THE MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF EMPOWERMENT. A RESOURCE DOCUMENT Occasional Papers Series No. 26

THE MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF EMPOWERMENT A RESOURCE DOCUMENT Occasional Papers Series No. 26 Peter Oakley Andrew Clayton July 2000 INTRAC PO Box 563 Oxford OX2 6RZ United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1865 201851 Fax: +44 (0)1865 201852 E-mail: intrac@gn.apc.org Website: http://www.intrac.org Registered Charity No. 1016676

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Section 1: THE CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT Section 2: THE EVALUATION OF PROCESSES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Section 3. MONITORING AND EVALUATING EMPOWERMENT: A CASE STUDY Section 4: METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS OF EVALUATING EMPOWERMENT: LESSONS FROM THE PRACTICE Section 5: EVALUATING EMPOWERMENT: A PRACTICAL EXERCISE CASE STUDIES A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY i

INTRODUCTION The purpose of this Resource Document is to introduce key issues for development practitioners concerning the concept of EMPOWERMENT and its evaluation in order to provide resource material for workshops that might be based on the theme of Empowerment or might include it in its discussions. The Resource Document begins with a discussion of the concept of empowerment, providing an overview of various interpretations and approaches that have been developed. A series of brief case studies are presented of a number of different NGO projects that have been concerned with empowerment. There then follows a chapter which sets out basic guidelines for monitoring and evaluating social development. This will serve as a general introduction to monitoring and evaluation for those who are unfamiliar with the issues. The next section presents a detailed case study of one approach to monitor and evaluate an empowerment project. Then is a review of methods and instruments for collecting information and a detailed bibliography. Finally there is a practical exercise on the M and E of Empowerment based on four short case studies. As a Resource Document, it does not set out to provide a comprehensive review of the literature or develop new approaches to monitoring and evaluation. Nor does it suggest an a specific approach to the monitoring and evaluating of empowerment. Rather it sets out to provide readres with an overview of the common approaches to empowerment in development, key issues for monitoring and evaluating, and methods and instruments for collecting information. It is intended that readers will be able to relate the information presented in the Document to their own experiences of supporting empowerment and then develop approaches themselves assessing to what extent empowerment has taken place in relation to their own work. Different sections of the Resource Document may be more useful to some readers than others. For example, while the substantial section on evaluating social development may be less relevant to those already familiar with the issues, others may have had little previous exposure to the subject. We would suggest, however, that most readers will be in a position to draw from the established experience in the subject. The Resource Document, therefore, can be used in conjunction with the reader s own experiences in the task of both understanding the central concept and also the issues involved in its evaluation. Essentially we want to answer the question: how can we know when previously powerless, marginalised or disadvantaged groups have been empowered and thus better able to confront and deal with those forces which influence their development? So many development agencies now underline the central purpose of their work as that of empowering such groups, that it is appropriate to ask when and how can we know when this aim has been achieved. The Resource Document was prepared as the basic working document of a series of workshops on the theme that were held in late 1999 and early 2000 as part of the INTRAC sponsored Fourth International Workshop on the Evalauation of Social development. The Resource Document, therefore, is written and strutured in the style of a working document and includes not only text but also questions and acse study 1

exercises that can be sued in a workshop setting. On reflection we have decided not to exclude these important sections since they may prove useful to any organisation or group of people that also wish to use the Resource Document in a workshop. Peter Oakley INTRAC,Oxford Andrew Clayton July 2000 2

