Contents About the Authors Preface Acknowledgements List of Acronyms xiii xv xvii xix Part One Wireless Ad Hoc, Sensor and Mesh Networking 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Information Security 4 1.1.1 Computer Security 4 1.1.2 Communications Security 5 1.2 Scope of the Book 5 1.3 Structure of the Book 6 1.4 Electronic Resources for the Book 7 1.5 Review Questions 7 2 Wireless Ad Hoc, Sensor and Mesh Networks 9 2.1 Ad Hoc Networks and Applications 10 2.1.1 Application Examples 10 2.1.2 Challenges 11 2.2 Sensor and Actuator Networks 13 2.2.1 Application Examples 14 2.2.2 Challenges 15 2.3 Mesh Networks 17 2.3.1 Application Examples 18 2.3.2 Challenges 19 2.4 Tactical Communications and Networks 19 2.4.1 Blue Force Tracking System 22 2.5 Factors Influencing the Design of Wireless Ad Hoc, Sensor and Mesh Networks 23 2.5.1 Wireless Medium 24 2.5.2 Networking Regime 25
viii Contents 2.5.3 Nature of Traffic 26 2.5.4 Quality of Service Requirements 26 2.5.5 Mobility 26 2.5.6 Fault Tolerance 27 2.5.7 Operating Environment 27 2.5.8 Power Efficiency Requirements 27 2.5.9 Scalability 27 2.5.10 Hardware Requirements and Production Cost 27 2.6 Review Questions 28 3 The Wireless Medium 29 3.1 Wireless Channel Fundamentals and Security 29 3.1.1 Capacity 31 3.1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 32 3.1.3 Path Loss and Attenuation 35 3.1.4 Other Transmission Impairments and Jamming 36 3.1.5 Modulation and Demodulation 38 3.1.6 Manchester Encoding 41 3.1.7 Multiplexing and Duplexing 42 3.2 Advanced Radio Technologies 43 3.2.1 Directional and Smart Antennas 43 3.2.2 Software Radios 44 3.2.3 Cognitive Radios 44 3.2.4 Multiradio/Multichannel Systems 45 3.2.5 MIMO Systems 45 3.3 Review Questions 45 4 Medium Access and Error Control 47 4.1 Medium Access Control 47 4.1.1 Generic MAC Protocols 47 4.1.2 MAC Protocols for Wireless Ad Hoc, Sensor and Mesh Networks 51 4.2 Error Control 53 4.2.1 Error Correction 54 4.2.2 Error Detection 56 4.3 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks 58 4.3.1 IEEE 802.16 58 4.3.2 WiMAX 58 4.4 Wireless Local Area Networks 59 4.4.1 IEEE 802.11 59 4.4.2 Wi-Fi 60 4.5 Wireless Personal Area Networks 60 4.5.1 IEEE 802.15.1 60 4.5.2 Bluetooth 61 4.5.3 IEEE 802.15.4 62
Contents ix 4.5.4 ZigBee 62 4.5.5 WiMedia 63 4.6 Review Questions 64 5 Routing 65 5.1 Internet Protocol and Mobile IP 65 5.1.1 IPv4, IPv6 and Security in IP 65 5.1.2 Distance Vector and Link State Algorithms 68 5.1.3 Internetworking 70 5.1.4 Multicasting, Geocasting, Anycasting and Broadcasting 71 5.1.5 Mobile IP 71 5.2 Routing in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 72 5.2.1 Flooding and Gossiping 73 5.2.2 Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) 73 5.2.3 Dynamic Source Routing 74 5.3 Routing in Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks 75 5.3.1 Directed Diffusion 75 5.3.2 Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN) 76 5.3.3 Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) 76 5.3.4 Power-Aware Many-to-Many Routing (PAMR) 77 5.4 Review Questions 79 6 Reliability, Flow and Congestion Control 81 6.1 Reliability 81 6.1.1 Non-Acknowledgement-Based Schemes 83 6.1.2 Acknowledgement-Based Schemes 84 6.2 Flow and Congestion Control 85 6.3 Review Questions 88 7 Other Challenges and Security Aspects 89 7.1 Localization and Positioning 89 7.2 Time Synchronization 93 7.3 Addressing 95 7.4 Data Aggregation and Fusion 96 7.5 Data Querying 97 7.5.1 Database Approach 97 7.5.2 Task Sets 99 7.5.3 Other Data-Querying Schemes 99 7.6 Coverage 100 7.7 Mobility Management 101 7.8 Cross-layer Design 102 7.9 Review Questions 103
