EthicsinGraphicDesign: ACalltoArmsforanUndergraduateCourse AThesisSubmittedtotheFacultyoftheGraphicDesignDepartment inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe DegreeofMasterofFineArts SavannahCollegeofArtandDesign By EileenMacAveryKane Savannah,Georgia August2010
TableofContents Abstract...5 Thesis...7 Introduction...7 Legalities...13 Integrity...15 Morality...21 Conclusion...31 RecommendedCurriculum...33 Notes...35 Images...42 Bibliography...50 AppendixA...57 AppendixB...89 AppendixC... 104 AppendixD... 109
ABSTRACT Thesisstatement Arequiredcourseaboutethicsingraphicdesigninundergraduategraphic designcurriculumwillhelptocreateinformedandresponsiblegraphicdesignersas wellasestablishstrategicandcriticalthinkers. Overview Thecontextofresearchlooksatcontemporaryissuesofethicsingraphic design.twoareasdirecttheresearch:1)whataretherulesofconductthatguide graphicdesignersintheirpractice?2)whatdoes rightconduct mean,practically, morally,andphilosophically? Researchincludesanassessmentofundergraduategraphicdesign curriculumacrossthenation,asurveyofundergraduatestudentstakinggraphic designcourses,andinterviewswithgraphicdesigneducatorsandpractitioners. Basedonthisresearch,relevantcontentforacourseaboutethicsingraphicdesign isexploredthroughthreedifferentlenses:legalities,integrity,andmorality. Resultsoftheresearchsuggestthatthereisavoidinundergraduategraphic designeducationintheareaofethicsingraphicdesign;studentsareunclearabout manyimportantethicalissuesingraphicdesignandgraphicdesigneducatorsand practitionersseeawidevarietyofimportantissuesrelatedtoethicsingraphic designthatstudentscanexpecttofaceduringtheircareers. 5
Thisthesissuggeststhatwecanusethreedifferentlensestoexploreand discussethicsingraphicdesigncurriculum:1)legalities therulesthatgovernthe professionincludingcopyrightlaw,piracy,plagiarism,fairuse,andphoto manipulation;2)integrity principlesofrightconductincludingspecwork,crowd sourcing,andresponsibilitytoclientsandcontracts;3)morality thegeneral natureofmoralchoicestobemadebyapersonincludingsustainability,social awareness,andculturalinfluence. Conclusion Currentgraphicdesigncoursestouchuponsomeoftheethicalissuesthat studentswillfaceduringtheircareers.however,includingarequiredcourse devotedentirelytoethicsingraphicdesignwillprovidestudentswithasolid frameworktopracticetheirprofessionresponsiblyandultimatelycreatestrategic andcriticalthinkers. 6
THESIS Introduction InThankYouForSmokingthemaincharacter,NickNaylor,aspokesmanfora tobaccocompany,states, Myjobrequiresacertain...moralflexibility. 1 Whileevery professionmustdealwithethicsinitsparticularfield,graphicdesignersaretrained to makethingslookgood. Theverynatureoftheircoremissioninherentlylends itselftoacertain moralflexibility. AnthonyGrayling,ProfessorofPhilosophyat BirkbeckCollege,UniversityofLondon,andaSupernumeraryFellowatSt.Anne s College,Oxford,England,thinksthataskinggraphicdesignersnottopersuadeislike askingfishermennottofish it swhattheyaretrainedtodo. 2 Sincegraphicdesigneducationcameintothemainstreaminthe1980s,the corecurriculumhasincludedcourseslike2ddesign,drawing,typography,and production.graduateswerepreparedtocreatelayoutsandproducemechanicals andspectype.inmorerecentyearsthoseskillshaveevolvedtoinvolvedigital technology.currentcourseofferingsincludecoursesinbusinesspractices, entrepreneurship,andsocialresponsibility.whilethesecoursesmaytouchupon someoftheethicalissuesingraphicdesign,theydon tofferanin depthlookatthe fullscopeofissues,andtherearestillnorequiredcoursesthatdealdirectlywith thistopic. Graphicdesigneducatorsareraisingacalltoarmstocreatecriticaland strategicthinkersandtocreaterealworldexperiencesforstudents.inscott Boylston spaper TeachingTowardanEthicalLegacyinGraphicDesign, he 7
discussescreatingprojectsthatforcestudentstoconsidertheintegralrolethatthe visualworldplaysininfluencingpeople sopinions.currentconversationsingraphic designandgraphicdesigneducationcenteraroundtransitioningfromthe traditionalroleofservicingconsumerismtocreatinggraphicdesignwithinthe themesofsocialresponsibilityandsustainabilitywhilecreatingstrategicand criticalthinkers.designprofessionalsanddesigneducatorsalikeacknowledgethat graphicdesignhasbeenundergoingaprolongedidentitycrisisinregardstowhom itshouldserveandtowhatend. 3 AtAIGA s(americaninstituteofgraphicarts,the professionalassociationfordesign)2009make/think,designprofessionals, educators,andstudentsgatheredtoexplorethewaysthatdesignersfocusbothon makingbeautifulthingsandonthinkingaboutproblemsstrategically.integralto thisdebateisthediscussionabouttherolethatgraphicdesignersplayascultural influencersversustheresponsibilitytheybear.withthisinmind,acourseabout ethicsshouldbealogicalcomponentoftheireducation. Historically,graphicdesignhasbeenanagentofmoralandethicalthought. FromthecodeofHammurabitoilluminatedmanuscriptstothebroadsheetsusedto spreadthewordofmartinluther,graphicdesignhasbeenusedtovisually communicatebeliefsandideas toinform,inspire,anddelight.duringthemiddle Agescampaignslikearsmoriendiweredesignedspecificallytoinfluencethe behaviorofindividuals,inthiscaseurgingthoseontheirdeathbedfromthebubonic plaguetoleavetheirmoneytothechurch(fig1).sovietpropagandaproducedby artistslikeellissitskywhofullysupportedthegovernmentaftertherussian 8