SECTION 1: THE CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT Empowerment has become a central concept in development discourse and practice in the 1990s. The notion of empowerment is widely used in the policies and programmes of both bilateral and multilateral agencies, not just NGOs. Yet it is a complex term that is not easily defined and is open to a wide variety of interpretations. Any attempt to assess whether or not a particular development intervention has empowered people must recognise this and for this reason this Document begins with a brief analysis of the concept of empowerment. There is an ever-expanding literature on empowerment. Van Eyken (1990), Friedmann (1992), Craig and Mayo (1994) and Rowlands (1997) have all examined the concept and focused on the notion of power, its use and its distribution as being central to any understanding of social transformation. This centrality includes power both in terms of radical change and confrontation and also in the sense of the power to do, to be able and of feeling more capable and in control of situations. Power is, in most contexts, the basis of wealth, while powerlessness is the basis of poverty and both the powerful and the powerless are categories of actors fundamental to understanding the dynamics of any development process. Power can be seen as an asset owned by the state or a dominant class and exercised in order to maintain its control and to stamp their authority and legitimacy. Power, furthermore, operates at many different levels and is manifest in the conflicting interests of different groups within any particular context; for example, local or regional patrons, the power that men often exercise over women and the power that institutions such as the church exercise over people. Furthermore, Rowlands (1997) distinguishes between power over, power to and power within ; while Craig and Mayo (1995) contrast the notions of power as a variable sum in which the powerless can be empowered without altering the level of power already held by the powerful, with power as a zero sum in which any gain in power by one group inevitably results in a reduction in the power exercised by others. Power is also related to knowledge, which is both a source of power and a means for its acquisition. In this respect Cornwall (1992) has argued that all development work is to do with the control of knowledge and that if the underprivileged were able to control the sources of knowledge, the structures of existing power relations would be radically altered. The following three quotations illustrate the range of meanings of empowerment in a development context.... an alternative development involves a process of social and political empowerment whose long term objective is to rebalance the structure of power within society by making state action more accountable, strengthening the powers of civil society in the management of their own affairs and making corporate business more socially responsible. (Friedmann 1992) 3

Empowerment is about collective community, and ultimately class conscientization, to critically understand reality in order to use the power which even the powerless do possess, so as to challenge the powerful and ultimately to transform that reality through conscious political struggles. (Craig and Mayo 1995) While the empowerment approach acknowledges the importance for women of increasing their power, it seeks to identify power less in terms of domination over others and more in terms of the capacity of women to increase their self-reliance and internal strength. This is identified as the right to determine choices in life and to influence the direction of change, through ability to gain control over crucial material and non-material sources. It places less emphasis than the equity approach on increasing women s status relative to men, but seeks to empower women through the redistribution of power within, as well as between, societies. (Moser 1991) Empowerment has become a major purpose of social development interventions in the 1990s. It has been operationalised into practical project methodologies and, in terms of its effect and impact, it is beginning to be translated into observable and measurable actions. Concretely people s empowerment can manifest itself in three broad areas: power through greater confidence in one s ability to successfully undertake some form of action power in terms of increasing relations which people establish with other organisations power as a result of increasing access to economic resources, such as credit and inputs. Social development as empowerment does not see poor people as deficient and needing external support; more positively, it seeks to create an interactive and sharing approach to development in which people s skills and knowledge are acknowledged. Empowerment is not merely therapy which makes the poor feel better about their poverty, not simply the encouraging of local initiatives or making people more politically aware. Similarly it does not assume that people are entirely powerless and that there do not already exist networks of solidarity and resistance through which poor people confront the forces which threaten their livelihoods. On the contrary, empowerment has to do with positive change in an individual, community and structural sense, with organisation and with negotiation. But, as Rowlands (1997) has commented, empowerment takes time and it is not a process that necessarily achieves results in the short term. As with other development concepts, such as civil society or participation, there is always a danger that the use of empowerment in the context of development interventions may be based on a superficial understanding of local relations of power. Empowerment maybe limited to little more that greater participation in project decisionmaking and have little, if any, impact on wider structural change. This has led to some concern that the use of the concept in development tends to mask the true nature of 4

power relations. A recent collection of papers by anthropologists reflects this growing scepticism about the increasing use of the concept of empowerment (Cheater 1999). James, for example notes that: Notions of sharing power, of stakeholders, of participation and representation and so on seem to refer increasingly to the self-contained world of projects themselves: the external structures of land-holding and subsistence economy which have perhaps been disrupted, of political and military formations which have shaped and still shape the forms of social life in a region, tend to fade from view in the world of development-speak. (James 1999:13-4) Much of the concern is that many development projects concerned with empowerment fail to understand and analyse the historical dynamics of local politics with its complex interplay between different local interest groups, state policy and the wider political economy (e.g. Werbner 1999, Chabal 1992). These criticisms of the current utilisation of the concept of empowerment are important to bear in mind. Yet, while James urges fellow anthropologists and other academics to distance themselves from the term, this is not a realistic option for development practitioners. Empowerment is a key objective of such a wide range of development interventions; the challenge for development practitioners is to deepen their understanding of the term, recognise its complexities, strengths and limitations, and explore how they may be able to assess whether or not empowerment has taken place. The starting point of any analysis of empowerment in development interventions has to be that the term has a diverse range of meanings associated with it. Like participation and civil society, empowerment is a motivational concept which evokes a wide range of different responses among different groups. It is important to seek to understand how different organisations have used the term empowerment, and what type of empowerment they have sought to bring about. With this in mind we present a number of short case studies taken from the practice, which illustrate how a number of different development agencies have tried to promote empowerment within the context of a development project. Together the three case studies provide a broad spectrum of interpretations of empowerment and help us to understand the very broad nature of its meaning. Case Study 1 Empowering Communities: The Kebkabiya Project in West Sudan This case study provides an example of project-centred view of empowerment. The Kebkabiya Project is essentially a food security project, but Oxfam have seen the project as part of process of community empowerment, hence the title of the book based on the project is Empowering Communities. As is shown in this brief case study, the use of empowerment in this project is very much in terms facilitating the participation of communities, and especially women, in project decision making and by Oxfam itself being prepared to relinquish control to the KSCS. 5

