be accepted and considered, for the religious leaders were blinded by jealousy and a desire to keep on their traditions. Discussion Jesus communicated in a variety of ways when dealing with the accusations hurled at him by various people. He communicated effectively in different situations using multiple communication skills. One of the first ways Jesus dealt with accusations was by asking questions. What was the purpose of the questions Jesus asked when facing accusations? Lee (2013, p. 5) pointed out that Jesus used questions to challenge their current views and form new schema. He added, His audience and accusers had to unlearn the old schemata and to explore a new way of thinking. For example, they had to learn not to depend so much on the traditions of men but the word of God. Asking questions in a hostile situation is an effective way to communicate. Bennema (2010, p. 25) asserted that we need to communicate by asking pertinent and 89

penetrating questions. Rather than reacting to accusations emotionally, well-directed questions can defuse anger and force people to think about their actions and words. Secondly, Jesus used analogies, maxims for a different purpose especially when accused about non doctrinal issues like association with sinners, not fasting, or not washing hands. These rules often were required by tradition of the fathers and not issues about salvation. To these accusations Jesus used analogy as comparison is an effective method in teaching and explaining a point. Jesus used maxims more in his teachings than in dealing with accusation. However, the maxim like a tree is known by its fruit (Matt 12:33) was an effective way of dealing with the accusation of the Pharisees that Jesus used Beelzebub s power to cast out demons. Jesus through his maxim pointed out the evil in their hearts and their deliberate rejection of the Christ, the Son of God. Jesus used parables as an important part of his teachings especially with the Pharisees (Bockmuehl, 2001). These parables illustrated Jesus ideas about the kingdom of God. The parables were also used later in Jesus teaching as a safe way for communicating sensitive topics, for persuading his listeners, for warning them of the judgment to come, and for dealing with false accusations. In the parables of the Two Sons, Parable of the Wicked Vinedressers, and the Parable of the Wedding Feast, Jesus was trying to persuade the Pharisees that He was the Messiah and the Kingdom of God was at hand. Jesus knew the parables would be more easily accepted by the audience rather than a direct rebuke. In some cases the parable was understood, and the chief priests and Pharisees did perceive that He was speaking of them (Matt. 21:45). However, in the Parable of the Two Sons Jesus made the purpose of the parable clear saying to the Pharisees, Assuredly, I say to you that tax collectors and harlots enter the kingdom of God before you. (Matt. 21:31). Burger (2000) stated Jesus used parables to bridge the gap between what his audience already accepted, and what he was trying to persuade them to accept (p. 30). Jesus used parables as a safe way to convey his message using figurative language (Knight, 1994, p. 143). Knight further suggested Jesus was careful not to allow his opponents to misuse his words or to unintentionally turn them away. Jesus used parables to make truth concrete (Knight, 1994, p. 143). By speaking of things familiar and catching their attention by an interesting story, Jesus was able to connect their earthly lives with the spiritual and heavenly realities. The third response of Jesus to his accusers was strong words of condemnation. These words were uttered as a last resort to convince and awaken them from the deception of Satan. Jesus described them as Serpents, brood of vipers! (Matt. 23:33). Jesus strong words of condemnation was a result of their hypocrisy (Matt. 23: 13,15, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29) ; extortion and self indulgence (Matt. 23:25); lawlessness (Matt. 23:28); guilt of murderers (Matt. 23:31). Yet in spite of these harsh words, Jesus lamented over them. He wanted to gather them under His wings like a mother hen gathers her chicks, but they were not willing, (Matt. 23:37). The Pharisees it seems went out of their way to provoke an argument with Jesus (Knight, 1994). Knight further reveals travelling from Jerusalem to Galilee was not a pastoral tour, but to lay a charge why the traditions of the elders were not honored by the disciples and Jesus. To this charge, Jesus defended his case by quoting scriptures. Knight (1994) explains, Jesus showed the Pharisees and scribes that they were actually violating the fifth commandment to honor their parents by neglecting their old parents needs. It seems Jesus used the scriptures to open their eyes to really understand their actions. Their sin, Knight (1994) describes is the sin of devotion the religious people trying hard to be religious (p. 159). Their rule about keeping the commandments of God have made them unloving and caused them to hurt people and even their parents. Jesus hoped the force of the Scriptures used to meet the accusation would hopefully open their eyes to their folly. One of the last few measures Jesus followed in his conflict with the Jewish leaders was to withdraw. Kingsbury describes the conflict Jesus faces with the Jewish leaders as a leitmotif in the Book of Matthew (as cited in Vledder, 1997). This recurrent theme of conflict reaches a high point where Jesus withdraws from Jerusalem and goes to the city of Bethany (Matt. 21:17). Earlier in Matthew 16 when the Pharisees and Sadducees jointly work together to discredit Jesus asking for a sign, he refuses telling them no other sign will be given accept the sign of prophet Jonah and He left them and departed (Matt. 16:4). Jesus withdrew as the hostility of the Jewish leaders increased in intensity, but he also withdrew to show he did not approve of their teachings or behaviour. Jesus warning to his disciples of the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees right after this incident (Matt. 16:6) was to teach them to be aware of the doctrines they taught that contradicted the Scriptures and that they should not follow their practices which was external and which could not save a person just by dealing with actions of washing, eating and doing things a proper way (Knight, 1994). The final response of Jesus to his accusers reflected the climax of the conflict with the Jewish leaders. 90