revolutionpracticallyrewrotesoviethistory(fig2).morerecentlytheobama brandingcampaignhasbeendeemedoneofthemostsuccessfulbranding campaignsforapoliticalcandidateandcause(fig3). Despiteitshistoricalroots,graphicdesignisinitsinfancyintermsofbeinga recognizedprofessionand,assuch,islessthan100yearsold.itwasnotidentified until1922whenwilliamaddisondwigginscoinedthetermgraphicdesignto describehisactivitiesasanindividualwhobroughtstructuralorderandvisualform toprintedcommunications. 4 Duringthemid twentiethcenturygraphicdesignwas referredtoascommercialart,anddesignerslikepaulrand,saulbass,andmilton Glaserprovedthatgooddesignaddedvaluetoproductsandservices.Consequently graphicdesigngrewinnotoriety.theibmlogodesignedbypaulrandisone exampleofthepowerfulbrandidentitiesthatwerecreatedduringthisera(fig.4). Throughoutthistimeperiod,schoolsspecializingingraphicdesignwereborn,and thegraphicdesigncurriculumwasdeveloped. Overtheyearstherequiredcourseshavechangedtorespondtotechnology andcontemporaryculture,butthereisstillanoticeablelackofcoursesaboutethics ingraphicdesign.resultsfrominterviewswithgraphicdesigneducatorsand practitionersaboutwhattheyperceivetobethemostimportantethicalissuesin graphicdesigntodayrevealthemyriadofopinions.whenaskedwhatthemost importantissueisthathethinksgraphicdesignstudentswillfaceintheircareers, author,artdirector,andeducatorstevenhellerresponded, Interestingquestion. Theanswerisnotspecific.Everyindividualwillfacedifferentconcerns.Somewill 9
beaskedtoserveaclienttheymightnotlikeoraproducttheymightnotcarefor, whileothersmightbefacedwithwhetherornottoundercutacompetitor.there arenouniversalanswers. 5 Heller sanswerspeakstotheheartoftheissue. Researchconductedthroughemail,phone,andsocialnetworkingsiteswithover60 graphicdesignprofessionalsandeducatorsaskingthemwhattheythinkisthemost importantissuefacinggraphicdesignstudentsyieldedavastseaofanswers. Includedamongtheissuesnamedwerecopyright,non paymentforservices,font licensing,specwork,crowdsourcing,corporatesponsorship,workingforsomeone youdon tlikeorwhoseproductorserviceyoudon tbelievein,andsustainability. (SeeAppendixA) Ironically,despitesuchalonglistofissuesthatcomeupwhendiscussing ethicsingraphicdesign,undergraduatecoursesdirectlyaddressingethicsin graphicdesignaresorelylackingwithingraphicdesigncurriculum.perhapsthe reasonthatethicsisnotarequirementinundergraduategraphicdesigncurriculum isthatitopensupapandora sboxofissues.asurveyoftwentydifferentnationally recognizeddesignschoolsshowsthatacourseaboutethicsingraphicdesignisnot partofstandardgraphicdesigncurriculum.coursesinsustainability,socialchange, andbusinesspracticesingraphicdesignareofferedatsomeschoolsaselectivesand focusondifferentaspectsofethicsingraphicdesign,buttherearenorequired coursesthatdirectlyaddressthefullspectrumofethicsingraphicdesign.(see AppendixB)Whenaskedwhatthebiggestissuegraphicdesignstudentswillfacein theircareersis,aigamedalistandprofessormeredithdavisofnorthcarolinastate 10
Universityresponded, thetopicisenormous,entirearticleshavebeenwrittenon justoneareaofethicsingraphicdesignalone. 6 Davis statementechoesthefindings oftheresearch;thereisahugespectrumofethicalissuesthatgraphicdesign studentswillencounterduringtheircareers.thenumberofdifferentissuesraised bygraphicdesigneducatorsandpractitionersvalidatesthatethicsisanimportant topicinthefieldofgraphicdesignandwarrantsacoursedevotedentirelytoit. InherarticleforCommunicationArts, WhereOurWildThingsAre Part1, Graphicdesignethicsinanageofexacerbation, brandstrategist,designer,and authordkhollanddiscussestheuglytruthaboutdesign taboos workon speculation,plagiarism,piracy,workforhire,stocklogos,cronyism,unsustainable design andhowtheyarebeingbrokendaily.hollandsays, whatisexacerbatingis thatnotonlyarethesetaboosbeingbroken,butthatthereisno CodeofEthics promotedbyaiga. 7 HollandgoesontosaythatAIGAhasanonlinedocument,the StatementofProfessionalStandards, thatoutlinesbusinesspracticesand addressessomeissuesofethicalnaturebutexcludesandskirtsothers. 8 Holland assertsthat studentswithnoprofessionalexperiencearedauntedby professionalismanddon tunderstandtheimportanceofprofessionalstandards.it needstobebroughtaliveforthem. 9 TheplethoraofissuesraisedinHolland s articlesoundsacalltoarmsforacourseinethicsingraphicdesignand considerationthatthediscussionandexplorationofthewiderangeofethicalissues thatgraphicdesignersfaceshouldbearequiredcomponentintheeducationofa graphicdesigner.thiswillnotonlyraiseawarenessandunderstandingofthese 11
importantissues,butitwillalsocreateadialogueamongourfuturedesign professionalsthatwillenhancetheirabilitytobestrategicandcriticalthinkers. Thetopicofethicscausesdiscomfortamongpeoplebecausethere safeeling thatit ssomethingweshouldsomehowalreadyknowthathastodowiththevalues ofrightandwrongthatwe vebeenbroughtupwith.inhisbookmoralimagination, MarkJohnsonstatesthatwewouldbemorallyirresponsibletothinkandactasifwe possessauniversalreasonthatgeneratesabsoluterules,decision making procedures,anduniversalorcategoricallawsbywhichwecantellrightfromwrong inanysituationweencounter. 10 AccordingtoJohnson,absolutemorallawsignore what strulyimportantabouttheconceptofmorality,toachieveimaginative dimensionsofmoralunderstandingthatmakeitpossibleforustodeterminewhat s reallyimportantinanygivensituationorrelationshipandtomakewisedecisions accordingly. 11 Theabilitytoreachthesedecisionsrequiresexploration,discussion, andimagination. Ifwebeginbydefiningethicsaccordingtothedictionary,wecanstartby lookingatethicsas therulesorstandardsgoverningtheconductormembersofa profession. Anotherlistingdefinesethicsas asetofprinciplesofrightconduct. Lastly,thedictionarydefinesethicsas thestudyofthegeneralnatureofmoral choicestobemadebyaperson. 12 Usingthesedefinitionsasastartingpoint,wecan usethreedifferentlensestoexploreanddiscussethicsingraphicdesign: 1) legalities therulesthatgoverntheprofession copyrightlaw, piracy,plagiarism,fairuse,photomanipulation 12