The Kebkabiya project in West Sudan emerged out of the Oxfam relief programme in West Sudan following the 1984 famine. It represented a shift from relief to development and the main objective of the project was to increase food security in the communities around Kebkabiya. The project was initially managed directly by Oxfam, but later a local organisation, the Kebkabiya Smallholders Charitable Society (KSCS) was created which gradually took over the management of the project. The initial objective of the project was to establish 12 seedbanks and the first phase of the project enabled Oxfam staff to gain a clearer sense of other perceived problems in the communities in the area. The second phase of the project began in 1989 introduced additional components to address these problems, notably animal health, animal traction, pest control, soil and water conservation and community development. The key organisational change in the management was that while overall co-ordination of the project was done by Oxfam staff, this was done in conjunction with a new democratic structure of community representation, the Village Centre Committees. Each village from a group of five to twelve villages elected one man and one woman to represent it on a the Village Centre Committee. In turn, each Village Centre Committee elected one man and one woman to a Project Management Committee. In 1990 the PMC decided to register as an independent organisation and the Kebkabiya Smallholders Charitable Society (KSCS) was created. It is a membership organisation drawn from the communities in which the project has been working. In 1992 KSCS held a constitutional workshop which set out society s system of community accountability, and formalised the representational structure that had been introduced in the project; i.e. each village sending a male and female representative to the VCC etc. During the 1990s the process began by which Oxfam began to hand over direct control of the project to the KSCS. For Oxfam, the project represented a successful example of how an Oxfam managed food security project was transformed into a project in which local communities have become increasingly involved. Whereas at the start of the project, local people, particularly women, had little if any say in project decision making, the project is now under the management of KSCS. Democratic structures have been put in place, notably through the creation of the KSCS, which have improved the accountability of project management to the community. From the perspective of the Oxfam staff involved in the project, this has resulted in community empowerment. (Source: P. Strachan with Chris Peters, Empowering Communities: A Casebook from West Sudan, Oxfam 1997) 6

Case Study 2 Empowering the Landless: Case Studies in Land Distribution and Tenure Security for the Poor This report examines the experiences of Christian Aid (a British NGO) and its partners in working for a more just system of land distribution in Brazil, the Philippines and Mozambique. In this report, empowerment is seen in terms of securing access to land for poor people and providing them with the means to farm it productively and sustainably. This is based on the belief that land is crucial for poor people living in rural areas in order to secure and sustain their livelihoods. The case studies outlined in this report show how Christian Aid and its partners have worked with poor people in improving their access to productive land. 1: Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais sem Terra (MST), Brazil. MST defines itself as a mass social movement of landless rural workers who seek access to land, and campaign for agrarian reform and broad political changes in Brazilian society. Between 1991 and 1997 MST helped 600,000 landless people gain land, build houses and start schools. It has done this through a strategy involving three stages: firstly, MST identifies land that is not being used for production and attempts to negotiate for the use of the land. If this fails a large number of people occupy the land and build a camp; secondly, usually the owners, police and judiciary attempt to evict them but MST attempts to resist this eviction or be allowed to be transferred to other similar land. The support of churches, trade unions, urban movements and NGOs is important during this stage; thirdly, MST works with the land trying to make it more productive, building roads, schools, health facilities etc. In addition to this form of direct action, MST along with many other groups is campaigning for agrarian reform in Brazil. In doing so it has recognised that this is not isolated from wider macro-economic challenges confronting Brazil. While Brazil has paid huge amounts on debt repayment over the last five years, rural development budgets have been cut and there is increasing poverty in rural and urban areas. 2: Mapalad Farmers, the Philippines. The Mapalad farmers have been involved in a long-running legal dispute with a local landowner concerning 144 hectares of land in the southern Philippines. Although the land was allocated to the farmers under the government s Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Programme (CARP) this allocation has been fiercely contested by the landowner who has successfully appealed against the ruling and prevented the farmers from occupying the land. This situation is seen as a test case of the government s commitment to land reform, and the farmers have been supported by a churches and NGOs. Christian Aid has been involved through its partner Balay Mndanaw Foundation Inc (BMFI). BMFI has offered the farmers legal advice, access to a other actors in civil society and moral support. This case showed the power of rural and urban elites, as well as some government officials and members of the judiciary, in protecting their privileges and manipulating existing laws and policies to their own advantage. Christian Aid and BMFI see their role as one of working with the Mapalad farmers, and others, in order that they may be empowered to counteract the strategies of the land-owning elites. 7