They were looking for the death penalty for Christ, and no words he would have said would have been taken seriously. In this extreme and perilous situation, Jesus kept silent, knowing the God was the supreme judge. Jesus purpose and the way He communicated were guided by two principles: one to do the will of the Father (John 6:38 For I have come down from heaven, not to do My own will, but the will of Him who sent Me. ) and two, to do things by the guidance of the Holy Spirit (Luke 4:1 Then Jesus, being filled with the Holy Spirit, returned from the Jordan and was led by the Spirit into the wilderness. ). Jesus communicated the truth. John 14:6 says, Jesus said to him, I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through Me. One reason why it is important to consider Jesus method of dealing with accusations is because His methods give us important guidelines for managing conflict. Jesus spoke with authority and left His listeners astonished. Matthew 7: 28-29 says, And so it was, when Jesus had ended these sayings, that the people were astonished at His teaching, for He taught them as one having authority, and not as the scribes. According to source credibility theory, a speaker is considered credible because of the speaker s expertise and trustworthy quality (Griffin, 2009). Jesus was the Son of God and the promised Messiah (Matthew 3:17; Matthew 16:16). Thus Jesus spoke with high credibility and therefore how He communicated is important. Jesus method of dealing with conflict was different to the established way of dealing with conflict as outlined by the work of M. Afzalur Rahim, author and founder of International Journal of Conflict Management. Rahim (as cited in Griffin 2009) identified five ways of dealing with conflict: avoiding, obliging (giving in), compromising (negotiate to find a middle way), dominating (getting the upper hand to win), and integrating (collaborate for win-win situation). In addition to this, Stella Ting-Toomey advocator of Face-Negotiation Theory identified three more conflict management styles: emotional expression (sharing and venting feelings), passive aggression (silent accusations or feelings of ill will) and third-party help (enlisting another respected person to help). Sometimes these methods of dealing with false accusations are inadequate. Jesus style of communication especially when dealing with false accusations was different. He did not avoid the situation and wish it away. He did not give in to the wishes of His opposers. He did not compromise His principles and the truth He stood for. He did not dominate the situation just to win the argument. He did not collaborate with the religious leaders to gain a win-win situation, so everyone would be happy. He expressed feelings of frustration, sadness, and even anger but did not vent out His feelings. He did not harbor ill will against His accusers. His response to His accusers reveals His feelings. He cried, O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, the one who kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to her! How often I wanted to gather your children together, as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, but you were not willing! (Matthew 23:27). He did not enlist the third person to help him solve the problem. Jesus instead asked questions to direct the accusers thoughts to a greater principle or truth in the scriptures; he shared parables, analogies, and maxims to warn His accusers or correct or impress some important view of God; he used strong words of condemnation in love to show them their errors and bring them back to the truth; he referred to the Scriptures to guide them to a clear understanding of God s will; and on some occasions seeing that all He had said would make no difference, He chose to remain silent, letting His silence speak volumes to the guilty accusers. At other times He withdrew from the scene refusing to be drawn into controversy. His methods of communication give insight into new ways of approaching conflict management especially when dealing with accusations. In fact the Gospel of Matthew in its structure presents a repetition of contrast between Jesus and His accusers (Bauer, 1989). The religious leaders tried to exalt themselves, but Jesus humbled Himself; they did everything to attract attention to themselves (Matthew 23:5), but Christ drew the people s attention to His Father God; they did not practice what they preached (Matthew 23:3), but Christ humbled Himself and came to serve as he taught (Matthew 20:28); Jesus was the Son of God, but they were in league with the Devil, (Bauer, 2989). Thus the two contrasts indicate the two methods of verbal and non-verbal communication used. Jesus method of communication and His way of dealing with His accusers seems preferable and the ideal way in dealing with accusation. In a digitalized world today, where the media has a powerful effect on the society, we need to hear other voices, other stories that can influence and shape our values, beliefs and perceptions. The cultural environment has been polluted as a byproduct of the cumulative effect of our immersion in commercially motivated and produced media (Gross, 2012). The other stories and voices we need to hear come from the Bible, the Word of God, portraying the life of Christ. We can follow the methods of Christ in dealing with accusation for there was none on earth wiser, gentler, and more humble than Christ. It would do well to follow the advice of the wisest man on earth, King Solomon who said, In the mouth of a fool is a rod of pride, But the lips of the wise will preserve them. Proverbs 14:3. 91

Reference American Psychological Association. (2010). Stress in America findings. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ news/press/releases/stress/national-report.pdf Bennema, C. (2010, January-March). Was Jesus an effective communicator? Engage, 19-25, Retrieved from http://www.saiacs.org/design/downloads/bennema-2010%20engage%20rzim-was%20jesus%20 an%20effective%20communicator.pdf Bockmuehl, M. (2001). The Cambridge companion to Jesus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Matthew 9- IVP New Testament Commentaries. http://www.biblegateway.com/resources/commentaries/ivp-nt/matt/jesus-authority-forgive-sins Burger, C. (2000, Fall). Jesus the communicator. Public Relations Quarterly, Vol. 45 (3), 29-31. Chouinard, L. (1997). College Press NIV Commentary: Matthew. USA: College Press Publishing. Clarke, A. (1950).Clarke s Commentary. Vol. V. Matthew-Acts. New York: Abingdon-Cokesbury. Danaher, J.P. (2011). Out of context the Gospel according to Jesus. Evangelical Review of Theology (ERT), Vol. 35 (2), 265-275. Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. (7 th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Gross, L. (2012). Fastening our seatbelts: Turning crisis into opportunity. Journal of Communication, 62 (6), 919 931. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01679.x Irving, J.A. (2011, Summer). Leadership reflection: A model for effective servant leadership practice: A Biblically-consistent and research-based approach to leadership. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, Vol.3, (2), 118-128. Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/ jbpl/vol3no2/jbpl_vol3no2_irving_pp118-128.pdf Knight, G. R. (1994). The abundant life Bible amplifier: A practical guide to abundant Christian living in the book of Matthew. Boise, Idaho: Pacific Press Publishing Association. Lee, H. (2013). Jesus teaching through discovery. The ICCTE Journal (A Journal of the International Christian Community for Teacher Education), Vol.1 (2). Retrieved from http://icctejournal.org/issues/v1i2/ v1i2-lee/ McNamara, J. & Lawrence, J. (2012, September). False allegations of adult crimes. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Retrieved from http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/ september-2012/false-allegations-of-adult-crimes Morris, S. (2010, November). False allegations. Inside Time: The National Newspaper for Prisoners. Retrieved from http://www.insidetime.org/articleview.asp?a=845 One in four teachers have had false allegations made against them by pupils or their parents. (2009, Oct 27). Mail Online. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1222989/half-teachers-falseallegations-pupils-parents.html Pennington, J.T. (2009). Matthew 13 and the function of the parables in the first gospel. SBJT (Southern Baptist Journal of Theology), Vol. 13 (3), 12-20. Retrieved from http://www.sbts.edu/resources/files/2009/10/ sbjt_v13_n3_pennington.pdf Rahim, A. (2002). Toward a theory of managing organizational conflict. The International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 13 (3), 206-235. Retrieved from http://www.negotiationlawblog.com/uploads/ file/organizational%20conflict.pdf Sanders, E.P. (2013). Scribes and Pharisees. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://global.britannica.com/ebchecked/topic/303091/jesus-christ/223003/scribes-and- Pharisees Smith, M. (2007, Nov. 1). Smoke without fire: Social workers fears of threats and accusations. Journal of Social Work Practice, 21 (3), 323-335. DOI: 10.1080/02650530701553625. Stallard, J. (2007, Fall). Responding to true and false accusations in the church. The Journal of Ministry of Theology, Vol. 11 (2), 119-135. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.edu/journal/volume11_2/ respondingto_accusations.pdf Vledder, E.J. (1997). Conflict in the miracle stories: A socio-exegetical study of Matthew 8 and 9. Sheffield: Sheffield Academy Press. Retrieved from books.google.co.th/books?isbn=1850756996 White, E.G. (1991). Short stories for positive Christian living. Pune, India: Oriental Watchman Publishing House. 92

About the Author Nola Tudu is a lecturer in the faculty of Arts and Humanities at Asia-Pacific International University. 93