2) integrity principlesofrightconduct specwork,crowdsourcing, responsibilitytoclientsandcontracts 3) morality thegeneralnatureofmoralchoicestobemadebya person sustainability,socialawareness,culturalinfluence. Obviously,theseareasoverlap.Photomanipulationinvolvesmoralchoicesas wellasissuesofintegrity.violatingcopyrightlawhasclearlegalconsequences; however,it salsoamatterofintegrityifgraphicdesignersareawareofcopyright lawsandsimplychoosetoignorethem.asthenatureofethicsisnotstrictlyblack andwhite,itwouldbenearlyimpossibletolookatethicsthroughasinglelens withoutrespectorcarefulconsiderationofitsrelationshiptoallareasofethics. Legalities Onewouldthinkthatlegalitiesingraphicdesignwouldbefairlyblackand white. Rightconduct isgovernedbylawinmostcases.however,evenherethere areissuesofdebate.traditionalcopyrightlawsgrantexclusiverightsofownership for50yearsandofferprotectiontocopyrightowners.larrylessig,copyright lawyerandchairofcreativecommons,haschallengedtheselaws.hecontendsthat currentcopyrightlawsareantiquatedandoutofsyncwithcontemporaryculture. 13 Hesuggeststhatcurrentcopyrightlawactuallycreatesacultureoflawbreakersand thatalternativeoptionsforlicensingimagesandothercreativecontentwillcreatea culturethatismorelikelytocomplywiththelawandprotectartistsinsteadof creatingacompletedisregardforcopyrightlawandtheconsequencesthatensue. 14 13
Inadditiontocopyrightlawandfairuseissues,fontlicensing,softwareend userlicensing,piracy,plagiarism,andcorrectimageusagearesomeoftheother legalissuesthatgraphicdesignersneedtobeawareof.whenundergraduate graphicdesignstudentsansweredasurveydesignedtogaugetheirknowledge aboutethicalissuesingraphicdesign,theresultsshowedthattherearemanyissues theyknowlittleornothingabout.questionsconcerninglicensingfonts,reading termsandconditionsforeulas(enduserlicenseagreements),andcorrectimage useallshowedthatahighnumberofstudentsareunsureandunclearaboutthese issues.ofalltherespondents,59%ofthestudentsanswered sometimes when askediftheyonlyuseproperlylicensedfontsand16%saidthattheydidn tknow whatthismeant.whenaskediftheyreadthelegalcopyoneulas,54%answered sometimes. Whenaskedifit soktouseimagesthattheyfindongoogle,23% answeredwith Idon tknow. (SeeAppendixC)LisePrown,Professorof IntroductiontoDigitalArtatMountSt.Vincent,Bronxville,NY,statesthatinher experiencestudentshavenoideawhatcorrectimageuseis. 15 Sheteachesthemhow touseflickrandcreativecommonsandhowtotellifimagestheygrabcanbeused. Shealsodiscussestheimportanceofteachingclientsaboutimageuse. 16 Graphic designstudentsneedtothinkandactresponsibly.iftheyaretaughtaboutthefull scopeofethicsingraphicdesignandincorporatethesepracticesintotheir coursework,thenlaterthetransitiontotheirprofessionalworkwillbeaneasyone. Whengraphicdesigner,educator,author,andAIGAGoldMedalistEllen Luptonwasaskedforapersonalstoryaboutethicsingraphicdesign,shesharedher 14
experienceofbeingaskedbyalawyerfortheassociatedpresstobeanexpert witnessintheshepardfaireycaseandhisuseoftheapphotointheobamahope Poster. 17 Thecasehasbeenoneofthemostfamousexamplesof fairuse andit s beenhotlydebatedastowhetherornotfairey sposterwasindeedfairuseofthe photoorcopyrightinfringement.luptondecidednottotestifybecauseshefeltthe casehadtoomuchmoralambiguity. 18 Shesaidthatwhenitwaslaterdiscovered thatfaireyhadliedaboutwhichimagehehadused,theissuebecamefarless ambiguous. 19 Lupton sdilemmapertainstoanareaofethicsingraphicdesignthatis notclearlyblackandwhite.thelinesbetweenappropriation,fairuse,andcopyright infringementaregreyandcaneasilyshift.alackofunderstandingorawarenessof whatthelawsandstandardsarecanmaketheissueevenmoreconfusing.the legalitiesandstandardpracticesforthesetopicsaswellasotherrulesofconductin graphicdesignarereadilyavailablethroughnumeroussources:books,websites, andeulas.aigaoffersguidelinesforalltheseissuesonitswebsite. Graphicdesign students,aswellasprofessionals,needtobemadeawareofboththepresenceand contentoftheseresources. Integrity Anareainethicsingraphicdesignthatisalsofilledwithshadesofgreyis integrity.issuesofintegrityincludeworkingonspeculation,corporatesponsorship, certification,andoneofthehottesttopicsbeingdebatedamonggraphicdesigners today crowdsourcing.thegeneralconceptofcrowdsourcing,though,doesn t 15
applyonlytographicdesign.inessence,crowdsourcingisanysortofoutsourcing thatinvolvesalargegroupofpeopleactivelyparticipatingintheproject. 20 Inthe graphicdesignindustry,whatitmeansinpracticaltermsisthatsiteslike Crowdspring.comandElance.comhaveapoolofgraphicdesignerswhocompete againsteachotherbybiddingforprojects.withcrowdspring,graphicdesigners producetheworkandpresentitforconsiderationtotheclient,andthentheclient picksthedesignhe/shelikesbestandsubsequentlypaysonlythatdesigner.the resultsofthisareobvious it sdoingworkonspeculation andgraphicdesigners whoseworkdoesnotgetpickedgetnocompensationatall.withelance,graphic designersposttheirratesforservices,inessenceunderbiddingeachothertoobtain work.becausethisisaglobalarena,designersarenotonlycompetingagainsteach otherwithintheirsameeconomicenvironment,buttheyarealsocompetingagainst thevalueofthedollar.proponentsofcrowdsourcingarguethatit safreetrade systemandactuallygivesyoungdesignerswhodon thaveabigclientlistor portfoliofilledwithworkachancetobejudgedonmeritalone.inanarticlefor CommunicationArts,creativeartsmanagementconsultantDavidBakersays, Ihave aclientwith64employees,allbut4ofwhomareincolombiadoingweb developmentforfortune500companies.allthewhilemakingroughlyone thirdof whattheiru.s.counterpartsmake,andtwicewhattheirfellowcitizensmake. 21 Bakerassertsthatcrowdsourcingwillbeaself selectiveprocessandthatclients withsmallbudgetswillusecrowdsourcingandallowdesignerstoconcentrateon clientsthatvaluetheirservices. 22 Bakerandotheradvocatesforcrowdsourcing 16
