RESEARCH PROCESS AND THEORY

INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH PROCESS AND THEORY ALLEN F. REPKO The University of Texas at Arlington SAGE Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC

Detailed Contents Preface Acknowledgments About the Author xxi xxxii xxxiii PART I: About Interdisciplinary Studies 1 1. Defining Interdisciplinary Studies 3 Chapter Preview 3 The Meaning of Interdisciplinary Studies 3 Two Conceptions of Interdisciplinary Studies 3 The "Discipline" Part of Interdisciplinary Studies 4 Categories of Traditional Disciplines 5 The Fine and Performing Arts 5 The Applied and Professional Fields 5 The Emergence of Inter disciplines 6 Evolving Constructs 6 The "Inter" Part of Interdisciplinary Studies 7 "Inter" Refers to Contested Space 7 "Inter" Refers to the Action Taken on Insights 7 "Inter" Refers to the Result of Integration 7 Aspects of the Prefix "Inter" Summarized 8 The "Studies" Part of Interdisciplinary Studies 8 Why Traditional Disciplines Are Not Referred to as "Studies" 8 Why "Studies" Is an Integral Part of Interdisciplinary Studies 9 The Differences Between the Disciplines and Interdisciplinary Studies 9 Why "Studies" Is Plural 11 A Definition of Interdisciplinary Studies 12 Reasons for Agreeing on a Definition of Interdisciplinary Studies 12

Authoritative Definitions of Interdisciplinary Studies 14 An Integrated Definition of Interdisciplinary Studies 15 What Interdisciplinary Studies Is Not 16 Interdisciplinary Studies Is Not Multidisciplinary Studies 16 Two Metaphors 17 The Fable of the Elephant House 17 Interdisciplinary Studies Is Not Transdisciplinary Studies 20 The Differences Between Multidisciplinarity, Interdisciplinarity, and Transdisciplinarity Summarized 20 The Premise of Interdisciplinary Studies 21 Competing Impulses Behind the Term Interdisciplinarity 21 How the Term Interdisciplinarity Is Variably Used Today 22 Forms of Interdisciplinarity 22 Interdisciplinarity Is Used to Describe Work 23 The Work of Integrating Knowledge 23 The Work of Recognizing and Confronting Differences 24 Interdisciplinarity Is Used to Describe a Research Process 24 Interdisciplinarity Is Used to Describe the Kind of Knowledge Produced 25 Interdisciplinarity Is Used to Describe Change in Knowledge Production 25 Metaphors Commonly Used for Interdisciplinary Work 25 The Metaphor of Boundary Crossing 26 The Metaphor of Bridge Building 27 The Metaphor of Mapping 27 The Metaphor of Bilingualism 28 Reflections on These Metaphors 28 Chapter Summary 29 Notes 29 Exercises 30 2. Mapping the Drivers of Interdisciplinarity 32 Chapter Preview 32 The Primary Drivers of Interdisciplinary Research and Education 33 The Inherent Complexity of Nature and Society 33 The Desire to Explore Problems and Questions That are Not Confined to a Single Discipline 35 The Need to Solve Social Problems 37

The Need to Produce Revolutionary Insights and Generative Technologies 38 The Interdisciplinary Critique of the Disciplines 41 Specialization Can Blind Us to the Broader Context 42 Specialization Tends to Produce Tunnel Vision 42 Disciplinarians Sometimes Fail to Appreciate Other Disciplinary Perspectives 43 Some Worthwhile Topics Fall in the Gaps Between Disciplines 43 Creative Breakthroughs Often Require Interdisciplinary Knowledge 43 The Disciplines Are Often Unable to Address Complex Problems Comprehensively 44 The Disciplines Are Products of a Bygone Age 44 The Formation of the Disciplines and the Origins of Interdisciplinarity 45 The Origins of the University and the Disciplines 46 The Impact of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution on the Disciplines 46 The Consolidation of the Disciplines in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries 47 The Professionalization of Knowledge in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries and the Rise of the Modern Disciplines 47 The Emergence of Interdisciplinary Studies and Interdisciplinarity 48 The General Education Movement 49 The Cold War Era and Interdisciplinarity 49 University Reforms in the 1960s and the Emergence of Interdisciplinary Studies 50 Interdisciplinary Studies Becomes an Academic Field 51 Assumptions of Interdisciplinarity 52 The Reality Beyond the Academy Requires an Interdisciplinary Approach to Research and Education 52 The Disciplines Are Foundational to Interdisciplinarity 53 The Disciplines by Themselves Are Inadequate to Address Complex Problems 53 Disciplinary Perspectives are Partial and Biased 55 Cognitive Abilities Fostered by Interdisciplinarity 56 Develop and Apply Perspective-Taking Techniques 56 Develop Structural Knowledge of Complex Problems 56 Create or Discover Common Ground Between Conflicting Insights 56

