308 The Marketing of Professional Services An Organisational Dilemma by Evert Gummesson Service Marketing versus Goods Marketing This paper is concerned with the marketing of a certain set of producer services called professional services. 1 They include the services of advertising agencies, management consultants, accountants, architects, engineering consultants and several others. Some professional services also have a consumer market: this exists for example in the case of the legal and medical professions. Services to firms can include transportation services, cleaning services, etc. Professional services are a subset which is differentiated from other services by being mainly advisory and being operated by skilled professionals. When goods and services are sold together the term systems selling is used. For instance, a computer firm may sell the computers but also undertake to adjust and install computer programs. Systems may include both professional and other services. My interest in both the producer and service sectors developed from practical work in which I was engaged in those areas and where I found the existing marketing literature insufficient. Hitherto, most marketing literature and research has concentrated on consumer goods while producer goods and services have been neglected. I found that the taxonomy and models developed for consumer goods marketing could help to shed light on industrial marketing or the marketing of professional services, but only to a limited extent. It is unfortunate that consumer goods marketing has been set more or less as a norm for all marketing. An estimate of annual sales values in Sweden indicates that consumer goods only account for 20 per cent, while producer goods account for 58 per cent, consumer services for 12 per cent and producer services for 10 per cent. Professional services, as defined in this project, account for 15 per cent of producer services. In the discussions on professional service marketing which I have had with marketing theorists it has often been argued that marketing theory is generally applicable services are no different from other products. In some articles authors take the same view[12, 13, 22], In most marketing literature services are not treated at all, but implicitly the authors accept that goods marketing is applicable also to services[l0]. 1 Also the term consultancy services is used. There are no commonly accepted definitions of the two terms[l, 4, 15,17].
Marketing of Professional Services 309 I have also had several discussions with practitioners in service industries and they feel neglected by marketing literature: they are looking for conceptual frameworks that can help them approach and solve their particular marketing problems. Traditionally and rightly, he who claims that his models and theories have applicability to other areas than those for which they are primarily meant, has the burden of proving this. Thus, if someone says that consumer goods marketing is applicable to service marketing, he should show that this is likely to be true. In marketing so far it seems to be the other way around: the burden of proof is thrown on those who doubt. There is, however, a growing community of marketing theorists who claim that unique features do exist for different kinds of products and services and that these unique features have to be recognised in order to develop an appropriate marketing theory[2, 3, 5, 9, 14, 18, 19, 20]. The purposes of my research project have accordingly been to investigate marketing practices in the field of professional services, to combine empirical findings with marketing theory and buyer behaviour theory and to attempt to find conceptual frameworks or principles that could guide professional servicefirmsin their marketing efforts. Further, my intention has been to contribute to the theories of service marketing and industrial marketing. The conclusions presented here are part of the results of a broad project to investigate the marketing and purchase of professional services. Altogether some 50 people representing different professional services were interviewed about marketing practices. Four cases were studied where both sellers and buyers were interviewed. The research project was sponsored by the University of Stockholm and the Marketing Techniques Centre (MTC). Its empirical part was carried out during 1975-1977 and the project report completed in 1977[8]. An Organisational Dilemma This paper will report results from the research project concerning an organisational dilemma for professional service firms. Those firms usually do not have a marketing or sales department. In a goods-producing firm it is usually quite easy to separate marketing (including sales) from production. You belong either to one or to the other. In a service firm, and especially in a professional service firm, the following dilemma arises: The person who is a marketer of the service usually must also be prepared to take part in the operation of assignments. This fact has been pointed out before in the literature[19, 21] and it is supported by my empirical research. To my knowledge the implications have not been further developed elsewhere. I have considered implications in three areas: (1) the organisational structure of a professional firm, (2) the marketing activities carried out by professionals and (3) the costs of marketing. These areas will be dealt with below.