believeitwillchangetheplayingfield,anddesignerswillbevaluedforstrategicand creativethinking,nottheproductionoflogosandotheroutputthatwillbecome commoditizedandproducedthroughmethodslikecrowdsourcing. Ontheoppositesideoftheargument,manygraphicdesignersalongwith AIGAaretakingahardstandagainstcrowdsourcingandspecwork.AIGAhas publishedtheirstanceonlinewheretheydetailtherisksinvolvedforbothdesigners andclientswhentheyengageinspecwork. 23 Designersriskbeingtakenadvantage ofaswellasnotbeingpaidfairlyoratallfortheirservices.clientsrisk compromisedqualitywhenresearch,thedevelopmentofmultipleoptions,andlack oftestingandprototypedevelopmentfallbythewayside.bothpartiesfacelegal risksaswellshouldaspectsofintellectualproperty,trademarkandtrade dress infringementsbecomeafactor. 24 Despitebeingatopicofsuchhotdebateamonggraphicdesignprofessionals, whenundergraduategraphicdesignstudentsweresurveyed,nearlyhalfofthem didn tevenknowwhatworkingonspeculationmeans. 25 Theotherhalfwerealmost evenlysplitbetweenthinkingit sacceptabletoworkonspeculation,it snot acceptable,andthatitdependsonthecircumstances. 26 Corporatesponsorshipisanotherissueofintegritythatgraphicdesign studentsmaynotbeawareof.usedbyeducationalinstitutionsasanalternate streamofrevenue,corporatesponsorshipsallowprivateindustrytobuythenaming rightsforclasses.proponentsclaimthatitallowsthemtokeepclassesrunningand thatthecorporationsrarelygetinvolvedindefiningcurriculum. 27 Criticscontend 17
thatitcompromisestheintegrityofthecurriculumandendsupservingasan endorsementforproductsandservices. 28 TheUniversityofWisconsinatMadison offersdoctorsandotherhealth careprofessionalsanonlinecontinuing education courseonmenstrualdisordersthatisfundedbythepharmaceuticalgiantbayer. Whiletheclass'stitledoesn'tcarryBayer'sname,thecompany'sdrugsare mentionedinthecourse,andtheschoolfullyacknowledgesthearrangementin coursematerials. 29 GraphicdesignerandeducatorRobynWaxmanwasappalled whenthegraduategraphicdesignprogramatcaliforniacollegeoftheartsasked thatshegiveintelcorporationnon exclusive,perpetual,irrevocable,royalty free, fullypaiduplicenseunderallofhercopyrightandtradesecretrightsinandtoany ofherideas,creationsorcopyrightedworkscreatedbyherasastudentduringa requiredcourseintheprogram. 30 Whensherefusedtosigntheagreementshewas forcedtoleavetheclass.themostsurprisingthingtoherwashowanxiouslyand enthusiasticallyherclassmatessignedthewaiverandgaveawaytheirlicensing rights. 31 Ifstudentswereknowledgeableaboutthefullimplicationsoftheiractions andthattheywereactuallysigningawaytherightstotheirownartworkatthe financialgainofthecorporationwithnoneforthemselves,theymightnotsignso readily. Anotherissueofintegrityiscertification.Canada,Switzerland,andNorway aresomeofthecountriesthatoffercertificationforgraphicdesigners.itiscurrently atopicofdebateamonggraphicdesignersintheunitedstatesandhasbeenforover adecade.artdirectorandgraphicdesignprofessorgreggbernsteinstates, Ithink 18
certificationisbestreservedtofieldsanddisciplineswherethereisasubstantial safetyorlegalrisktobeingimproperlytrained.medicine,law,psychology, psychiatry,buildingtrades:donepoorly,theriskhereissignificant.anuncertified graphicdesignermightmakeapoordesign,butpooralignmentneverharmed anyone. 32 DKHollandfeelsthatcertificationwouldbeawasteoftime.Shefeels theremayhavebeenatimewhenitwouldhavebeenuseful,butwearepastthat. Shesays, certificationwon taddanyvaluetotheroleofagraphicdesignerorhelp withthecurrentproblemsoflackofrespectforwhatwedo. 33 EllenLuptonand StevenHellerarebothopposedtocertification.Luptonfeelsthatdesignisawayof thinkingandworkingthatisaccessibletoeveryone. 34 Hellerbelievesthatthereis nowaytocertifyadesigner. 35 Thevariedresponsesfromthesedesignersandthe senseoffutilityconveyedbythempointstotheimportantneedforaninformed discussionaboutitintheclassroom. Proponentsofcertificationfeelthatattheveryleastitestablishesa minimumstandardofprofessionalismandminimumlevelofperformanceregarding businessprocedures,education,skill,andethicalbehavior. 36 Certificationdoesnot stopanyonefromdesigningbutratherrecognizesacertainlevelofprofessionalism withintheindustry.inontario,graphicdesignersreceivethedesignation RegisteredGraphicDesigner (RGD)uponpassinganexamination.Aquarterofthe examevaluatesknowledgeofprofessionalconductstandards.thecurriculumin Ontariodesignschoolspreparesgraduatestopasstheexam.(SeeAppendixD) DavidBerman,graphicdesignerandauthorofDoGoodDesign:HowDesignersCan 19
ChangetheWorld,feelscertificationalsohelpstoprotectsocietyfromthedamages ofpredatorypersuasionandexploitativedesignmuchthesamewaythat certificationofarchitectsprotectsagainstbuildingsthatcouldfalldown. 37 AmongtheotherswhosupportBerman scallforcertificationisrichard Farson,authorofthebookThePowerofDesign:AForceforTransformingEverything. Farsonassertsthatwhenonethinksofaprofession,oneimaginesthatthosewho practiceitwouldputhumanitarianissuesfirst. 38 Hestatesthatpeopleseek professionals advicebecausetheytrustthattheirjudgmentisbasedonthatspecial kindofwisdomthatcannotbeexercisedinbusiness. 39 Farsonandhisproponents believethatdesignersaredrivenbytheneedsofbusinessandsolveproblemsthat areclient basedwithshorttermgoalsratherthantakingaholisticapproachthat looksatthesystemswithlongtermgoalsinmind. 40 Somefeelthatthepursuitofa terminaldegreeinthefieldofgraphicdesign,anmfa,supportsthisgoal,butothers feelcertificationwillyieldgreaterethicalresponsibilityacrossawiderfieldof practitioners. 41 Graphicdesignstudents thoughtsaboutcertificationreflectthe opposingopinionsamongeducatorsandprofessionals;theyarealmostevenlysplit onthetopic.when48undergraduatestudentsweresurveyed,25saidtheythink graphicdesignersshouldbecertifiedwhile23saidtheythinktheyshouldnotbe certified. 42 Ifstudentshadtheopportunitytofullyunderstandtheimplicationsof certification,thesenumberswouldreflecttheopinionsofamoreinformed audience. 20