3. Smallholder land security in Mozambique. In Mozambique, Christian Aid has supported small farmers in protecting their existing access to land in the face of outside speculators and developers. With the ending of civil war and economic liberalisation has created a land rush for the more economically valuable land in Mozambique. There have been examples of farmers being evicted from their lands while in other cases people have returned from refugee camps only to find their land occupied by others. In response, the Christian Council of Mozambique set up an organisation, ORAM, to work with smallholder farmers associations in defending their land rights. In 1995 the government began the process of creating a new land law and a Land Commission was established. ORAM and UNAC (National Peasant s Union) managed to get places on the commission and lobbied on behalf of peasants rights. In doing so they encountered strong opposition from powerful interest groups lobbying on behalf of commercial and political interests, which sought to undermine the status of peasant land rights in the new law. The new law was finally passed in 1997 in a form that did include many of the peasants demands on protecting their rights. For ORAM and Christian Aid, the new law does in principle empower peasants in the sense that their claims to land are now protected by law. However, the work for ORAM continues since the passing of the new law is only the first stage and many difficulties are likely to arise during implementation. These case studies reflect the dynamic, even perilous, nature of empowerment in the context of land reform: For these landless people there has been a continuous struggle for land reform. All have involved victories and setbacks and in all three countries, the farmers and NGOs concerned have been met by strong opposition from established elites. In each case, local level action has been supported by national level campaigning and lobbying on land reform and even the macro-economic policy. Empowerment clearly does not end with a change in the law or approval of access to land. These are only the beginnings of a process of achieving secure, productive and sustainable livelihoods. (Source: M. Whiteside, 1999, Developing good practice discussion series, Christian Aid) Case Study 3 Health Promoters Training Programme, Urraco, Honduras This case study examines women s empowerment in the context of a health promoters training programme in Honduras. This particular programme was set up in Urraco in 1985, with support from an American NGO who provided a volunteer and funding for programme activities. Although the programme was not set up initially with the specific aim of empowering women, both the American volunteer attached to the programme and some of the co-ordinating team have increasingly seen the programme as essentially about women s empowerment. Yet as the case study shows, there was no clear strategy in the programme for facilitating the empowerment process and as a result the programme made only limited progress. The programme provided a two-year course to train members of local communities in preventative health and basic treatment. The course is organised around study circles in 8

26 communities, and involve weekly meetings for about two hours each and monthly sectoral meetings when all the groups meet together to discuss a common theme. Eighty women have been trained as health promoters over a three and a half-year period. Other women have been actively involved in the programme through providing meals for malnourished children, craft work and goat projects. There is a co-ordinating team of five women who work full time on the programme, and who are each responsible for three to six of the study circles. In her analysis of this programme, Rowlands (1997) has explored empowerment at three levels: personal: developing a sense of self confidence and capacity relational: developing the ability to negotiate and influence the nature of a relationship and decisions made within it. collective: where individuals work together to achieve a more extensive impact, such as forming a co-operative or involvement in political structures. Personal empowerment. Women who had joined the study circles they had experienced an increase in self-confidence and self-esteem as a result of participation in the programme. Furthermore they also highlighted the importance of learning new skills through the programme, such as diagnosing common medical conditions and treating them, checking their children s nutritional status etc. A few had even managed to get employment. The sense of personal empowerment was particularly marked among those women who were members of the co-ordinating team. In particular they had been given the opportunity to attend meetings and courses in other parts of Honduras and even abroad, which had enable them to look beyond their traditional position within the home. Empowerment in relationships. Some women who have been involved in the programme stated that their relationships with their husbands and families changed. They have noted such changes as more involvement in decision making on money matters, greater freedom of movement around their communities, improved treatment by their husbands and they, in turn, have been more conscious of improving their relationships with their children. Collective empowerment. There was little evidence to suggest that the study circles themselves had led to any collective empowerment. Some activities were undertaken as a group but this did not result in the groups becoming more able to organise collectively in order to meet their needs or gain more access to economic, social or political power. However, there was some evidence of collective empowerment among the co-ordinating team. For example, they were now running the programme without the support of an American volunteer and they were also involved in networking with other organisations in the country. The main achievements of the health programme in terms of empowerment have been at the personal level whereas, outside of the co-ordinating team, there has been only limited empowerment at the relational or collective level. Rowlands identifies a number of factors which may have worked against the empowerment process: 9