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness: Does Faculty Profile Really Matter? Abstract Andrea B. Pama, Lavinia B. Dulla and Richard C. De Leon The purpose of this study was to examine whether faculty profile plays a role in student s evaluation of teaching effectiveness. Specifically, this paper looks into the level and significant difference of teaching effectiveness among Western Visayas College of Science and Technology (WVCST) faculty when grouped according to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline. The samples were WVCST faculty members and students. Samples were derived by systematic and stratified and convenience sampling, respectively. Students were asked to evaluate and rate their teacher using The QCE of NBC 461 Instrument for Instruction/Teaching Effectiveness. Findings reveal that teaching effectiveness when grouped as to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline was outstanding. Teaching effectiveness yielded statistical difference between faculty gender, length of service, academic discipline and rank, but no statistical differences were found between age and highest educational degree. Keywords: Teaching effectiveness, faculty, evaluation Introduction Evaluating faculty effectiveness is important in nearly every institution of higher education. Assessing the effectiveness with which various functions are performed is essential to a variety of important administration recommendations and decisions. It also provides feedback which influences the faculty member s self-image and professional satisfaction. It establishes a climate which communicates the institution s commitment to professional improvement and confidence that every faculty member will make a valuable contribution to the achievement of shared goals (Hoyt & Pallet, 1999). Statement of the Problem Generally, this study looks into the level of teaching effectiveness among Western Visayas College of Science and Technology Faculty as perceived by their students. Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following questions: 1. What is the demographic profile of the faculty involved in the study? 2. What is the level of teaching effectiveness among faculty when grouped according to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline? 3. Is there significant difference in the level of teaching effectiveness among faculty when grouped according to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline? Objectives of the Study The objectives of this research are the following: 1. To examine whether the level of teaching effectiveness among faculty differ in terms of gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline as perceived by the students. 94

2. To inform WVCST administration and academic community about the research findings and make use of the findings as a tool for faculty assessment and development. 3. To come up with a recommendation for the improvement of the level of teaching effectiveness among WVCST faculty. Significance of the Study The result of the study may be helpful to the School Administrator and Faculty as this will provide them an information on the level of teaching effectiveness among WVCST faculty as perceived by WVCST students. Also, this will provide them a thought of revisiting faculty teaching methodology and propose a strategy for the improvement of faculty teaching. Review of the Literature In the Philippines, student ratings of instruction are widely employed in colleges and universities across the nation. Student ratings of teaching effectiveness have been shown to be valid measures of effective teaching. They are not only used in university settings but are also thoroughly reviewed in the literature. Cohen (1981), in a meta-analysis that examined the relationship between student ratings and student achievement, concluded that students are well equipped to rate their teachers when the criterion is student learning. Marsh (1987) reviewed student evaluation literature and, advocating the multi-method multi-trait technique to establish validity, found strong evidence of construct validity for the use of his instrument, Student Evaluation of Educational Quality (SEEQ). According to Greenwald and Gillmore (1997), validity of student ratings has been supported by reviews of research conducted since about 1980. Others (Feldman, 1988; Hativa, 1996; Murray, Rushton, & Paunonen, 1990) reported that student ratings were stable over time and consistent with ratings of others (peers, self-evaluations). Braskamp and Ory (1994) offered the opinion that most faculty view student ratings as one important indicator of teaching ability, (p.101) and that student ratings of teaching are both a valuable and credible source of information. In probing the influence of instructor gender on student evaluations, some researchers have found that female instructors are rated lower than their male colleagues (Bennett 1982; Basow & Silberg, 1987; Sandler, 1991; Kierstead, D Agostino, and Dill 1988; Koblitz 1990; Rutland 1990); other researchers (e.g., Basow & Distenfeld, 1985; Feldman, 1983, 1993; Goodwin & Stevens, 1993; Hancock, Shannon, & Trentham, 1992) were unable to find evidence of gender differences. Still others, such as Feldman (2007), Bachen, McLouglin, and Garcia (1999) and Tatro (1995) found that college students rated female instructors higher than male instructors. Thus, it is probable that gender is a factor in students evaluations of teaching, but that the relationship is a complex one (Basow, 2000). Students may associate certain types of behavior, such as teacher expressiveness, with gender; students confusion of teaching styles and gender may also impact their evaluations (Arbuckle & Williams, 2003; Centra & Gaubatz, 2000). The setting in which such evaluations take place may also be important. Feldman, for example, conducted two reviews of literature examining how students rated male and female instructors in different ways. He found that very little gender bias was evident in classrooms in which extraneous variables were tightly controlled (Feldman, 1992), whereas a slight bias in favor of same gender preference took place in studies carried out in classrooms without such controls (Feldman, 1993). In terms of academic rank, several studies found that full, associate and assistant professors were rated more highly by students in comparison with teaching assistants (Centra & Creech 1976; Brandenburg, Slinde & Batista 1977; Marsh & Dunkin 1992). However, Feldman (1983) concluded that the majority of studies showed no significant correlation between academic rank and student ratings. Feldman also found that the majority of studies yielded no significant correlation between age/experience of the teacher and student ratings. Research has also been carried out into how student ratings may be affected by the academic discipline of the subject matter, and the findings indicate that teachers in humanities and social sciences usually receive higher ratings than those in engineering and sciences (Feldman 1978). Moreover, Cashin (1990) analyzed the course average ratings of different fields of study for two large sets of student ratings in the USA and divided the ratings into three groups: high, medium and low. He found that consistent with Feldman s (1978) findings, the arts and humanities were likely to fall into the high group and English language, literature, history, social sciences and health most often fell into the medium group, whereas business, economics, computer 95

science, mathematics, physical sciences and engineering most often fell into the low group. Methodology The population involved in the research study were Faculty (N=255) and Students (N=6,731) as of second semester 2012-2013 of Western Visayas College of Science and Technology Main Campus, La Paz, Iloilo City, Philippines. The samples involved were 127 faculty members and about 3,810 students. The faculty samples were generated using systematic random sampling, while student samples were found using stratified and convenience sampling. In order to obtain student s rating on teaching effectiveness, the researchers made use of the common evaluation instrument entitled The Qualitative Contribution Evaluation (QCE) of National Budget Circular (NBC) 461 Instrument for instruction/teaching effectiveness prepared by joint committee of Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC) and Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The instrument consists of twenty (20) statements divided into four (4) assessment areas which are the commitment, knowledge of subject, teaching for independent learning and management of learning. All items were rated on a scale from one to five, where one is poor and five outstanding. The questionnaire was distributed to the students and were asked to rate their teachers objectively. The result of the level of teaching effectiveness is interpreted on a five-point likert scale as follows: Scale Description 1.00 1.80 Poor 1.81 2.61 Fair 2.62 3.42 Satisfactory 3.43 4.23 Very Satisfactory 4.24 5.00 Outstanding The distribution and collection of instruments took place between February to March 2013. The faculty profile was obtained from the WVCST Human Resource Management Office (HRMO), WVCST, La Paz, Iloilo City. After the faculty profile was obtained and the evaluation instruments were completed, the data were then uploaded to the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) program for analysis purposes. The test of significance was conducted at 0.05 level. Each of the above statement of the problem was analyzed by applying the appropriate statistical technique. Statement of the problem 1 and 2 were descriptive in nature and were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Selected faculty demographic profiles were categorized and summarized using frequencies and percentages. The level of teaching effectiveness was measured and summarized using means and standard deviations. Statement of the problem 3 was inferential in nature and was analyzed using inferential statistics. Independent T-test was used to determine the significant difference in the level of teaching effectiveness when faculty was classified according to Gender. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was utilized to determine the significant difference in the level of teaching effectiveness when faculty were grouped as to age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline. Results and Discussion This chapter presents the findings of the study. The findings are presented and arranged based on the statement of the problem. Descriptive Statistics 96