Inadditiontospecwork,crowdsourcing,corporatesponsorships,and certification,therearemanyotherissuesinvolvingintegrityinthefieldofgraphic design.kickbacks,designplagiarism,clientspayingforservices(orrefusaltopay forservices),cronyism,andethicaltreatmentofemployeesareallissuesthe studentscanexpecttoface.industryprofessionalsgaveaccountsaboutgraphic designersstealingfellowdesigners workandpresentingitastheirown,being askedtocreatemarketingmaterialsfor theboss wife, havingtheirworkused withoutpermissionorcompensationbyrespectedorganizationslikethemuseumof ModernArt,havingtotestifyincourtaboutkick backs,andevenhavingaclient refusetopayover$40,000indesignfees. 43 Withsomanyissuesandtopicsdealing withintegritythatgraphicdesignersexperienceduringtheircareers,itmakessense topreparestudents. Morality Oneofthebiggestquestionswhendiscussingethicsingraphicdesigniswhat good designmeans.inthe20 th centurygraphicdesignbecameavaluedtoolfor corporateamerica.thiswasexemplifiedwhenibmlegendthomaswatsonjr.gave alectureatthewhartonschoolofbusinessandcoinedthephrase GoodDesign MeansGoodBusiness. 44 Designersweregenerallyseenastoolsofcapitalism. Creatingbrands,packaging,andmarketingforconsumergoods,graphicdesigners becameanintegralpartofthefreemarketsystembycontributingtothecreationof wealthinsociety.freemarketsupportersbelievethatthiswillcreatepeaceful 21
relationsandmoralbehavior.infact,alangreenspan,americaneconomistand chairmanoftheu.s.federalreserveboardfrom1987to2006,thoughtthatfraud shouldn tbetheworryofregulators. 45 Headvisedthatifsomeonecommittedfraud, thebusinesscommunitywouldpoliceitselfbyanaturalprocessofselectionby refusingtodobusinesswiththatperson. 46 Hebelievesthatthefree marketselfcorrects. 47 Intoday seconomicandpoliticalenvironment,thispolicyisthoughtby manytobeacompletefailure.opponentsfeelthatunbridledspendingandgreedy consumerismhasledoursocietytothestateofrecessionwherewefindourselves today. 48 Thefree marketsystemisseentobecontradictorytoissuesof sustainabilityandencouragingsocialandcommunityawareness. Anotherdefinitionofwhat gooddesign meansspeakstotheresponsibility thatdesignershaveformakingthingsbeautifulinordertoimpactourqualityoflife. Throughoutthecourseofhistory,thecreationofarthasbeenessentialtohuman survival.inherbookwhatisartfor?authorellendissanayakewritesthatartis usedforfunctionalsocialmotivationsandeffects. 49 Showingone ssocialor professionalposition,asinabusinesscard,orillustratingimportantmythsor preceptsbyattractingattentionandconveyinginformationtakesformwith aestheticelements.evolutionarybiologistsagreethattheartshavesurvivalvalue. 50 Thereisoverwhelmingevidencethatpeopleeverywhereexpressandrespondtoart anddesign.designermiltonglasersaysthattheultimatechallengefordesignersis tocreatebeautiful,notjustsustainable,design.glaser,alongwitharthistoriansand scholars,believesthatwearesecretlychallengedtorespondtobeautyasaspecies; 22
beautyisthemeansbywhichwemovetowardsattentivenessthatprotectsour speciesasasurvivalmechanism.creatingartanddesignisasintrinsictohuman beingsasspeechandtoolmaking.glaserthinksthatultimatelyit stheresponsibility ofthegraphicdesignertoinformanddelightbycreatingbeautifuldesigns. 51 AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishdictionary good means ofhighqualityor acceptablestandard. 52 Howisthismeasuredingraphicdesignandhowdoesone determinewhatthevalueofapieceofdesignis?graphicdesignersareresponsible tomanypeople.likeeveryoneelse,graphicdesignershavecontractualduties, dutiestoclients,tostakeholders,tocolleagues,tothemselves,totheirwork,and lastly,tosocietyatlarge.aregraphicdesignersultimatelyaccountableforhowthe worktheyproduceaffectspeople slives?aretheyaddingunnecessaryinterruption topeople slivesorhelpingsomeoneinsomeway?whereandhowdographic designersdrawtheline?whatiftheyarefacedwithworkingforaclienttheydon t agreewithorfiringstaffifturningdownajobmeansnotenoughworktokeep everyoneemployed? Issuesofmoralityarerarelyblackandwhite,andthatisoftenwhatmakes manypeopleanxiousabouttheethicsofmoralityandwhatdefines gooddesign. AnthonyGraylingfeelsthatacodethatsays thoushalt and thoushaltnot is inflexibleandfitsawkwardlywithreallife. 53 Graylingstatesthattodeviseanethical codefordesignersonewoulddobettertogiveexamplesofwhataresponsibleand well intentioneddesignerwoulddo. 54 Thetraditionalpictureofmoralityisrulefollowing,whichresultsindeeptensionsforpeoplebetweentheirinheritedviewof 23
amoraltaskandthemoraldilemmastheyactuallyexperience. 55 Alistofstrictrules hasprovenverydifficulttoobserveinpractice,whichisalwaystheproblemwith top downethics.thealternativeideaofa wayofbeing isbottom up,whichrests onindividualsbeingconsciousoftheirinvolvementinsocietyandtheimpactthey haveonit. 56 RichardHolloway,formerChairoftheBritishMedicalAssociationSteering GrouponEthicsandGeneticsandBishopofEdinburgh,iscurrentlyChairofthe ScottishArtsCouncil.Hollowayfeelsthatwhatmayservegraphicdesignbestin termsofethicsisanethicofservant hood,basedontheideathathelpingother peopleisagoodthingtodo. 57 ThisisbasictoChristianity.Godcomesamongusnot tolordoverusbutasaservant toamplifyourlivesandmakeourlivesmore abundant.hollowayfeelsthisisawonderfulethicforanypublicservant,including graphicdesigners. 58 Hecanseewhereitmaybeaconflictfordesignerswhostrive tobeuniqueandbreaknewground. 59 Ifgraphicdesignersapproachtheirwork morelikejournalism togettothetruth,todescribeevents,andtodelightothers withtheirprose itcanbecomeanart,somethingsuperiorbyvirtueofthemystery ofgrace. 60 Designingforsocialresponsibilitycorrelateswithideasofservant hood,and somedesignschoolsareteachingcoursesthatfollowthisthinking.injanuary2009, HartfordArtSchoolProfessorNatachaPoggioandateamofsixartanddesign studentstraveledtoabheypur,indiatoimplementthe WaterforIndia sanitation campaignaspartnerstotheworksoftheengineerswithoutbordersstudent 24