the programme has been structured around a two year training programme which has meant that many women see it only in terms of learning a finite set of skills and have not been motivated to build on the programme to undertake further activities; women were not led to challenge the social, political and economic relationships which underpin health provision; the focus on training health promoters has limited the number of women who can participate; the methodology used for the training did not encourage women to develop their own themes and agendas, nor learn from their own mistakes; a number of cultural and local factors may also have limited the process of empowerment through the programme. (Source: J. Rowlands Questioning Empowerment, 1997) Discussion of Case Studies These three case studies reflect very different notions of empowerment. In the case of the Kebkabiya project, community empowerment is seen very specifically in terms of increasing the role of the community in managing the project. This is a rather narrow view of empowerment which makes little reference to the wider social and economic context and how the empowered communities engage with this. The case study from Honduras looks beyond the immediate project and stresses the importance of women s empowerment in terms of building up their self-confidence and self-esteem. However, like the Kebkabiya project, the empowerment of women involved in the Uracco project has not extended to their broader political and economic rights. By contrast, the Christian Aid land reform studies do provide examples of broader processes of empowerment. Landless people have successfully struggled for access to productive land, while in Mozambique, the new land law has recognised the demands of peasant farmers. Furthermore, while the Christian Aid supported campaigns had a clear objective from the start of empowering the landless through campaigning for their land rights, in the case of the other two projects, empowerment was not the initial objective but rather has been added-on later. They have been far less politically controversial because unlike the land reform campaigns they did not attempt to redistribute control over productive resources. The fact that the concept of empowerment is open to such wide interpretation presents particular challenges for evaluating the impact of empowerment processes. In particular, there is the issue of whether or not empowerment is assessed in relation to the specific project objectives, however limited these may be. For example, a starting point could be to undertake the assessment within the project framework, i.e. what are the empowerment objectives of the project or other type of intervention, and to what extent have they been achieved. Yet an alternative starting point is to firstly undertake an analysis of local power structures in order to highlight which factors have been most significant in creating conditions of powerlessness among poor and marginalised people. 10

This would allow more critical and demanding questions to be asked of the any empowerment process that a development agency has started. For example, while the Kebkabiya project appears to have made significant process in achieving its objective of empowering communities through involving them in project management, the project report makes no reference to the engagement of these communities with wider political and economic structures in Sudan. While participation in project decision making is an important development in itself, it is only so within the context of the project. As the quote from James (1999) above noted, many development agencies see empowerment only in terms of the self-contained world of projects, yet in doing so they underestimate or ignore much deeper power structures which have a much greater bearing on peoples lives. In assessing empowerment resulting from development interventions, it is important to undertake both. Firstly, the intervention can be monitored against its original objectives. But in order to understand whether or not the intervention has had any long-term impact a much wider assessment of local power structures will be needed. The need to understand discrete development interventions in the context of wider social change is central to approaches to evaluating social development. While acknowledging the complexity of assessing social change, there has been much innovation, experimentation and learning in development organisations over the last decade or so in evaluating social development interventions. It may be useful to recap on the main lessons that have emerged from these experiences. THE DIMENSIONS OF EMPOWERMENT Psychological Self-image and Identity Creating Space Acquiring Knowledge Social Leadership in Community Action Action for Rights Social Inclusion Literacy Organisational Collective Identity Establishing Representative Organisation Organisational Leadership Cultural Redefining Gender Rules and Norms Recreating Cultural Practices Economic Attaining Income security Ownership of Productive Assets Entrepreneurial Skills Political Participation in Local Institutions Negotiating Political Power Accessing Political Power CONCLUDING COMMENT 11