Integrate Conflicting Insights From Two or More Disciplines 57 Produce a Cognitive Advancement or More Comprehensive Understanding of the Problem 57 Reflection on What Interdisciplinary Education Offers 58 Traits and Skills of Inter disciplinarians 58 Traits 58 Skills 61 Reflection on Traits and Skills of Interdisciplinarians 63 Chapter Summary 63 Notes 64 Exercises 65 PART II: Drawing on Disciplinary Insights 67 3. Beginning the Research Process 69 Chapter Preview 69 What the Interdisciplinary Research Process Is 69 A Process of Decision Making 69 A Decision-Making Process 70 A Decision-Making Process That Is Heuristic 70 A Decision-Making Process That Is Iterative 71 A Decision-Making Process That Is Reflexive 71 Two Additional Characteristics of the IRP 71 An Integrated Model of the IRP 73 The Benefits of a Map 73 Cautions Concerning These STEPS 74 STEP 1: Define the Problem or State the Research Question 76 Select a Problem or Pose a Question That Is Complex and Requires Insights From More Than One Discipline 76 Define the Scope of the Problem or Question 77 Avoid Three Tendencies That Run Counter to the IRP 78 Disciplinary Bias 78 Disciplinary Jargon 78 Personal Bias 19 Follow Three Guidelines for Stating the Problem or Posing the Question 80 Examples of Statements of an Interdisciplinary Problem or Question 81 Note to Readers 84 STEP 2: Justify Using an Interdisciplinary Approach 84 The Problem or Question Is Complex 85 Important Insights or Theories of the Problem Are Offered by Two or More Disciplines 85 Note to Readers 86

No Single Discipline Has Been Able to Explain the Problem Comprehensively or Resolve It 86 The Problem Is an Unresolved Societal Need or Issue 86 Examples of Statements That Justify Using an Interdisciplinary Chapter Summary Notes Exercises Approach 87 89 90 91 4. Introducing the Disciplines Chapter Preview The Structure of Knowledge and Its Reflection in the Organization of the Academy Disciplines Disciplinarity Categories of Disciplines The Concept of Disciplinary Perspective Disciplinary Perspective Misconceptions About the Term Disciplinary Perspective Other Problems With the Concept of Disciplinary Perspective The Concept of Disciplinary Perspective Clarified A Definition of Disciplinary Perspective Using Disciplinary Perspectives The Defining Elements of a Discipline's Perspective Phenomena Phenomena Classified Note to Readers Epistemology The Nature and Limits of the Truth Claims Made by Major Epistemological Approaches Various Epistemologies Epistomologies of Various Theories and Schools of Thought Note to Readers Assumptions Basic Assumptions Note to Readers Concepts Theory Two Kinds of Theory The Importance of Theory to Interdisciplinary Work Note to Readers 93 93 93 94 94 94 96 96 96 99 100 101 102 105 105 107 111 111 112 113 117 119 120 120 125 126 126 127 127 128

Method 128 The Importance of Disciplinary Methods to Interdisciplinary Work 128 Various Methods 130 The Correlation Between Epistemologies and Method 137 Note to Readers 137 Chapter Summary 138 Notes 139 Exercises 141 5. Identifying Relevant Disciplines 143 Chapter Preview 143 STEP 3: Identify Relevant Disciplines 143 Identify Potentially Relevant Disciplines 143 Identify Potentially Relevant Disciplines Before Conducting the Full-Scale Literature Search 144 Identify Phenomena Typically of Interest to Disciplines 145 Draw on Disciplinary Perspectives in a General Sense 145 An Example of the Standard Way to Proceed 145 Synthesis of the Perspectival and Classification Approaches 147 Summary of How to Identify Disciplines Potentially Relevant to the Problem 148 Map the Problem to Reveal Its Disciplinary Parts 149 The Research Map 149 The Concept or Principle Map 150 The Theory Map 152 Systems Thinking and the System Map 152 Benefits to Students of Using Systems Thinking and the System Map 156 The Similarity of Systems Thinking to Problem-Based and Inquiry-Based Learning 157 How Systems Thinking Promotes Interdisciplinary Learning and Facilitates the Research Process 158 Reducing the Number of Potentially Relevant Disciplines to Those That Are Most Relevant 159 "Most" Relevant Defined 159 Three Questions to Ask to Distinguish Between Potentially Relevant and Most Relevant Disciplines 159 Applying These Questions to the Disciplines Potentially Relevant to Various Topics 160