ChapterattheUniversityofHartford. WaterforIndia aimstoconveythe importanceofcleanliness,sharing,andrespectforwaterresources.duringthe Januarytrip,theteampaintedamuralatthegirls primaryschool(fig.5)and distributedcoloringbookswithsanitationtipsaswellast shirtswiththecampaign logo.whatbeganasanassignmentinthespringof2008foraclasscalled Issuesin Design grewintoanongoingeffortafterreceivingfeedbackfromabheypur s villagers.sincethestartoftheproject,thestudentsworkedonthiswide reaching effortcollaborativelywithotherdisciplines,teammembersandcultures.the studentsandprofessorpoggiohavecontinuedusingdesignasawaytoeducateand empowerpeople.thesocialconsciousnessandawarenessofthoseinvolvedgrew throughtheprocessofresearchandlearningtodesignforamoreuniversal audience.theeffortcontinuedinthenextsessionof IssuesinDesign inspring 2009,wherethestudentsworkedonanewwellnesscampaigndesigning kangas (traditionalcottongarmentsthatsub Saharanwomenwear)forlocalcommunities inthelakevictoriaregionofkenya.professorpoggiocontinuestoteach Issuesin Design alongwithaspecialtopicsclasscalled DesignGlobalChange (DGC),which focusesonglobaldesignprojects. 61 WhenAnthonyGraylingwasaskedwhetherornothethinksgraphicdesign isaboutmanipulation,hesaidthatgraphicdesignstemsfromtheartofrhetoricand wasdevelopedinclassicalantiquitywhenoratory,orverbaleloquence,wastheonly meansofconveyinginformationandpersuadingpeopletoseeacertainpointof view. 62 Nazidesignwasanexampleofthisatitsworst(Fig.6).It sgenerallyagreed 25
thatthenaziregimeuseddesigntotremendouseffect.onatechnicallevelitwas extremely good design.however,oncepeopleconsiderwhattheirdesign represented,it smuchmoredifficulttorefertothedesignas good. Inhisbook IronFists:Brandingthe20th CenturyTotalitarianState,authorStevenHellerasks, howdidapracticeasvileasbrandingbecomesovalued,indeed,theverymarkof value? 63 Hellerwriteshowinthepastbrandingwasusedforslavesandcriminals. Today,citiesandcollegeshavejoinedtoothpastesandsoftdrinksinthebattlefor brandloyalty. 64 Hellercomparescorporatebrandingstrategies slogans,mascots, jinglesandtherest tothoseadoptedbyfourofthemostdestructive20th century totalitarianregimes:fascistitaly,nazigermany,thesovietunionunderleninand Stalin,andMao schina.hellerassertsthatdesignandmarketingmethodsusedto inculcatedoctrineandguaranteeconsumptionarefundamentallysimilar. 65 Artist,designer,andeducatorLouisTomainohasservedasaprojectdirector attheinstituteforlearningtechnologiesatcolumbiauniversity'steacherscollege. Whenaskedwhathefeelsthebiggestethicalissueisthatgraphicdesignstudents willface,tomainorespondedwith theirroleindefiningsociety,culture, civilization. 66 Inhisinterviewhepointstomanywaysthattheintersectionof cultureandtechnologyhaveputusatriskinlosingtouchwithauthenticityand valuableexperiencesthatkeepusconnectedtoourhumanity. 67 Tomainofeelsthat theconstantandnownearlyubiquitousbroadcastingoftheinternetandtelevision inhibitspeople sabilitytothinkverywellorrelaxinameaningfulway. 68 Hegoeson tosaythatthisbroadcastdefinessocietyandstillsitspositiveandcreativeevolution 26
bysubstituting metaphorically sawdustfortheexperienceofaforest,and actually thelightofthecolorsofacommercialonascreenfortheexperienceof sunonthewallandfloor,aplacewherenewideasmaybewrittenbythemind. 69 Theissueofthedesigner sroleindefiningsocietyandplacewithinitwasalso raisedbyrobynwaxmanwhosaid, mybiggestethicalissueconcernswhetheriam braveenoughorcareenoughtofollowthattrailofmanufacturingtolearnthatthe productorserviceiamabouttopromoteistheverythingthatunderminesmeand whaticareabout. 70 TheissuesthatTomainoandWaxmanraisespeaktotheheart ofwhatmanythinkofwhentheterm ethics isused howgraphicdesignaffects humanity. Sustainabilityisanothertopicthatmanygraphicdesignersfeelisanissueof ethicsbestviewedthroughthelensofmorality.whentheconceptofcreatingecofriendlydesignfirstcametotheforefrontmorethanadecadeago,issuesaboutthe toxicityofinkandpaperandthesheerquantityofpaperproducedwereraised. We vesincelearnedthatthere smuchmoretothelifecycleoftheproductsthat graphicdesignershelpproduce.toreallydeterminethesustainabilityorcarbon footprintofaproduct,oneneedstofollowitthroughitsentirelifecycle(fig.7). Howmuchfuelisbeingusedforshipping?What sthefinalendproduct?howlongis thelifecycle,andhowlongbeforetheproductendsupaswaste?ingreengraphic DesignauthorBrianDoughertyasksgraphicdesignerstostartattheendofthe processinsteadofthebeginning.designersshouldimaginethebestpossibledestiny forthedesignandvisualizetheprocessofeveryphasefromthefinaldestinationof 27
theproductattheendofitslifecyclebacktothedesignstudio.furthermore,they shouldconsidereverythingfromthetimeofitsultimatedisposaltoitsconception includingtransportation,warehousing,production,andmanufacturingthatmay preventgreensolutionsfrombeingimplemented. 71 Whencompaniesclaimtobeeco friendlybasedonamyopicviewof sustainabilityandwithoutlookingatalltheimplicationsoftheiractions,theymay endupbeingguiltyofgreenwashing thepracticeof spinning theirproductsand policiesasenvironmentallyfriendly,suchasbypresentingcostcutsasreductionsin useofresources. 72 Unlikeothertopicsviewedthroughthelensofmorality, sustainabilityinvolvesbothapointofviewandsetofvaluesalongwithmeasurable actionsthatgraphicdesignerscantake. TheconceptofthebookandmovementCradletoCradle:RemakingtheWay WeMakeThingsisthatit snotenoughforusto reduce,reuse,andrecycle as environmentalistsurge.authorswilliammcdonoughandmichaelbraungart explainhowproductsneedtobedesignedfromtheoutsetsothataftertheirlives theywillprovidenourishmentforsomethingnew. 73 They vespentthepastdecade workingwithclientstocreatesystemsthatembodythisconcept.theyfeelthat whendesignersemploytheintelligenceofnaturalsystems theeffectivenessof nutrientcycling,theabundanceofthesun'senergy theycancreateproductsand systemsthatallownatureandcommercetofruitfullyco exist. 74 Thisimportant conceptcouldbeusedbygraphicdesignersintheirpractice.thediscussionand 28