310 European Journal of Marketing 13, 5 Implications for Organisational Structure A professional can engage in the following tasks. He can: operate assignments for clients and invoice clients for this, market the services of the professional firm, develop or improve services, take part in education and training, administer a professional firm or some part of it. It is common for a professional mainly to spend his time in operating assignments but it is less common for him only to market, develop or administer the services. In the cases I have come across, where the professional is restricted to marketing, developing or administering services, results have been poor. A professional who does not take part in the carrying out of assignments suffers after some time a reduction in his professional effectiveness. He may, however, have an inclination and gift for combining the activities set out above in varying proportions. Wittreich[21] has stressed two points concerning this. Firstly, the client is buying a professional: "A professional service can only be purchased meaningfully from someone who is capable of rendering the service. Selling ability and personality by themselves are meaningless" (p. 6). Secondly, what is needed is the professional who sells, not the professional salesman (p. 10). The marketing organisation concerning professional services therefore differs in important respects from marketing organisations outlined in textbooks. Figure 1 illustrates this principle. The following comments apply to the figure. Some people mistake the marketing department as being identical with the marketing function of a firm. In all operations it is essential to make this distinction[7] and in a professional servicefirm it is even more so as the marketing department is only a small part of the marketing function and the marketing function spreads to all levels of the organisation. The managing director and other managers (for divisions, regions, groups, etc.) and those with the status of full professionals (and in some of the largest firms also a marketing staff unit), are engaged both in marketing management (marketing research, strategies, organisation, planning, sales control, etc.) and in the creation of advertising, other promotional activities and public relations, often with the aid of an advertising agency. They are also engaged in the planning and implementation of selling activities and PR activities. Assistants and internal staff contribute to the design and production of material used in advertising, sales promotion and PR, in cooperation with external specialists. Implications for Marketing Activities In the preceding paragraph the possible tasks of the professional have been set out. I will now go one step further and identify possible activities within the area of marketing. Here, I will concentrate on promotional activities, i.e., the various ways of com-
Marketing of Professional Services 311 municating with, and influencing, the market. These activities are listed in Table I and divided into (A) personal selling including market research, (B) advertising and (C) public relations and other promotional activities. The following consequences are worth noting. Figure 1. The Organisation of a Professional Service Firm Firstly, almost all means except (B) (advertising) are very person-intensive. Personal contact under (A) (selling) and (C) (PR, etc.) dominate. Secondly, the use of (A) and (C), with activities such as writing proposals, giving lectures, writing articles, requires activities from highly qualified individuals. This work will be shared out in the professional service firm and different individuals will (it is hoped) concentrate on the particular activities that suit them best. Thirdly, the local and individual use of the means is predominant. Some of the means such as advertising, administration of courses can, however, be worked out centrally. Fourthly, the marketing costs will mainly be the time costs of the professionals involved. These are the costs connected with the organisational dilemma. However, expenses such as typing, copying and travelling can also lead to substantial costs. Probably much work is done in the spare time by motivated individuals and is never registered as marketing costs. Fifthly, several activities contain elements of service development and the individual's own education. Examples are articles, books, conferences. Sixthly, the marketing strategy
312 European Journal of Marketing 13, 5 of a professional service firm may include activities in different combinations. Some may concentrate on personal contact with prospects and not use advertising and PR at all. Others may avoid direct approaches and only use indirect means such as giving lectures, writing articles. Some groups of professionals prohibit direct sales approaches and advertising whereas they usually allow more indirect means of promotion. Table I. Promotional Activities used by Professional Service Firms (A) Personal selling including market research Sales calls on own initiative Sales calls on inquiry Proposals Current contacts with certain important customers and prospects Controlling time-consuming negotiations Controlling suppliers or others who may influence sales Surveying activities and events in the market Developing know-how on individual prospects (B) Advertising Advertisements in daily newspapers Advertisements in trade journals Other types of advertisements: telephone directories, year books, etc. Direct mail Participation in advertising arranged by trade associations (C) Public relations and other promotional activities Conferences, symposiums, seminars, courses, etc. arranged by the professional firm Participation in conferences, etc. arranged by a trade association or someone outside the professional firm Participation as lecturer, seminar leader, etc. Membership of associations Dinners, lunches and other forms of entertainment Invitations, e.g., to the professional firm's office Exhibitions Reference assignments References to persons Participation in professional contests Arranging contests Awarding fellowships Publication of articles Reprints of articles Publication of books Product sheets Annual reports Publishing a magazine for clients Slides, films, etc. Billboards and name-plates Press releases Press conferences, interviews Gifts Christmas greeting, anniversary greetings, etc.