There can be no doubting the widespread use of, and the commitment to, a process of empowerment in many development interventions. However, it could be argued that in the past five years or so this commitment has run into difficulties. There is evidence that many development projects, which placed empowerment to the forefront of their objectives, have become frustrated by their inability to monitor and explain the process and thus evaluate its outcomes. In this respect it is important in this workshop to come firmly to grips with the concept - and the process involved - and to be able to use it analytically to explain the dynamics of the contexts in which these projects take place. With this in mind, it would be useful if in our discussions we could focus on a number of key questions: 1. In the context of development projects which are intended to empower the poor, what are the key characteristics and factors in the project context that we will need to identify and explain if we wish to understand the dynamics of power? 2. What are the key political, social and economic differences between those with power and the powerless within a particular development context? 3. What are the main characteristics of powerlessness that will have to be addressed if a development project is concerned to empower local people? 4. What do you think would be the key elements in any development intervention designed to empower the poor? These and other questions constitute the initial contextual analysis of power which must be undertaken if we are to be able to assess to what extent a particular project has changed the locus, pattern and distribution of power. All too often development projects seek to assess to what extent they may, or may not, have influenced the power equilibrium in a particular context, but most are unable to do so for lack of an initial contextual understanding. The purpose, therefore, of the first session of the Workshop is to construct such an analysis and to ensure that we have a framework for understanding and assessing the notions of power and powerlessness in the immediate and wider project context. 12

SECTION 2: UNDERSTANDING THE MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF PROCESSES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT The measurement of the effectiveness of a development intervention to promote empowerment requires an appropriate monitoring and evaluation system. In order to be able to do this effectively, it is important to set out clearly the general lessons that have been learnt in monitoring and evaluating social development interventions. This is the purpose of the section and is intended for those participants who are not familiar with the recent literature and conceptual and practical advances in the field. The emphasis is upon a minimum but effective system which has as its objective the generation of a sufficient, but not an exaggerated, amount of data and information which would allow a development agency to have a reliable understanding of the output, effect and impact of processes such as empowerment that it is supporting. It is in this area that most of the interesting work on M and E is currently taking place. Essentially in the past decade there has emerged an alternative to the more conventional quantitative and results orientated approach to project evaluation. It is within the framework of this alternative model that we must seek guidance on how to approach the issue of the M and E of as process of empowerment. The increasing emergence of a has begun to show us how we might go about the M and E of these qualitative process and this section will examine this new model of project evaluation. MONITORING AND EVALUATION: AN INTRODUCTION It should be standard practice among development organisations, including NGOs, to monitor and evaluate the outcomes, effects and impact of all their programmes and projects. This applies as much to capacity-building programmes and other social development interventions as it does to programmes with more quantifiable objectives, but the task is more difficult. The key issue is how to measure qualitative change using a method that is not too time-consuming and demanding, and which provides useful, accessible information for decision-making. It is important to recognise how monitoring differs from evaluation, since the two terms are often used together or synonymously. The essential difference between the two is that while monitoring is a continuous assessment and is an integral part of project management, evaluation is carried out periodically, both by project staff and beneficiaries and, at times, with the help of external teams. While monitoring ends on the completion of a project, evaluation may be undertaken over a much longer time frame; for example, an evaluation of the impact of a rural development project may be carried out several years after its completion. 13

There is no single definition of monitoring and evaluating nor standard procedure for carrying it out. Nevertheless, some common features can be identified in the literature on programme monitoring and evaluation systems. Some definitions of monitoring and evaluation are presented here, all of which are taken from some of the key manuals for practitioners on monitoring and evaluating development programmes and projects (with emphasis added). Monitoring is a continuous assessment both of the functioning of the project activities in the context of implementation schedules and of the use of project inputs by targeted populations in the context of design expectations. It is an internal project activity, an essential part of good management practice and therefore an integral part of day to day management. (Casley and Kumar 1987:2) Monitoring is the in-built mechanism to check that things are going to plan and to enable adjustments to be made in a methodological way. (Oxfam 1995: 413) Monitoring is the systematic and continuous assessment of the progress of a piece of work over time. (Gosling and Edwards1995: 81) It will be clear from these quotes that the two main features of any monitoring system are firstly, that it is an integral part of project management, not something done by an external team, and secondly that it is a continuous, on-going process for collecting, storing, analysing and using information. Evaluation, by contrast, is not an integral part of programme or project management. Evaluation is a periodic assessment of the relevance, performance, efficiency and impact of the project in the context of its stated objectives. It usually involves comparisons requiring information from outside the project - in time, area or population. (Casley and Kumar 1987: 2) An evaluation is the assessment at one point in time of the impact of a piece of work and the extent to which stated objectives have been achieved. (Gosling and Edwards 1995: 89) Broadly speaking, there are two main approaches to monitoring and evaluation. (i) The first can be called the orthodox or blueprint approach. This is the approach that most development agencies have traditionally followed; a detailed monitoring system, including the selection of indicators, is set up before the implementation of the project, and serves as the basis for monitoring for the duration of the project. While this approach is appropriate for monitoring the physical input and output of projects, it has major limitations when monitoring broader social development objectives, including capacity-building. 14