Note to Readers 163 Applying These Questions to the Problem of Human Cloning 163 Chapter Summary 164 Notes 165 Exercises 166 6. Conducting the Literature Search 167 Chapter Preview 167 STEP 4: Conduct the Literature Search 167 Defining Literature Search 167 Reasons for Conducting the Literature Search 168 Special Challenges Confronting Interdisciplinarians 170 There Is Simply More Ground to Be Covered 170 Interdisciplinary Researchers Risk Being Seduced by What Disciplinary Experts Say 170 Interdisciplinarians Must Place the Insights and Theories of Each Relevant Discipline Within the Context of Its Unique Perspective 171 The Methods of Library and Database Cataloguing Disadvantage Interdisciplinary Researchers 171 Conducting the Interdisciplinary Literature Search 172 The Initial Search 173 The Organization and Classification of Books in Libraries 173 Direct Searching 176 Search Strategies 179 Mistakes Commonly Made When Beginning the Literature Search 182 The Full-Scale Literature Search 183 Note to Readers 184 Two Challenges of the Full-Scale Literature Search 184 Building on the Connections Discovered by Previous Scholars 188 Consulting Disciplinary Experts 188 Other Sources of Knowledge 189 Chapter Summary 190 Notes 191 Exercises 191 7. Developing Adequacy in Relevant Disciplines 193 Chapter Preview 193 STEP 5: Develop Adequacy in Each Relevant Discipline 193 Comprehending Enough About Each Discipline 193 How Much Knowledge Is Required From Each Discipline? 194

An Undergraduate Example 194 A Solo Inter disciplinarian Example 194 Examples of the Need for Varying Degrees of Adequacy 195 Note to Readers 196 Developing Adequacy in Relevant Disciplines Involves Borrowing 196 What Kind of Knowledge Is Required From Each Discipline? 197 Which Disciplinary Elements Are Applicable to the Problem? 197 What Are the Characteristics of the Problem? 197 What Is the Goal of the Research Project? 198 Developing Adequacy in Theories 198 The Reason to Understand Theories 198 Concepts and How They Relate to Theory 199 How to Proceed 199 First, Identify Theories Within a Single Discipline 199 Second, Identify Theories Within Each of the Other Relevant Disciplines 202 When to Use a Deductive Approach to Theory Selection 203 Developing Adequacy in Disciplinary Methods 204 Defining Disciplinary Method 204 Methods Used in the Natural Sciences, the Social Sciences, and the Humanities 206 The Natural Sciences 206 The Social Sciences 206 The Humanities 206 The Interdisciplinary Position on Methods 207 Adequacy in Disciplines Must Include Understanding Disciplinary Research Methods 207 Adequacy in Disciplines Includes Knowing the Interdisciplinary Position on the Quantitative Versus Qualitative Methods Debate 208 Two Misconceptions About Qualitative Research 209 Theoretical Implications of Using Qualitative Research Methods 209 How a Discipline's Preferred Methods Correlates to Its Preferred Theories 210 How to Select Methods 211 When Conducting Basic Research in the Sciences 211 When Conducting Basic Research in the Humanities 212

How the IRP Relates to the Disciplinary Method(s) Used in Basic Research 215 The Concept of Triangulation in Research Methodology 216 Deciding Which Disciplinary Methods to Use in Conducting Basic Research 217 Providing In-Text Evidence of Disciplinary Adequacy 219 Chapter Summary 220 Notes 221 Exercises 223 8. Analyzing the Problem and Evaluating Insights 225 Chapter Preview 225 STEP 6: Analyze the Problem and Evaluate Each Insight or Theory 225 Analyzing the Problem From Each Disciplinary Perspective 225 How to Analyze a Problem From Each Disciplinary Perspective 226 Examples of Analyzing Problems From Disciplinary Perspectives 228 Reflections on Analyzing Problems From Disciplinary Perspectives 232 The Problem of Personal Bias 233 Evaluating Insights 234 Disciplinary Perspective in General 234 The Theories Used in Generating Insights 239 Stating the Theory, Detecting Its Assumptions, and Identifying Its Explanatory Strengths and Limitations 239 Asking the "5 W" Questions to Evaluate the Appropriateness of Each Theory to the Problem 241 The Data Used as Evidence for Insights 244 Examples of How Supportive Evidence Reflects Disciplinary Perspective 246 Reflecting on These Examples 246 The Methods Employed 247 The Phenomena Embraced by Insights 251 Checklist for Evaluating Previous Research 255 Chapter Summary 255 Note 256 Exercises 256 PART III: Integrating Insights 259 9. Understanding Integration 261 Chapter Preview 261 What Integration Is 261