Marketing of Professional Services 313 Implications for the Determination of Marketing Costs The third area which is affected by the organisational dilemma concerns the costs of marketing. To my knowledge, there are no estimates of marketing and sales costs for different types of professional service firms. There is also a lack of cost concepts applicable to the special features of professional services. Cost concepts relevant to marketing have been developed for manufacturing industries and trade but not for professional services (nor for other services). Therefore, I must first of all introduce a set of concepts. These concepts were used in estimating the sales costs in four cases. It turned out during the data collection that the professional service firms did not know their marketing and sales costs, nor did the clients know their purchasing costs. The major source of income for professional firms is the hourly fees invoiced to the client. There are other ways of payment, e.g., commissions. Here I will only deal with income generated through time-based fees. Two kinds of marketing costs were identified. The first kind are costs for activities designed to increase the market's awareness of the firm and its services and to create a favourable image. Activities of this kind were listed in Table I mainly under (B) and (C). These costs can be called costs for indirect marketing. The second kind of costs are those incurred in negotiations with a specific prospect. These are sales costs and they are caused by sales calls and other contacts and the writing of proposals. The element of marketing costs which is caused by the professional spending time on marketing activities can be valued at three levels: An upper cost. This consists of the income sacrificed by the professional with a full work-load (usually his hourly fee), plus expenses caused by the specific marketing activity (e.g., travel costs). A lower cost. For a professional not otherwise fully occupied, the only costs will be the expenses caused by the specific marketing activity. A middle cost. This is made up principally of the professional's remuneration plus expenses. Which cost concept should then be used by the professional service firm? There is not a simple, clear-cut answer to that. In my belief, however, an understanding of these concepts may help to make better decisions. Some possible situations will be discussed below. The upper and lower costs seem to be relevant alternatives in the short term and the middle cost in the long term. In the short term the evaluation of the cost is a function of the work-load during a certain period. In the long term it is a matter of estimating the necessary marketing resources required to maintain the professional firm at a certain size. The professional firm can have a high or a low work-load. But the work-load can also be evenly or unevenly distributed on individuals. It can also be dispersed or concentrated in time. The volume of proposals can be low or high, the number of prospects can also be low or high.
314 European Journal of Marketing 13, 5 In every individual case there may be present, instead of the extreme of high or low, a particular level of operation, somewhere in between. Moreover, in any particular defined period of time, a particular and individual mix may provide optimum operating conditions. In a situation where all the factors go in a positive direction it is reasonable in the short run to use the upper cost. In a negative situation the opportunity cost is zero. In the short run the lower cost should therefore be used. If positive factors keep prevailing it is possible for the professional firm to expand, if the negative ones prevail, it must contract. In a more balanced situation, the middle cost is reasonable, it is necessary to keep a certain volume of work. What you should not do of course and I have seen several firms do this is to use the upper cost constantly. That will give the idea that they spend a lot of money on marketing. It may inhibit them from putting in enough efforts in getting jobs because "it is so expensive". When the distribution in work-load between the individual members of a professional firm is very uneven, one individual could be in a very positive situation and another in an extremely negative situation. For the former professional it may be reasonable to assess the sales time as an upper cost, for the latter as a lower cost. If the former professional is a good salesman who can sell assignments for others he may make a larger contribution to thefirmby selling rather than operating. Actually, there is an opportunity cost for operating. Some figures to illustrate these concepts may help the reader to realise their significance. The sales costs for the professional firm which was awarded the contract and the costs for all competitors are given below. The costs are sales costs for a specific contract. The example concerns a company which wanted to build a new plant. The company got in touch with six firms of consulting engineers asking them all if they were interested in tendering for the job. The sales costs are given in Table II. The table shows that the difference between costs is quite substantial depending on how they are evaluated. The adoption of a particular cost definition will, therefore, affect how the professional firm assigns its priorities between sales and other activities and between different prospects. Table II. Costs Expressed in US Dollars Hours spent Upper cost Middle cost Lower cost Seller 109 4 300 2 980 890 Competitors 410 16 200 11 100 3 330