Table 1. Demographic Profile of Faculty Categories n Percent Entire Group 127 100 Gender Male 66 52.0 Female 61 48.0 Age 29 yrs old 21 16.5 30-39 yrs old 32 25.2 40-49 yrs old 37 29.1 50-59 yrs old 26 20.5 60 yrs old 11 8.7 Highest Educational Degree Baccalaureate 50 39.4 Masteral 52 40.9 Doctoral 25 19.7 Length of Service 5 yrs 47 37.0 6-10 yrs 24 18.9 11-15 yrs 15 11.8 16-20 yrs 9 7.1 21-25 yrs 6 4.7 26 yrs 26 20.5 Academic Rank Instructor I - III 18 14.2 Assistant Professor I - IV 34 26.8 Associate Professor I - V 28 22.0 Professor I - VI 6 4.7 Substitute/Part Time Instructor 41 32.3 Academic Discipline Arts and Sciences 57 44.9 Engineering and Architecture 22 17.3 Industrial Technology 31 24.4 Education 17 13.4 Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the faculty sample. The faculty samples were categorised according to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and academic discipline. Of the 127 faculty sample, 52% (n=66) were male and 48% (n= 61) were female. When grouped according to age, majority of the faculty sample were 40 to 49 (n=37 or 29%), followed by 30 to 39 (n=32 or 25%), 50 to 59 (n=26 or 20%), 29 years old and below (n=21 or 17%) and 60 years old and above (n=11 or 9%). In terms of highest education degree, 41% (n=52) were masters degree, 39% (n=50) were baccalaureate and 20% (n=25) were doctoral degree holder. When classified according to length of service, 37% (n=47) were 5 years and below, 20% (n=26) were 26 years and above, 19% (n=24) were 6 to 10 years, 12% (n=15) were 11 to 15 years, 7% (n=9) were 16 to 20 years and 5% (n=6) were 21 to 25 years of service. As to academic rank, 32% (n=41) were substitute/part time instructors, 27% (n=34) were Assistant Professor I to IV, 22% (n=28) were Associate Professor I to V, 14% (n=18) were Instructor I to III and 5% (n=6) were Professor I to VI. Lastly, when classified according to academic discipline, 45% (n=57) were Arts and Sciences, 24% (n=31) were Industrial Technology, 17% (n=22) were Engineering and Architecture and 13% (n=17) were Education faculty. 97

Table 2. Level Teaching Effectiveness among WVCST Faculty Categories Teaching Effectiveness Mean S.D Description Entire Group 4.47 0.33 Outstanding Gender Male 4.54 0.32 Outstanding Female 4.38 0.32 Outstanding Age 29 yrs old 4.43 0.37 Outstanding 30-39 yrs old 4.52 0.28 Outstanding 40-49 yrs old 4.50 0.34 Outstanding 50-59 yrs old 4.38 0.33 Outstanding 60 yrs old 4.44 0.31 Outstanding Highest Educational Degree Baccalaureate 4.43 0.37 Outstanding Masteral 4.50 0.28 Outstanding Doctoral 4.47 0.34 Outstanding Length of Service 5 yrs 4.57 0.29 Outstanding 6-10 yrs 4.44 0.31 Outstanding 11-15 yrs 4.27 0.39 Outstanding 16-20 yrs 4.64 0.23 Outstanding 21-25 yrs 4.52 0.33 Outstanding 26 yrs 4.35 0.32 Outstanding Academic Rank Instructor I - III 4.42 0.38 Outstanding Assistant Professor I - IV 4.34 0.36 Outstanding Associate Professor I - V 4.49 0.29 Outstanding Professor I - VI 4.60 0.24 Outstanding Substitute/Part Time Instructor 4.56 0.28 Outstanding Academic Discipline Arts and Sciences 4.34 0.34 Outstanding Engineering and Architecture 4.48 0.33 Outstanding Industrial Technology 4.69 0.18 Outstanding Education 4.48 0.30 Outstanding Table 2 shows the level of teaching effectiveness among WVCST faculty as rated by the students from different classes across the college. As a whole, the level of teaching effectiveness of the faculty was outstanding. When grouped according to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline, the level of teaching effectiveness were all outstanding. Inferential Data Analysis 98 Table 3. Comparison of the Level of Teaching Effectiveness by Gender Teaching Effectiveness Gender n M SD t p Male 66 4.54 0.32 2.83 0.01 Female 61 4.38 0.32

As shown in table 3, significant difference existed in the mean level of teaching effectiveness when faculty were grouped according to gender (males, M = 4.54, SD = 0.32; Females, M = 4.38, SD = 0.32, t = 2.83, p = 0.01). Thus, the mean level of teaching effectiveness of male was statistically higher than female as rated by their students. Table 4. Analysis of Variance of the Level of Teaching Effectiveness When Grouped According to Age, Highest Educational Degree, Length of Service, Academic Rank and Discipline. Categories Teaching Effectiveness N Mean SD F p Age 29 yrs old 21.00 4.43 0.37 0.89 0.47 30-39 yrs old 32.00 4.52 0.28 40-49 yrs old 37.00 4.50 0.34 50-59 yrs old 26.00 4.38 0.33 60 yrs old 11.00 4.44 0.31 Highest Educational Degree Baccalaureate 50.00 4.43 0.37 0.51 0.60 Masteral 52.00 4.50 0.28 Doctoral 25.00 4.47 0.34 Length of Service 5 yrs 47 4.57 0.29 3.41 0.01 6-10 yrs 24 4.44 0.31 11-15 yrs 15 4.27 0.39 16-20 yrs 9 4.64 0.23 21-25 yrs 6 4.52 0.33 26 yrs 26 4.35 0.32 Academic Rank Instructor I - III 18 4.42 0.38 2.66 0.04 Assistant Professor I - IV 34 4.34 0.36 Associate Professor I - V 28 4.49 0.29 Professor I - VI 6 4.60 0.24 Substitute/Part Time Instructor 41 4.56 0.28 Academic Discipline Arts and Sciences 57 4.34 0.34 9.31 0.00 Engineering and Architecture 22 4.48 0.33 Industrial Technology 31 4.69 0.18 Education 17 4.48 0.30 Table 4 shows the result of the analysis of variance of the level of teaching effectiveness when grouped according to age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and discipline. No significant differences were found on the mean level of teaching effectiveness between faculty age (F= 0.89, p = 0.47) and highest educational degree (F=0.51, p = 0.60). On the other hand, the level of teaching effectiveness yielded statistical difference between faculty length of service (F= 3.41, p = 0.01), academic rank (F= 2.66, p = 0.04) and academic discipline (F= 9.31, p = 0.00) To determine which pairs of means of length of service, academic rank and academic discipline were significantly differ from each other, Scheffe post hoc pair wise comparison test was performed. In terms of length of service and academic rank, scheffe post hoc comparisons test result showed that the variance between groups is not really big enough to make a difference. However, in terms of academic discipline, scheffe post hoc comparisons test result showed that the mean level of teaching effectiveness of the industrial technology faculty (M=4.69) was statistically higher than the Arts and Sciences faculty (M=4.34), p=0.00 (two-tailed). 99