A Definition of Integration or Synthesis 262 The Controversy Concerning Integration 263 The Generalist Critique 264 Disciplinary Fragmentation 264 Epistemological Barriers 265 Conflicting Perspectives and Ideologies 265 A Variety of Possible Results 265 Preference for Theory Competition and Alternative Integrations 266 The Integrationist Case 266 Theories Supportive of Integration Prom Cognitive Psychology 267 The Development of New Models of the IRP That Feature Techniques Demonstrated to Achieve Integration 270 The Publication of Groundbreaking Integrative Work on a Wide Range of Complex Problems 270 The Insistence on the Centrality of Integration by Leading Interdisciplinary and Transdisciphnary Organizations 271 The Advantages of Integration 271 The Readily Available Tests for Selecting the Best Comprehensive Understanding 272 The Goal of Full Integration 273 Conditions Necessary to Perform Integration 274 Overcoming Monodisciplinarity 274 Perspective Taking 274 Balancing Conflicting Views 276 Holistic Thinking 277 Triangulating Depth, Breadth, and Integration 278 Disciplinary Depth 278 Disciplinary Breadth 279 Interdisciplinary Integration 280 Cultivating Seven Qualities of Mind 280 The Model of Integration Used in This Book 281 What the Model Integrates 281 How the Model Integrates 281 Contextualization 282 Conceptualization 282 Problem Solving 284 Summary of How the Broad Model Integrates 285 What the Result of Integration Looks Like 285 Integration Accommodates Epistemological Differences 286 Integration Is New and More Comprehensive 287 Integration Is "Larger" Than the Sum of Its Parts 288

The Defining Characteristics of the Result of Integration Summarized 288 Three Fundamental Questions Raised by This Discussion of the Broad Model 289 Chapter Summary 290 Notes 290 Exercises 291 10. Identifying Conflicts Between Insights 293 Chapter Preview 293 STEP 7: Identify Conflicts Between Insights or Theories and Their Sources 293 The Importance of Identifying Conflicts Between Insights 293 Where Conflicting Insights Are Located 294 Conflicting Insights Produced by Authors From the Same Discipline 294 Conflicting Insights Produced by Authors From Different Disciplines 295 Why Insights Conflict 295 Concepts Embedded in Insights 297 Assumptions 298 Organizing Disciplinary Insights 300 Theories as Sources of Insights and Conflict Between Insights 300 Theories as Sources of Insights, Concepts, and Assumptions 301 Theories as Sources of Insights 301 Theories as Sources of Concepts 302 Theories as Sources of Assumptions 302 Organizing Information About Theories 303 Theories From the Same Discipline Can Be Sources of Conflict Between Insights 306 Theories From the Same Discipline Can Be Sources of Conflicting Assumptions 309 Theories From Different Disciplines Can Be Sources of Conflict Between Insights 313 A Note to Readers About Communicating Conflicts and Their Sources 316 Chapter Summary 319 Exercises 320 11. Creating Common Ground Between Concepts 321 Chapter Preview 321 STEP 8: Create Common Ground Between Concepts and Theories 321 The Theory of Common Ground as the Basis for Collaborative Communication and Interdisciplinary Integration 322

A Definition of Interdisciplinary Common Ground 322 Common Ground Is Necessary for Collaborative Communication 323 Common Ground Requires Unconventional Thinking 324 Common Ground Is Achieved Through the Use of Language 326 Note to Readers 326 Common Ground Must Be Created Whenever Concepts or Theories Conflict 327 Common Ground Is Created by Modifying Concepts or Theories Directly or Through Their Assumptions 327 Creating Common Ground Is Integral to Preparing Concepts and Theories for Integration 328 Creating Common Ground Requires Using Intuition 329 An Example of How Intuition Helps to Achieve Common Ground 330 Creating Common Ground Plays Out Differently in Contexts of Narrow Versus Wide Interdisciphnarity 331 Creating Common Ground Is the Interdisciphnarian's Responsibility 332 Modifying Concepts and Assumptions 332 How to Proceed 333 When to Seek Common Ground 333 Decide How Comprehensive the Study Will Be 333 Decide What Common Ground Will Be Created From 334 A Best Practice When Working With Concepts and Assumptions 335 Techniques Demonstrated for Modifying Concepts and Assumptions 335 1. The Technique of Redefinition 336 2. The Technique of Extension 340 3. The Technique of Transformation 343 4. The Technique of Organization 346 The Value of These Techniques 347 Creating Common Ground When Assumed Values and Rights Conflict 348 Arguments for the Validity of These Types 349 How to Know If Insights Conflict Over Ethics 349 Creating Common Ground When Values and Ethical Positions Conflict 350 Chapter Summary 352 Notes 352 Exercises 353