Marketing of Professional Services 315 Allocating Marketing Efforts Decision Rules With the above discussion in mind, four decision rules for the professional service marketer will be suggested. Rule 1: Train all members of the organisation in marketing in order to influence their attitudes and develop marketing techniques. In a goods-producing firm it is easier to separate the marketing function from other functions, especially from production. In a professional service firm, the marketing department is usually a small staff unit and marketing activities are spread through the organisation. The concepts of marketing function and marketing (and sales) department can then facilitate the analysis, i.e., it is important to establish where marketing activities should be carried out. In practice, when a marketing department is created, people in other areas of the firm may believe that they do not have to worry about marketing: it is taken care of by the department. Marketing and sales training for professionals then becomes important. They are usually hired because they are professionals in a specific area, not because they are able to attract business. Some even frown upon selling, it does notfittheir image of themselves as professionals. Rule 2: Use Table I as a checklist of possible promotional activities, select those which are considered relevant for your firm and determine who shall do what. The list of means and activities to market the service (set out in Table I) can be used as a practical checklist for both strategic and tactical decisions: do we use the measures at our disposal, do we use them in a satisfying combination, what shall we concentrate on, who shall do what and in what proportions? These activities will cost money: what level of promotion is acceptable and what level is necessary to keep the firm at a certain scale, in the short term as well as in the long term? In the negotiations with specific prospects, what sales costs are reasonable and how should they be valuated? Rule 3: Budget your marketing costs, do not make them a residual. Do not mismanage long-term promotional activities when times are good. The guiding principle for professionals seems to be this: it is better to take a certain, short-term revenue rather than a long-term, but more uncertain, revenue. If that principle is used too consistently, however, there is the risk of a rather unstable situation developing, as illustrated in Figure 2. The figure shows that when the work-load is high, the firm devotes little time to marketing. When the work-load goes down more time is devoted to marketing. The lead time from first contact with a prospect to an assignment is usually long (several months or years) and therefore the firm may have a very low work-load before the marketing activities begin to create jobs. Therefore, it would be more desirable to keep an even work-load and a marketing activity level such as the dotted line indicates. A more even work-load facilitates planning. A very low work-load even during a short period can cause serious liquidity problems. To get a more even work-load requires discipline and a systematic use of experience.
316 European Journal of Marketing 13, 5 Figure 2. The Use of a Professional's Time on Marketing Rule 4: Use expected value with caution. When the work-load goes down, one wants to increase the work-load quickly as each day off the clock is a lost day of revenue. The choice then is not between the alternatives of work in assignments or sell, but between selling to prospect (a), prospect (b) or prospect (c) etc. Therefore, there is an opportunity cost for selling to (a) in relation to (b). The evaluation of this cost can be based on such factors as: how quickly can the job start, how big will it be and what are the chances of getting it? It is not possible to calculate an expected value in its true sense. If the firm makes a conscious choice based on systematic reasoning, under-pinned by experience and intuition, no better alternative exists and consequently the opportunity cost in relation to another prospect is nil. Kotler and Connor in a recent article[ll] advocate the use of expected value in ranking prospects. In my view they put too much trust in the concept. The following formula is used: probability of expected value value of the sales r = attaining the x of a prospect prospect costs prospect It is an academically appealing way of calculating risk but the formula can only be used if a large number of prospects are being negotiated and it is also sensitive to extreme values[16]. For instance, a professional service firm has one prospect worth one million US dollars, the probability (which of course is subjective) is 0 90 and the sales costs (valued in what way?) 10,000 dollars. The expected value becomes $890,000. Another firm has 100 prospects worth $10,000, i.e., one million dollars together. The value for each is 0 75 and the sales costs $20,000 which gives an expected value of