Conclusion The results indicated that the level of teaching effectiveness among Western Visayas College of Science and Technology faculty as whole and when classified according to gender, age, highest educational degree, length of service, academic rank and academic discipline was outstanding. Moreover, there was also a statistical evidence to show that the level of teaching effectiveness of male faculty was higher over their female colleagues as rated by their students. In terms of academic discipline, it was also concluded that the Industrial Technology faculty has a higher level of teaching effectiveness versus the Arts and Sciences as rated by their students. Significant differences on the level of teaching effectiveness based on length of service and academic rank were also found but the variance between groups is not really big enough to make a difference. Lastly, no statistical differences were found on the level of teaching effectiveness between age and highest educational degree of the faculty. Recommendations 100 Based on the findings and conclusions, the following are recommended: 1. Follow up research study be conducted and use the current results as a baseline data to establish the consistency of the results. 2. Instructors from different academic discipline and fields to revisit their teaching methodology and reflect if there is a need for change to improve their teaching method. 3. A paperless or internet-based approach of evaluation is highly recommended to reduce cost in terms of printing and labor, elimination of data coding and faster data collection. References Abdel-Razek, W.A (2011). Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of the Job performance of the Specialists Working in the Youth Car at Helwan University. World Journal of Sport Sciences4(2):116125,2011. ISSN 2078-4724 IDOSI Publications, 2011 Arbuckle, J., & Williams, B. D. (2003). Students perceptions of expressiveness: Age and gender effects on teacher evaluations. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 49(9-10), 507-516. Bachen, C. M., McLoughlin, M. M., & Garcia, S. (1999). Assessing the role of gender in college students evaluation of faculty. Communication Education, 48, 193-210. Basow, S. A. (2000). Best and worst professors: Gender patterns in students choices. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 34, 407-417. Basow, S. A., & Distenfeld, M. S. (1985). Teacher expressiveness: More important for Males than females? Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 45-52. Basow, S. A., & Silberg, N. T. (1987). Student evaluations of college professors: Are female and male professors rated differently? Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(3), 308-314. Bennett, S.K. (1982). Student perceptions of and expectations for male and female instructors: Evidence relating to the question of gender bias in teaching evaluation. Journal of Educational Psychology 74: 170 9. Beran, T. and Violato, C. (2005). Ratings of University Teacher Instruction: How Much Do Student and Course Characteristics Really Matter? Assessment & Evaluation in higher Education Vol. 30, No. 6, December 2005, pp. 593-601. Brandenburg, D.C., J.A. Slinde, and E.E. Batista. (1977). Student ratings of instructor: Validity and normative interpretations. Research in Higher Education 7: 67 78. Braskamp, L. A., & Ory, J. C. (1994). Assessing faculty work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Cashin, W.E. (1990). Students do rate different academic fields differently. In Student ratings of instruction: Issues for improving practice. New directions for teaching and learning, Vol. 43, ed. M. Theall and J. Franklin, 113 21. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Centra, J. A., & Gaubatz, N. B. (2000). Is there gender bias in student evaluations of teaching? Journal of Higher Education, 70(1), 17-30 Centra, J.A., and F.R. Creech. (1976). The relationship between student, teacher, and course characteristics and student ratings of teacher effectiveness. Project report, 76 1. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Centra, JA. and Gaubatz, NB.(1999). Is there Gender Bias in Student Evaluations of Teaching?. Downloaded from: http://www.edcc.edu/facultydev/documents/istheregenderbias.pdf Chang, TS. and Ross, Robert A. The Influence of Instructor, Student and Course Characteristics on Student Ratings: What do Faculty and Students Believe? Chen, GH. And Watkins, D. (2010). Stability and Correlates of Student Evaluations of Teaching at a Chinese University. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education Vol.35, No.6, October 2010, 675 685. Downloaded from: http://www.gdufs.biz/chen-2010a.pdf Chen, Y. and Hoshower, LB. (2003). Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness: an assessment of student perception and motivation. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol.28, No.1, 2003 Cohen, P. A. (1981). Student ratings of instruction and student achievement: A meta analysis of multisection validity studies. Review of Educational Research, 51(3), 281-309. Feldman, K. A. (1988). Effective college teaching from the students and facultys view: Matched or mismatched priorities. Research in Higher Education, 28(4), 291-344. Feldman, K. A. (1992). College students views of male and female college teachers: Part I Evidence from the social laboratory and experiments. Research in Higher Education, 33(3), 317-351. Feldman, K. A. (1993). College students views of male and female college teachers: Part II Evidence from students evaluations of their classroom teachers. Research in Higher Education, 34(2), 151-211. Feldman, K. A. (2007). Identifying exemplary teachers and teaching: Evidence from student ratings. In R. Perry & J. Smart (Eds.), The scholarship of teaching and learning in higher education: An evidence-based perspective (pp. 93-129). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Feldman, K.A. (1978). Course characteristics and college students ratings of their teachers: What we know and what we don t. Research in Higher Education 9: 199 242. Feldman, K.A. (1983). Seniority and experience of college teachers as related to evaluations they receive. Research in Higher Education 18: 3 124. Feldman, KA. Research Productivity and Scholarly Accomplishment of College Teachers as Related to their Instructional Effectiveness: A Review and Exploration. Goodwin, L. D., & Stevens, E. A. (1993). The influence of gender on university facultymembers perceptions of good teaching. Journal of Higher Education, 64(2), 166-185. Greenwald, A. G., & Gillmore, G. M. (1997). No pain, no gain? The importance of measuring course workload in student ratings of instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 743-751. Hancock, G. R., Shannon, D. M., & Trentham, L. I. (1992). Student and teacher gender in ratings of university faculty: Results from five colleges of study. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 6, 235-248. Hativa, N. (1996). University instructors ratings profiles: Stability over time, and disciplinary differences. Research in Higher Education, 37(3), 341-365. Hoyt, DP. And Pallett, WH. (1999). Appraising Teaching Effectiveness: Beyond Student Ratings. IDEA Center. Downloaded from: http://www.roanestate.edu/feva/training/ideapaper36.pdf Kelly, M. and University, WL. (2012). Student Evaluations of Teaching Effectiveness: Considerations for Ontario Universities Kierstead, D., P. D Agostino, and H. Dill. (1988). Sex role stereotyping of college professors: Bias in students ratings of instructors. Journal of Educational Psychology 80: 342 4. Koblitz, N. (1990). Are student ratings unfair to women? Newsletter of the Association forwomen in Mathematics 20: 17 9. Marsh, H. W. (1987). Students evaluations of university teaching: Research findings, methodological issues, and directions for further research. International Journal of Educational Research, 11, 253-388. Marsh, H.W., and M.J. Dunkin. (1992). Students evaluation of university teaching: A multidimensional perspective. In Higher education: Handbook of theory and research, Vol. 8, ed. J. C. Smart, 143 234. New York: Agathon. Murray, H. G., Rushton, J. P., & Paunonen, S. V. (1990). Teacher personality traits and student instructional ratings in six types of university courses. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(2), 250-261. Rutland, P. (1990). Some considerations regarding teaching evaluations. Political Science Teacher 3: 1 2. Sandler, B. R. (1991). Women faculty at work in the classroom, or, why it still hurts to be a woman in labor. Communication Education, 40, 6-15. Sumrall, JG. (2002). Factors Which Influence Faculty Attitudes and Perceptions of Distance Education in 101