explorationofhowtoimplementtheseconceptsintotheirworkwouldbeextremely beneficialtographicdesignstudents. Onlinetherearenumeroussitesthatfocusonsustainabilityandsocial responsibility.websiteslikerenourishandlovelyasatreearedesignedtohelp graphicdesignerspracticesustainabilitybyprovidingresourcesandinformation abouthowtoworksustainablyandevenhowtheycangreentheirownstudio.the LivingPrinciplesforDesignwebsiteissponsoredbyAIGAandwasintroducedat theirconferenceinmemphisin2009.it saresourceforsustainabilitytheoriesand practices.thegoalofthissiteistolookatsustainabilityholistically environmental protection,socialresponsibility,equity,andeconomichealth andmakeit accessible,relevant,andactionable. 75 IDEO(aninnovationanddesignfirmthatuses ahuman centereddesign basedapproach)isanotherresourcethatgraphic designerscanlooktoforadvisementaboutissuesconcerningsocialresponsibility. TheHumanCenteredDesignToolkit isafreeguidethatwascreatedbyideofor NGOs(non governmentorganizations)andsocialenterprisesthatworkwith impoverishedcommunitiesaroundtheworld.thetoolkitwasdesignedtohelp organizationsfindsolutionsthatareinnovativeandmeetthesecommunities needs withfinancialsustainabilityinmind. 76 Thesedaystheproblemisnotnecessarilyalackofinformation:it smaking suretheinformationisreceived.despitethefactthatthisinformationisreadily availableonline andforfree whengraphicdesignstudentswereaskedhow importanttheythinksustainabledesignis,almosthalfanswerednotimportantat 29
all,somewhatimportant,orthattheydon tknowwhatsustainabledesignis. 77 Even morealarmingisthatmorethanhalfofthestudentssurveyeddidnotknowwhat greenwashingmeansandlessthanaquarterofthemdidnotfeeldesignershavea responsibilitytoeducatetheirclientsaboutgreenwashingiftheyfeelit sanissue withaprojecttheyareinvolvedin. 78 Anotherquestionthatneedstobeaskedwhenlookingattheethicsof graphicdesignthroughthelensofmoralityis theright behaviorforagraphic designerwhendealingwithclients.somefeelstronglythatit sagraphicdesigner s jobtocommunicatetheclient smessagetothetargetaudienceratherthanpresenta personalagenda.forgraphicdesignersworkingonprojectsthatinvolvepoliticsand religionoftennecessitaterepresentingaclientwithanopposingpointofviewfrom theirown.somewouldarguethatprofessionalismcallsforgraphicdesignersto representtheirclientsregardlessoftheproductorservices.thetopicbecomeseven morecomplicatedwhenlookingattheconsequencesinvolvedwhenturningwork downifthedesignerdoesn tnecessarilysupporttheclientandtheclient sproduct orservices.wheredoesonedrawthelineaboutwhetherornotitsgraphic designers moralresponsibilitytokeeptheiremployeesandworkonsomething theydon tnecessarilyagreewithortoletthemgo,adverselyaffectingtheirlivesas welltheirfamilies?shouldtheyrefusetoworkfortheclientortakethejobforthe sakeoftheiremployees?coca ColaCompanyislocalin206countries,morethanthe UnitedNations(Fig.8).Theyhave700,000employees,50millionretailers,and50 millioncustomersallovertheworld. 79 CriticsofCoca Colacondemnthecompany 30
forencouragingaconsumerculturethatisunhealthyandeconomicallydrainingon individuals.indogood:howdesignerscanchangetheworld,authordavidberman talksabouthowcokehasbrandedthenationoftanzania.inthe1990stheytook careofalloftheirroadsignageandincludedthecokebrandoneverysign.insome partsofafrica,cokeisconsideredmedicinalandthepriceofabottleofcokeisthe sameasananti malarialpill.whilecokeisthebestsellingdrinkonthecontinent,a millionafricansdieeachyearofmalaria. 80 Butimaginetheeconomicimpactand subsequentrepercussionsonthelivesofthoseemployedbythecompanyifcoke suddenlydisappeared.whenlookingatissuesofmoralresponsibility,it srarely blackandwhite.theconsequencesofallactionsneedtobeconsidered. Conclusion Studentsdoknowthatgraphicdesignersplayanimportantroleindelivering visualcommunication.whensurveyed,over75percentofstudentssaidthatthey thinkgraphicdesignershavealargeofimpactonconsumers buyingdecisions. 81 Theyknowthattheirroleisanimportantoneininfluencingbehavior,buttheydon t appeartoknownearlyasmuchabouttherulesofconductforgraphicdesigners. InherarticleforCommunicationArts, WhereOurWildThingsAre Part1, DKHollanddiscussesthe1990sPBSroundtableseries EthicsinAmerica andhow televisionjournalistfredfriendlywouldopeneachepisodebysaying Ourpurpose isnottomakeupyourmindforyou,buttomaketheagonyofdecision makingso intense,youcanonlyescapebythinking. 82 Wedon tnecessarilywanttocauseour 31
designstudentsagony,butwedowanttomakethemthink.arequiredcoursein ethicsingraphicdesignwouldprovidestudentswithadedicatedforumtoexplore anddiscussthefullspectrumofissues,learntherulesofconductintheirprofession, andhelpthemdeterminewhattheirownbehaviorshouldbe. 32
RECOMMENDEDCURRICULUM CourseTitle:EthicsinGraphicDesign CourseLevel:Junior/SeniorLevel Pre requisites:historyofgraphicdesign,graphicdesigni&ii CourseDescription:Thiscourseexplorestopicsconcerningtheethicsofgraphic design.twoareaswillguideourinquiry:whataretherulesofconductthatguide graphicdesignersintheirpractice?whatdoes rightconduct mean practically, morally,andphilosophically? CourseObjectives: Studentstakingthiscoursewill: 1. Learnabouttheethicalissuesfacinggraphicdesigners 2. Learntoidentifyandrecognizeethicalissues 3. Articulate,communicate,andpresentwell informedideasabouttheseissues 4. Arriveatawell informedandintellectuallycomplexunderstandingofthese issues 5. Researchtopicsandofferwell informedresponsesverballyandinwrittenform CourseOutcomes:Todemonstratemasteryofcoursegoals,studentswill: 1. Completequizzes 2. Respondtocoursetopicsthroughthoughtfulwrittenanalysis 3. Articulateresponsesverballyinclassdiscussions 4. Workcollaborativelyingroupstoresearchandpresentonanassignedtopic 33
5. Craftaresearchpaperonatopicofchoice KeyTopics: Definingethicsingraphicdesign Copyright FairUse Fonts SoftwarePiracy Plagiarism ImageManipulation WorkonSpeculation Crowdsourcing Cronyism/Kickbacks ResponsibilitytoClient Professionalism/Certification Sustainability CradletoCradle Greenwashing SocialResponsibility MassConsumerism Branding/BrandStretching CulturalInfluence 34