Marketing of Professional Services 317 S730,000. In the first case you get the assignment or you do not get it, there is one decision-making unit. In the second case you have 100 decision-making units. Common sense of course would lead one to have more confidence in the future of the second firm. Even if most real situations are not as extreme as this, professional service firms often have very few prospects. The formula could not in my experience be used in practice, especially not to rank prospects. Firstly, it applies only when great numbers are concerned: an individual prospect you get or you do not get. Secondly, probability is a matter of subjective judgement. Thirdly, the probability may increase if you put in more activities, and consequently have higher sales costs. The problem is what costs to allocate and what action to take. The formula for the expected value therefore is not operational, it becomes merely a neat exercise which gives little guidance in practice. It may even lull the professional service firm into a sense of false security and prevent it from making a proper analysis. Summary and Conclusions This article pointed out an organisational dilemma for professional service firms. The implications of this dilemma for marketing organisation, promotional activities and marketing cost was then discussed. Four decision rules were suggested. The reasonings in this article are based on empirical data from professional service firms. However, the same dilemma may arise in other service marketing. Gronroos[6] recently made similar observations for consumer service firms such as banks and travel agencies. The dilemma is also likely to occur in firms producing goods on customers' orders such as customer-designed machines. Therefore, empirical studies of its effects for producer goods marketing will be welcomed. References 1. Bennion, F. A. R., Professional Ethics, London, Charles Knight, 1969. 2. Eiglier, P., Langeard, E., Lovelock, C. H., Bateson, J. E. G. and Young, R. F., Marketing Consumer Services: New Insights, Cambridge, Mass., Marketing Science Institute, 1977. 3. European Journal of Marketing, Special issue on Marketing of Services, Vol. 11 No. 6, 1977. 4. Fuchs, V. R. (ed.), Production and Productivity in the Service Industries, New York, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1969. 5. Grönroos, C., "A Service-Oriented Approach to Marketing of Services", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 12 No. 8, 1978, pp. 588-601. 6. Grönroos, C., The Nature of Service Marketing, European Academy for Advanced Research in Marketing, Proceedings from its 7th Workshop, Stockholm, May 1978. 7. Gummesson, E., Marknadsfunktionen i företaget, Skövde (Sweden), Norstedts, 1976. 8. Gummesson, E., Marknadsföring och inköp av konsulttjänster, (with summary in English), Stockholm, University of Stockholm/Marketing Techniques Centre/Akademilitteratur, 1977. 9. Gummesson, E., "Toward a Theory of Professional Service Marketing", Industrial Marketing Management, Vol. 7 No. 2, 1978. 10. Kotler, P., Marketing Management, Analysis, Planning and Control, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1976. 11. Kotler, P. and Connor, R. A., Jr., "Marketing Professional Services", Journal of Marketing, January 1977.
318 European Journal of Marketing 13, 5 12. Levitt, T., "Product-line approach to service". Harvard Business Review, September-October 1972. 13. Levitt, T., "The industrialization of service", Harvard Business Review, September-October 1976_ 14. Mills, P. K., New Perspective on post-industrial organisations: An empirical investigation into the theories and practices of servicefirms, Stockholm, Akademilitteratur, 1977. 15. Monopolies Commission, A Report on the General Effect on the Public Interest of Certain Restrictive Practices so far as They Prevail in Relation to the Supply of Professional Services, London, HMSO, 1970. 16. Naylor, T. H. and Vernon, J. M., Microeconomics and decision models of the firm, New York, Harcourt, Bruce and World, 1969, pp. 305-7. 17. The Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1970. 18. Shostack, L., "Breaking Free from Product Marketing", Journal of Marketing, April 1977. 19. Wilson, A., The Marketing of Professional Services, London, McGraw Hill, 1972. 20. Wilson, A., Professional services and the market place, Stockholm, Marketing Techniques Centre (MTC), 1975. 21. Wittreich, W. J., Selling A Prerequisite to Success as a Professional, Philadelphia, Wittreich Associates, 1969. 22. Wyckham, R. G., Fitzroy, P. T. and Mandry, G. D., "Marketing of Services", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 9 No. 1, 1975.