Analytical Subject Areas. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. Downloaded from: http://www2.mcdaniel.edu/ skerby/articles/sumrall_dis_factors_influence_perceptions_de.pdf Tatro, C. N. (1995). Gender effects on student evaluations of faculty. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 28(3), 169-173. Young, S., Rush, L. and Shaw, D. (2009). Evaluating Gender Bias in Ratings of University Instructor s Teaching Effectiveness. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. Vol.3, No. 3. ISSN 1931-4744 @ Georgia Southern University. Downloaded from: http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/studentevals/doc010.pdf About the Authors Andrea B. Pama is lecturer at Western Visayas College of Science and Technology (WVCST), Iloilo City, Philippines. Email: andreapama2012@yahoo.com.ph Lavinia B. Dulla is lecturer at WVCST, Iloilo City, Philippines Email: ivbdulla@yahoo.com.ph Richard c. De Leon is lecturer at WVCST, Iloilo City, Philippines Email: richardcdeleon@yahoo.com 102

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press Book Review Fanwar, Wann M. (2013). From Time to Eternity: A Sabbath Tour. Muak Lek, Saraburi: Institute Press. 48 pages. From Time to Eternity is a short book presented in the manner of a tour. The tour guide, the author, is a pastor-theologian who is serious about what it means to believe and practise Sabbath. As a pastor, Fanwar reflects upon the meaning of Sabbath. His is more interested in the process of understanding Sabbath than simply presenting his view. For him, a person who desires to keep Sabbath meaningfully should first wrestle with the question of meaning. That is why his reflection includes his Sabbath experiences while growing up as well as his struggle to make sense of those early experiences. As a theologian, he discusses important biblical passages pertaining to the understanding of Sabbath. His discussion is solidly grounded upon biblical scholarship which includes sound exegesis and knowledge of biblical languages as well as social and historical milieu of those passages. The combination produces a unique and fresh pastor-theologian perspective on Sabbath. This presents an interesting dimension of biblical theology: biblical theology in pastoral language. For symbolic reasons, the tour goes through seven days of travel. Each of the seven days is spent in different stations with significant exhibits to explore. This review will present the valuable contents of each station before discussing the overall contribution and notable, though minimal, improvable parts of the book. Beginning with Day One, Fanwar guides the tour at Reflection Station by sharing his own transitional journey from seeing Sabbath as legalistic duty-day to one that is liberating. It is also a transitional journey from understanding Sabbath as one of human s possession to one that is exclusively God s. Sabbath, according to him, is God s means to cover us with a robe of liberty so that we can exist without being terrorised by life, time and space (6) and the only way to receive the liberty is by acknowledging him as the King of kings who owns Sabbath (9). On Day Two, the readers are brought to explore the Torah Station. The proper tour begins here. Fanwar introduces the idea that Sabbath is a temple, not in space but in time. This becomes a motif that helps readers to understand the rest of the book better. He also points to three principal ideas in the Torah related to time temple that were also found in the Ancient Near East texts. First, God rests (Heb. Shabbat, to cease ) because he has completed the work of creation (11). Second, God is in the temple and worshippers come to worship him there (13). As a temple in time Sabbath becomes a special time for worship (14). Third, Shabbat [sic] is a sign of God s control and commitment (14) and as such it becomes the most comforting device to aid us in our struggles of life (15) because God cares. Day Three presents Prophets Station. The view of two important prophets is discussed: Ezekiel and Isaiah. The order is deliberate, reflecting the order Fanwar presents them. One thing for sure, the prophets never take issue with which day is Sabbath; they simply assume the fact. The exegesis of Ezekiel 20 demonstrates that Ezekiel s main concern is loyalty. A person s loyalty is tested by his or her attitude toward Sabbath. He or she becomes disloyal by profaning Shabbat [sic] and rejecting God s ruling (19). As for Isaiah, three of his Sabbath texts (chapters 56, 58, and 66) are closely connected with eschatology. Through exegesis, Fanwar suggests that Isaiah is teaching us that Shabbat [sic] is really about practising eternity. In time we learn to celebrate the presence of God so that one day we can do that forever (26). Day Four turns to the New Testament, in the Gospels Station. Two primary texts are found in Matthew 12 and Mark 2. Jesus encounter with the Pharisees brought a very significant thought to us about Sabbath, that is, he is the Lord of Sabbath and therefore has the authority to do what he wishes to do on that day. Fanwar suggests, therefore, that the real question of Shabbat observance should not be, What should I do during Shabbat? but How do I maintain the quality of life by the way I shabat? (30; shabat is the verb form of Heb. Shabbat). Serving the unserved (32) does certainly contribute to the quality of life and the best way to please God (32). 103