(ii) An alternative process approach to monitoring has been developed in the past decade or so which is less prescriptive and more flexible and adaptable. Rather than define all the elements of the monitoring system at the start of the project, the system develops and evolves out of the on-going experience of implementing the project. Monitoring and evaluation should cover the output, outcome and impact of the intervention. It might be useful to examine the terms outcomes and impact. The evidence suggests that development agencies in general are stronger on issues such as outputs, effort and activities, but less strong when it comes to determining what has been the result of all the endeavour. Also we should bear in mind that, while local people may be involved in definition, terms such as outcomes and impact often come from the perspective of donors; however, understanding the change which has taken place from the perspective of the people involved will be more relevant. POINT OF MEASUREMENT WHAT IS MEASURED INDICATORS Outputs Effort Implementation of Activities Outcomes Effectiveness Use of outputs and sustained production of benefits Impact Change Difference from the original problem situation While initially M and E will involve a detailing of effort expended and a description of activities undertaken, the crucial first stage in measurement will be to assess what has been the outcome of the project in terms of the effect it has had on the initial situation. By effect we mean the more immediate tangible and observable change, in relation to the initial situation and established objectives, which it is felt has been brought about as a direct result of project activities. In the overall process of M and E, impact assessment is the last stage and it is rarely reached. In the first instance it is important not to confuse impact with effect ; the latter refers to the more immediate outcome brought about by an intervention, the former to the longer term change. Impact refers to the consequences or end products which result, either directly or indirectly, from an intervention and on which can be placed an objective or subjective value. Furthermore, we must also bear in mind that impact can also be negative as a result of unexpected consequences of the development intervention. For example, credit programmes targeted at the poor, can often concentrate on the more credit worthy and thus end up exacerbating poverty and differentiation. Both monitoring and evaluation provide a means of measuring the effectiveness of programme interventions in order to make both long-term and short-term management decisions. A monitoring system provides both the necessary information for project management decision making and also an on-going assessment of how the project is developing. The type of information required will be dependent on who needs it. At a project or programme level, management decisions will require detailed information on the progress of the project, while the regional office or international headquarters may only require more abstract, aggregated data. An effective monitoring system at the project level should provide a continuous record of the progress of the project. 15

Evaluation is dependent on the monitoring system in place - a good monitoring system will provide the information which will form the core of any evaluation. However, additional information may also be required in undertaking an evaluation. Monitoring and evaluation should indicate whether the project is being implemented as planned. Each project and programme should have defined objectives in terms of outputs, effect and impact. The primary purpose of monitoring is to check whether or not the project is on course to meet these objectives and, if not, to take the decision to modify the project or review the objectives. Monitoring and evaluation should identify problems or difficulties in the implementation of the project. An analysis of the information obtained as part of the monitoring process should indicate problems or difficulties that have arisen in the project, thus allowing project management to take appropriate action to overcome these. Monitoring and evaluation should account for resources used. One of the functions of monitoring is as a system of accountability for funders, whether these be government agencies, NGOs or individuals. Basically, the monitoring system will show how much money has been spent and how it has been spent. In many organisations, this is usually considered the most essential and necessary function of monitoring. Monitoring and evaluation should check whether assumptions made at the planning stage are still valid. Project planning depends on an initial assessment and assumptions about local conditions, both social and physical. Monitoring can provide a mechanism for testing the validity of these and if necessary, providing alternatives which can be fed back into project implementation. Monitoring and evaluation should assess whether the project continues to be relevant to the needs of the beneficiaries. A comprehensive monitoring system should keep track of the needs of the people for whom the project or programme is intended to assist. This will help to ensure that the project continues to be appropriate and focused. THE OVERALL M and E SYSTEM The building of an overall framework of the process, stages and tasks of evaluation is a critical first step. However, the framework has got to be more than a paper exercise at central level; it has to be operationalised at the project level. The lack of an overall framework can be and often is the major obstacle for initiating M and E. The framework to which we are referring has several main components: structure, methods, indicators, data storage and retrieval and analysis and interpretation. Already there is evidence that development agencies are formalising these frameworks into Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation Systems (PME) which can be highly structured, not always easy to follow at a glance and begging the question of how they would be 16