12. Creating Common Ground Between Theories 355 Chapter Preview 355 Disciplinary Theories 355 A Definition of Disciplinary Theory 356 When Working With Theories Is Necessary 356 The Relationship of Models, Variables, and Causal Processes to Theories 357 Models 357 Variables and Relationships 358 Independent and Dependent Variables 358 Why a More Comprehensive Theory Includes Variables From Other Relevant Theories 359 Theories May Contain Macro- and/or Micro-Level Variables Affecting the Construction of a More Comprehensive Theory 359 Variables and Causality 361 When Theories Differ Only Minimally and Focus Instead on Process 361 Modifying a Set of Theories 364 Situation A: One or More Theories in the Set Have a Broader Range of Applicability Than Do Others 364 Identify All Variables or Causal Factors Addressed by Each Theory 364 Reduce These Variables to the Fewest Number Possible by Categorizing Them Under a Few Broad Headings 365 Determine How Many of These Categories Are Included in Each Theory 366 If No Theory Encompasses All Categories, Determine Which Theory Can Most Readily Be Extended to Do So 366 Modify the Theory by Extending Its Range of Applicability 368 Critiquing Theories 369 Situation B: None of the Theories in the Set Borrow Elements From Other Disciplines 370 Modifying Concepts Embedded in Theories 371 Modifying Assumptions Underlying Theories 372 Modifying Concepts and Assumptions 377 Chapter Summary 379 Notes 380 Exercises 380 13. Constructing a More Comprehensive Understanding or Theory 382 Chapter Preview 382 STEP 9: Construct a More Comprehensive Understanding 382

A Definition of More Comprehensive Understanding and More Comprehensive Theory 382 Unpacking This Definition 383 The Process Involved 383 Constructing the More Comprehensive Understanding From Modified Concepts 384 From the Humanities 384 From the Social Sciences 386 Constructing a More Comprehensive Theory From a Modified Theory 387 Six Strategies to Achieve Causal or Propositional Integration 388 Sequential or End-to-end Causal Integration 388 Horizontal or Side-by-Side Causal Integration 389 Multicausal Integration 390 Cross-level or Multilevel Causal Integration 395 Spatial and Analytical Integration 403 Chapter Summary 407 Notes 407 Exercises 408 14. Reflecting on, Testing, and Communicating the Understanding 409 Chapter Preview 409 STEP 10: Reflect on, Test, and Communicate the Understanding 409 Reflecting on the More Comprehensive Understanding or Theory 409 Reflect on What Has Actually Been Learned From the Project in an Overall Sense 410 Reflect on STEPS Omitted or Compressed 411 Reflect on One's Own Biases 411 Interrogate One's Own Biases 412 Check One's Work for Biases 413 Reflect on One's Adherence to a Theoretical Approach 413 Reflect on One's Limited Understanding of the Relevant Disciplines, Theories, and Methods 414 Testing the Quality of Interdisciplinary Work 414 Learning Outcomes Claimed for Interdisciplinarity 415 Cognitive Abilities Attributable to Interdisciplinary Learning Drawn From Research on Cognition and Instruction 415 Develop and Apply Perspective-Taking Techniques 416 Develop Structural Knowledge of Problems Appropriate to Interdisciplinary Inquiry 416

Create Common Ground Between Conflicting Disciplinary Insights 417 Integrate Conflicting Disciplinary Insights 417 Produce a Cognitive Advancement or Interdisciplinary Understanding of a Problem 417 Four Core Premises That Underlie the Concept of Cognitive Advancement 417 Testing or Assessing the More Comprehensive Understanding 418 The Newell Test 419 The Tress et al. Test 419 The Szostak Test 421 The Boix Mansilla et al. Test 422 Integrating These Tests 424 Communicating the Results of Integration 425 A Metaphor 426 A Model 426 Examples of Models All A Narrative 429 Examples of Narratives 429 Note to Readers 431 A New Process to Achieve New Outcomes 431 Examples of New Processes 432 A New Product 433 A Critique of an Existing Policy and/or a Proposed New Policy 433 Examples of Critiques 434 A New Question or Avenue of Scientific Inquiry 435 The Value of Communicating Back to Disciplines 435 Chapter Summary 436 Note 436 Exercises 437 Conclusion 439 Appendix 445 Glossary of Key Terms 459 References 476 Author Index 496 Subject Index 500