Day Five, the shortest of all tour days, explores Letters Station. The main text discussed in this station is Hebrews 4:1-11. Three principal ideas are presented: Shabbat without rest, Shabbat with rest and Shabbat as seeking rest (33). These ideas boil down to our attitude toward our relationship with God where Shabbat [sic] becomes the barometer to measure the state of the relationship. On Day Six, at Decision Station, readers are presented with several exhibits that challenge them to rethink and re-evaluate their position regarding Sabbath keeping. These include Sabbath work, Sabbath abuses, and things that are essential to Sabbath. It seems that here, Fanwar is alluding to his statement in Day One, while I may be observing Sabbath, I did not actually shabat (4)and invite readers to go through the reflection process all over again. Day Seven closes the tour when readers are brought to the Central Station. Here the axiom introduced earlier is repeated: when the King is in the house, the rules change. This line is fitting to conclude everything that has been discussed in the book. The King is in his time temple called Sabbath and those who acknowledge him will certainly defer everything for the sake of the King in the temple. Fanwar concludes the book with an encouraging statement: Shabbat [sic]... compels us to recognise that our lives are safe in the hands more powerful than our own. By acknowledging the King we discover who we really are and find meaning to our lives. The words of the King become our delight. His expectations become our motivation. His love becomes our comfort (42). For those who wonder why this book does not include a discussion on which day is the Sabbath, Fanwar states that his book is for those who are already keeping the Sabbath. For him, such discussion is a non-issue, echoing the prophets of the Old Testament. In fact, all the writers of biblical books do not see that as an issue. This puts Fanwar s book as unapologetic to those whose views are different, but compelling to the thoughtful readers. This is a valuable contribution to Christian living, especially those who keep Sabbath. This book is valuable study material on Sabbath, yet another contribution to Sabbath Keepers Christian living. Those who desire to have biblical understanding of Sabbath, not so much doctrinal but theological, would find this little book stimulating. The book is structured in such a way that Bible study group leaders may go through each day and find valuable gems from the Bible to be discussed with group members, and hopefully this will enhance their appreciation of Sabbath. With such valuable content, it is hard to find anything that needs improvement. However, here I will mention a couple of them. First, the length is quite short. This, however, can both be strength and weakness. One the one hand, the shortness limits thorough discussion of other biblical texts on the subject. On the other hand, it helps to sustain reader s attention to finish the reading in one sitting. And I think this is more important. Second, there is no table of content. Perhaps the absence is explainable by the tour style presentation of the book. Apart from these two, this book is an informative, enjoyable and valuable reading. Gerard Bernard Lecturer, Faculty of Religious Studies Asia-Pacific International University 104

Catalyst ISSN: 0905-6931, Volume 8, No. 1, December 2013 Institute Press 105 Book Review Altbach, Philip G. and Salmi, Jamil. (2011). The Road to Academic Excellence, the Making of World-Class Research Universities. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. 363 pages The Road to Academic Excellence is a very important book for those who would like to know how to develop a research university. I believe this book may help to provide a vision for upgrading on those universities that are moving to a great emphasis on research. Philip G. Altbach is the Donald Monan, S. J. University Professor and the director of the Center for International Higher Education in the Lynch School of Education at Boston College. He was the 2004-06 Distinguished Scholar Leader for the New Century Scholars initiative of the Fulbright programme. He holds a bachelor s degree, master s degree and PhD from the University of Chicago. He has taught at Harvard University, the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the State University of New York at Buffalo; has been a visiting scholar at the sciences Po in Paris, France and the University of Mumbai in India; and is a guest professor at Peking University in China. Jamil Salmi, a Moroccan education economist, is the World Bank s tertiary education co-ordinator. He is the principal author of the Bank s tertiary education strategy titled Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education. For the last 17 years, he has provided policy advice on tertiary education reform to the governments of more than 60 countries in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America. He is a member of the governing board of the International Institute for Educational Planning of UNESCO, the International Reference Group of the Leadership Foundation for Higher Education in London and the editorial advisory group of the OECD s Journal of Higher Education Management and Policy. According to both writers, within the tertiary education system, research universities play a critical role in training the professionals, high-level specialist, scientists, and researchers needed by the economy and in generating new knowledge in support of the national innovation system (2). For this reason, research universities are considered among the central institutions of the 21 st -century knowledge economies (Ibid.). The main chapters of this book comprise nine case studies that illustrate what it takes to establish sustained research universities and help validate the analytical model that includes high concentration of talent, abundant resources to offer a rich learning environment and favourable governance features that encourage leadership, strategic vision, innovation and flexibility (3). Those institutions chosen for the case studies also represent a wide range of results regarding their scientific production and their position in the global university rankings (5). In chapter one, Altbach gives an overview for the background of what is meant by research university. The chapter entitled The Past, Present, and the Future of Research Universities, suggests strategies of the nature and scope of a research university. He suggests that research universities stand at the center of the 21 st -century global knowledge economy and serve as flagships for postsecondary education worldwide (11). In that sense research universities produce much of the new information and analysis that not only lead to important advances in technology but also contributes, as significantly, to better understanding of the human condition through the social sciences and humanities (Ibid.). Even with the greater scope of research universities, Altbach recognises that research universities serves only a minority of undergraduate students, usually the nation s best and brightest, and employ the best-qualified academics. They are the central universities for educating students at the doctoral level and to produce the bulk of the research output (11, 12). According to him, a research university is not only an institution, but also an idea (15). At the heart of the research university is its academic staff, which must be committed to the idea of disinterested research knowledge for its own sake as well as to more practical elements of research and its use in contemporary society (16).

It is important to mention that for Altbach research universities are elite institutions in the sense that they aspire to be the best as often reflected in a top ranking in teaching, research, and participating in the global knowledge network (16). Together with this view he also suggests that students are very important in the system; they are central element in the spirit of the university. They are committed to the university s goals and to its academic ethos. He emphasises the idea that English is the language of science and scholarship. He gives a few examples of how universities in China, the Arabic countries and lately in Malaysia they are emphasising English as globally relevant for their academic development. He mentions that English is now the global language of science and scholarship and is likely to remain dominant for the foreseeable future (18). He stresses that research universities need special kind of professor. Research universities need highly-educated professors to perform their teaching responsibilities at the highest level. It means also the professors are both competent and collaborative, they contribute by far the largest amount of scholarly and scientific research articles and books. Indeed, perhaps 90 percent of the articles appearing in the top-ranked academic journals are likely written by professors in the research-intensive universities (19). He added that research university professors tend to be international in their consciousness and often in their work. They increasingly collaborate with colleagues in different countries and are sometimes internationally mobile, accepting jobs where work conditions, salaries and facilities are best. He suggests that to be successful, universities must include those who teach and do research (the academic community) in the decision making (the governance) of the institution (20). Also, students, although not necessarily involved directly in governance, must also be included as key stakeholders in the academic community (Ibid.). The Road for Excellence mentions cases related to research universities among which the Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) gives insights and suggestions of how it is possible to organise a research university. So in chapter two, it explores how SJTU has developed in the past ten years in the context of the growing imperatives of the globalised knowledge economy and national policy directives. One important dimension in such development story is the trajectories of Ten-Year planning to be of what SJTU as it is today. In 2004, the university concentrated on carrying out and modifying its institutional actions. This exercise encourages SJTU to identify its status among universities in China and in the world, to define its developmental goals for the next five years (2005-10). Five articulated strategies to translate the university s mission and goals into a definite process were constructed (39). I believe as educators it will be very important to explore the same goals for those universities that are also moving from good to great. The first concept is to develop the university capacity through improving the quality of the faculty. The second concept is to strengthen the fundamental sciences by putting new approaches into place. Third, the university encourages interdisciplinary research in different subject areas. The fourth concept is to promote the institution s internationalisation, and finally, the university actively collaborates with the government, other Chinese universities, research organisations and industries (39). After 10 years of such practices, SJTU has made progress. To carry out the plan and to enhance the quality of SJTU s profile and academic performance to meet the world standard, the office benchmarked and evaluated the university s performance based on its international counterparts. The performance indicators cover seven aspects: university, school, and department scale, talent capacity building, leading academics, internationalization of teaching and research staff, research funding, research achievements, and disciplinary development (40). An important outcome has been the improvement of the faculty quality. The recruitment measures have effectively improved the quality of faculty. First, the number of faculty members has satisfied the university s needs as it develops. Second, the competency of faculty members has improved. Third, the number of university faculty members with international credentials has significantly increased (47). Finally, the university aims to develop a world-class faculty by 2020, with a group of academicians and talented young people who are in a great demand for national strategic development and who participate in international cutting-edge research of science and technology (48). In the area of research, SJTU focuses on research excellence; so it encourages its faculty to conduct research at the international level and offers reward for international publications. In addition, students pursuing a PhD in sciences must publish at least one SCI paper or one paper in English indexed in the Engineering Index before they apply for a doctoral degree (50). In its concluding remarks the chapter stresses that the focus of SJTU s development has shifted from domestic to international standards and from domestic to international competition (57). The emphasis of SJTU s development has changed from quantity oriented to quality oriented and from infrastructure 106