operationalised at the project level. Smillie (1995) has warned of the blueprint approach to project evaluation, particularly with respect to the Log Frame as a means of structuring evaluation activities; and Blankenberg (1995) refers to the genuine fear on the part of development agencies that such systems might become top-heavy and not justify the expenditure. Essentially we are looking for some evidence of an overall view of the evaluation exercise, that its various stages have been contemplated and that there is a notion that the exercise will lead to more than cataloguing effort and output. It is important to avoid situations where evaluations are undertaken as impromptu, one-off exercises with little sense of overall planning or direction. The notion of an overall framework is particularly critical in the unfolding, process nature of social development evaluation. Increasingly, therefore, development agencies are building their project evaluation activities into institutionalised systems and moving forward on that basis. In a review in 1995, PLAN International examined the systems of a number of agencies using six key criteria: process elements, outputs, management, users, linkages and technical aspects. The review provided ample evidence of the growing tendency to build M and E into existing project planning systems and also to structure evaluation activities in a more consistent manner. There is, however, no notion of some form of universal M and E system for social development; indeed there is a remarkable range of approaches each geared to the particular nature and demands of the agency operating them. Essentially such systems follow the broad contours of the evaluation sequence which formed the basis of the case studies examined at the 1992 Amersfoort Workshop PREPARATION - EXECUTION - REPORTING - REFLECTION - with the introduction of more formal and standard institutional principles and procedures at the different stages. The increasing interest in such systems can be attributed partly to the nature of social development. Conventional and largely quantitatively orientated evaluations are more concerned with inputs and outputs and are usually able to measure these using quantitative research methods. Social development evaluation, on the other hand, is not amenable to such limited methods and demands an approach which is more wide-ranging and capable of picking up and explaining the qualitative change which may have taken place. It is to be expected, therefore, that as development agencies and particularly NGOs actively promote social development they will need to develop accordingly their M and E capabilities. There would appear to be a direct relationship between the growing influence of social development and the increasing sophistication of M and E. A detailed examination of a number of social development M and E systems reveals the following as the kinds of broad principles which underpin them: the system should be minimum but cost-effective, it should be intelligible to both staff and project partners at all levels and should not require onerous and unnecessary reporting; 17

the system should be designed in such a way that it is able to develop the reflective and analytical capacities of those involved and not merely result in the mechanical undertaking of pre-programmed activities; the system should be able to feed consistent, quality information on output, outcome and impact into the (annual) project cycle both for accountability and learning purposes leading to the ongoing adaptation of plans and objectives; the system should emphasise decision-making and analysis and not merely be geared to the collection of information and data; the system should be based on the assumption that change as a result of social development may be unpredictable and that its evaluation, therefore, cannot always be based on predetermined expectations of likely outcomes; the system should also be based upon as wide an involvement as is realistically possible and necessary and one which values the contributions of the various stakeholder groups; it should recognise gender diversity and should seek to ensure that both women and men are able to contribute; the system should recognise that the most crucial aspect of the M and E of social development is monitoring and should emphasise this function as opposed to the exposte evaluation approach; finally the system should acknowledge the value of alternative sources of information, both oral and visual, and of the perceptions of local people who have not been directly involved in the project. The above principles are, of course, far easier to express than to build into a commonly understood and used M and E system. Within most conventional understandings of a Project Cycle, M and E inevitably appears in the latter stages and, accordingly, is affected by the inconsistencies and difficulties of the earlier stages. Problems such as external influences, intended and unintended outcomes, the tangible and the intangible and the potentially conflicting roles of the operating agency and the donor, can all contribute to a complex and unpredictable scenario in which the system is functioning. While there would be fairly widespread recognition and solidarity with the above kinds of principles, there is little evidence that they have been widely employed in the practice of social development evaluation. Although some might argue that, by definition, such systems are anathema to social development evaluation which should be as unstructured as possible, it is difficult to avoid the need for a framework which will produce, on a consistent basis, the continuous understanding of the unfolding process. INDICATORS A major operational breakthrough of the past decade has been development agencies increasing familiarity with and apparent use of qualitative indicators in the evaluation of 18