NOTES 1. ThankYouforSmoking, IMBD, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0427944/quotes(accessedjune2010). 2. LucienneRoberts,Good:EthicsofGraphicDesign(Lausanne,Switzerland: AVAPublishingSA,2006),92. 3. ScottThomasBoylston,TeachingTowardanEthicalLegacyinGraphic Design(Melbourne,Australia:CommonGroundPublishing,2007)166. 4. PhilipMeggs,HistoryofGraphicDesign(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons, 2006),ix. 5. StevenHeller,AppendixA,72. 6. MeredithDavis,AppendixA,75. 7. DKHolland, WhereOurWildThingsAre Part1:Graphicdesignethicsin anageofexacerbation, CommunicationArts(March/April2010)18. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. MarkJohnson,MoralImagination:ImplicationsofCognitiveSciencefor Ethics(Chicago,IL:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1993),5. 11. Ibid. 35
12. Dictionary.com,s.v. ethics, Dictionary.com, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ethics(accessedmarch13,2010). 13. TedTalks, LarryLessigonlawsthatkillcreativity, TedTalks, http://www.ted.com/speakers/larry_lessig.html(accessedmarch24,2010). 14. Ibid. 15. LisePrown,AppendixA,65. 16. Ibid. 17. EllenLupton,AppendixA,71. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. About.com, WhatisCrowdsourcing? About.com, http://webtrends.about.com/od/glossary/a/what_is_crowdsourcing.htm(accessed March10,2010). 21. DavidC.Baker, CommunicationArts:EmbracingMarginalization, CommunicationArts,http://www.commarts.com/columns/embracingmarginalization.html(accessedApril17,2010). 22. Ibid. 36
23. AIGA, AIGAPositiononSpecWork, AIGA, http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/position specwork?searchtext=spec%20working#spec risks(accessedapril18,2010). 24. Ibid. 25. Chart6,AppendixC,106. 26. Ibid. 27. StevenGrey, CanCorporateFundingSaveEndangeredCollegeClasses? Time,http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1909937,00.html (accessedjune23,2010). 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 30. RobynWaxman,AppendixA,68. 31. Ibid. 32. GreggBernstein,AppendixA,75. 33. DKHolland,AppendixA,73. 34. EllenLupton,AppendixA,71. 35. StevenHeller,AppendixA,72. 37
36. GraphicDesignCertification,http://designcertification.org/(accessedJune 23,2010). 37. DavidB.Berman,DoGoodDesign:HowDesignersCanChangetheWorld (Berkely:CA:NewRiders,2009),138. 38. RichardFarson,ThePowerofDesign:AForceforTransforming(Norcross, GA:GreenwayCommunications,LLC,2008),21. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid. 42. Chart9,AppendixC,108. 43. EricBaker,AppendixA,59. 44. DMIPublications, Viewpoints. DMIPublications, http://www.dmi.org/dmi/html/publications/news/ebulletin/ebvsepmm.htm (accessedaugust3,2010). 45. Frontline, TheAlanGreenspanEra, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/warning/themes/greenspan.html (accessedmay2010). 46. Ibid. 38
47. Ibid. 48. Ibid. 49. EllenDissanayake,WhatisArtFor?(Seattle:WA:UniversityofWashington Press,1988),61. 50. Ibid.,62. 51. MiltonGlaser, BigThink:InterviewwithMiltonGlaser, BigThink, http://bigthink.com/miltonglaser/big think interview with milton glaser (accessedmarch23,2010). 52. Dictionary.com,s.v. good, Dictionary.com, http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/good?view=uk(accessedmarch13,2010). 53. Roberts,36. 54. Ibid. 55. Johnson,1. 56. Roberts,36. 57. Ibid.,55. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 39
61. DesignforGlobalChange,http://designglobalchange.org/(accessedJune 24,2010). 62. Roberts,42. 63. ChristopherBenfey, IronFists:theinsidioussideofbrandloyalty, New YorkTimes,http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/31/arts/31iht IDLEDE2.1.14885119.html?_r=1(accessedJuly2010). 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid. 66. LouisTomaino,AppendixA,78. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid.,79. 69. Ibid. 70. RobynWaxman,AppendixA,67. 71. BrianDougherty, GreenGraphicDesign, GreenGraphicDesign, http://www.greengraphicdesign.net/(accessedjune24,2010). 72. BusinessEthics, Greenwashing, BusinessEthics, http://www.businessethics.ca/greenwashing/(accessedjune24,2010). 40
73. WilliamMcDonoughandMichaelBraungart, CradletoCradle:Remaking thewaywemakethings, McDonough, http://www.mcdonough.com/cradle_to_cradle.htm(accessedapril19,2010). 74. Ibid. 75. AIGA:TheLivingPrinciplesforDesign,http://www.livingprinciples.net/ (accessedapril19,2010). 76. IDEO, TheHumanCenteredDesignToolkit, IDEO, http://www.ideo.com/work/item/human centered design toolkit/(accessedapril 29,2010). 77. Chart4,AppendixC,105. 78. Chart5,AppendixC,106. 79. DavidButler, RedesigningDesign, PresentationforMake/Think:AIGA DesignConference,October8 11,2009,http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/videomakethink 2009 butler(accessedmarch5,2010). 80. Berman,38. 81. Chart5,AppendixC,106. 82. Holland, Part1, 19. 41
Images Fig.1.Pagefromanarsmoriendi,1466.(Meggs,HistoryofGraphicDesign,67). 42
Fig.2.ArtworkbyElLissitzky,c.1930 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:artwork_by_el_lissitzky_c1930.jpg). 43
Fig.3.ShepardFairey, Hope, 24x36screenprint,2008 (http://obeygiant.com/headlines/obama). 44
Fig.4.InternationalBusinessMachines(IBM),8 barvariation,1972 (http://www.paul rand.com/index.php/site/identity/). 45
Fig.5.Designteam,children,andvillagersinfrontofmuralfor WaterforIndia campaign.photocourtesyofprofessornatachapoggio. 46
Fig.6.Nazipropagandaposter, (http://thesituationist.wordpress.com/2007/03/03/situational sources of evilpart iii/). 47
Fig.7.TheLifeCycleConcept,(http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/lifecycle/whatis.asp). 48
Fig.8.Coca colaadvertisinginafrica,(http://www.psfk.com/2008/08/medical aidvia coke facebook.html). 49
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