building to enhancement of teaching, learning and research (58). The main chapters of this book are nine case studies that illustrate what it takes to establish and sustain research universities and help validate a model previously mentioned above. I believe an important case is also the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. In Asia just before the turn of this century, the newly established Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) took only 10 years to become one of Asia s top 10 research universities (63). HKUST s most important success factor was the recruitment of outstandingly talented scholars and scientists. All faculty members had doctorates, and 80 percent received doctorates from or were employed at 24 of the top universities in the world (66). Among the basic characteristics of HKUST are its roles, goals and objectives. So among those goals Gerald A. Postiglione suggests that the university offers research programs for a significant number of students in every subject area; and provides scope for academic staff members to undertake consultancy and collaborative projects with industry in areas where they have special expertise (71). On recruitment of students, HKUST adopted a proactive approach focused on bringing the university into direct contact with many sectors of the population. It opened itself to the community by taking advantage of its spectacular campus and facilitating access and visits, especially by potential students and their families (72). Another important element of HKUST is the language of instruction. The university of Hong Kong had always adhered to the principle that all instruction be delivered in English, though the campus life of students reflected the bilingual nature of society (78). The language of instruction has implications for HKUST s aim to internationalise its student recruitment, which already extends far beyond Hong Kong SAR, China including mainland China and overseas. In fact, HKUST has the highest percentage of nonlocal students among its counterparts (79). In addition, HKUST s collaborations and partnerships have contributed to its success. The university has taken specific measures to address one of its major goals, to collaborate closely with business and industry in promoting technology innovation and economic development. Its major innovation in this respect was to establish a wholly owned company known as the Research and Development Corporation (RDC), a unit that serves as the business arm of the university to commercialise research (89). The chapter ends with a summary of factors that we may also hold such as vision share vision, clear mission, zeal. Goals regional preference, national positioning, global impact in selected specialties. Focus selection of fields and specialties focusing of resources. Governance organisation and system. Adaptation internationalisation without an assault on the dual traditions. Heart brains, muscles, spirit, mind, strength. Soul faculty as the soul of the university shared purpose, and relentless drive. As a conclusion of the book, Jamil Salmi synthesises the road to academic excellence based on those case studies and lessons of experience. In this book, the nine case-study chapters covering 11 universities illustrate the systematic efforts and multiple challenges faced by institutions trying to pursue the road to academic excellence (325). In this synthesis Salmi attempts to identify common themes and preliminary lessons achieved from the stories of these relatively young universities, which have achieved outstanding results, shown promising signs of success, or faced reversals of fortune (325). Therefore, among the common themes it is possible to suggest a model for successful and research universities. First of all, Samil suggests talent. As all the case studies systematically illustrate, a key success factor in building a top research university is the ability to attract, recruit and retain leading academics. Notably, what truly distinguishes the East Asian universities from the rest of the world is the marked emphasis on internationalisation (326). Second, he emphasises resources. As expected, the finding of the case studies confirms that emerging research universities need to be well resourced to progress rapidly. This fact emerged appeared clearly from East Asian cases, as well as from the University of Malaya (329). Abundant funding is indispensable not only for setting up first-rate facilities and appropriate physical infrastructure but also for attracting and retaining high-level academics (Ibid.). Most of the universities showcased in this book have successfully diversified their funding sources by managing to mobilize significant additional resources beyond the direct subsidies they received from government (330). The availability of competitive research funding is indeed an important factor. On governance, the case studies shows that an appropriate regulatory framework, strong and inspiring leadership, and adequate management significantly influence the ability of Research University to prosper (331). One of the ways in which purposeful leadership manifest itself is through the talent of articulating an enticing vision for the future of the institution to all its stakeholders. Good salaries are not enough to attract and motivate high-performing academics; faculty members must feel that they are part of significant project 107

to ensure their full commitment toward the construction or renewal of the institution (332). On the path of development, the case studies explored in this book include established universities, which have made or are making deliberate efforts to upgrade their quality and effectiveness, and new institutions created from scratch with the ambitious vision of achieving world-class status (333). Finally, the case studies also brought out a number of accelerating factors that can play a positive role in the quest for excellence. The first factor is relying extensively on the diaspora, especially when establishing a new institution. The second factor, using English as the main language of an institution, greatly enhances its ability to attract highly qualified foreign academics. The third is to concentrate on niche areas. The four approaches use benchmarking as a guide to orient the institution in its upgrading efforts. The fifth factor is to introduce significant curriculum and pedagogical innovations. And finally, regarding the road to excellence is the need for successful institutions to remain vigilant and to maintain a sense of urgency to avoid complacency. This factor implies continues monitoring and self-assessment to identify tensions or treats and to act quickly to address them (334, 5). The trajectories of the 11 institutions analyzed in this book offer valuable insights into the complex transformation process that institutions striving to become world-class research universities are undergoing, whether they chose upgrading or start anew path to academic excellence. With proper leadership and vision, existing research universities can drastically improve the quality of their teaching and research (340). This book will be helpful to all who want to understand the road to excellence in academic institutions and enhance research. Miguel Luna Dean, Faculty of Religious Studies Asia-Pacific International University 108

RECENT BOOKS FROM INSTITUTE PRESS Heart of Worship Wann M. Fanwar For those who are interested in learning about the biblical underpinnings of Christian worship and the historical journey of that experience. 978-616-90455-4-0 THB 200 The Gourmet Pulpit Wann M. Fanwar An introductory text on homelitics for anyone interested to become a preacher or to hone one s preaching skills. 978-616-90455-3-3 THB 200 From Time to Eternity: A Sabbath Tour Wann M. Fanwar A theological and pastoral reflection on the biblical concept of Sabbath. THB 50 109