x Contents Part Two Security in Wireless Ad Hoc, Sensor and Mesh Networking 105 8 Security Attacks in Ad Hoc, Sensor and Mesh Networks 107 8.1 Security Attacks 107 8.1.1 Passive Attacks 107 8.1.2 Active Attacks 109 8.2 Attackers 117 8.3 Security Goals 119 8.4 Review Questions 119 9 Cryptography 121 9.1 Symmetric Encryption 121 9.2 Asymmetric Encryption 127 9.3 Hash Functions and Message Authentication Code 131 9.4 Cascading Hashing 136 9.4.1 Hash Chains 137 9.4.2 Hash Trees 137 9.4.3 TESLA 138 9.5 Review Questions 140 10 Challenges and Solutions: Basic Issues 143 10.1 Bootstrapping Security in Ad Hoc Networks 144 10.2 Bootstrapping Security in Sensor Networks 145 10.3 Key Distribution, Exchange and Management 146 10.3.1 Standards 147 10.3.2 Classification of Key Management Schemes 147 10.3.3 Contributory Schemes 148 10.3.4 Distributive Schemes 153 10.4 Authentication Issues 171 10.5 Integrity 171 10.6 Review Questions 172 11 Challenges and Solutions: Protection 173 11.1 Privacy and Anonymity 173 11.2 Intrusion Detection 174 11.2.1 Architectures for IDS in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 175 11.3 Defense Against Traffic Analysis 177 11.4 Access Control and Secure Human Computer Interaction 177 11.5 Software-Based Anti-Tamper Techniques 179 11.5.1 Encryption Wrappers 180 11.5.2 Code Obfuscation 181 11.5.3 Software Watermarking and Fingerprinting 181 11.5.4 Guarding 182 11.6 Tamper Resilience: Hardware Protection 183 11.7 Availability and Plausibility 184 11.8 Review Questions 185
Contents xi 12 Secure Routing 187 12.1 Defense Against Security Attacks in Ad Hoc Routing 187 12.1.1 Techniques Against Wormhole Attacks 188 12.1.2 Techniques Against Sybil Attacks 189 12.1.3 Techniques Against Selective Forwarding 189 12.1.4 Secure Routing in Sensor Networks 190 12.1.5 Routing Schemes That Enhance Security 191 12.2 Secure Ad Hoc Routing Protocols 192 12.2.1 Intrusion-Tolerant Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (INSENS) 193 12.2.2 Authenticated Routing for Ad Hoc Networking (ARAN) 195 12.2.3 On-Demand Secure Ad Hoc Routing (ARIADNE) 197 12.2.4 Watchdog Pathrater 199 12.2.5 Secure Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (SAODV) 199 12.2.6 Secure Link State Routing Protocol (SLSP) 200 12.3 Further Reading 201 12.4 Review Questions 202 13 Specific Challenges and Solutions 203 13.1 SPINS: Security Protocols for Sensor Networks 203 13.1.1 SNEP 204 13.1.2 μtesla 205 13.2 Quarantine Region Scheme for Spam Attacks 205 13.3 Secure Charging and Rewarding Scheme 209 13.3.1 Establishing a Session 210 13.3.2 Packet Delivery 211 13.3.3 Acknowledging Delivery 212 13.3.4 Terminating a Session 212 13.4 Secure Node Localization 213 13.4.1 Detection of Malicious Beacon Nodes and Replayed Beacon Signals 213 13.4.2 Attack-Resistant Location Estimation 215 13.5 Secure Time Synchronization 216 13.6 Secure Event and Event Boundary Detection 217 13.6.1 Stage 1: Detection of Faulty Nodes 217 13.6.2 Stage 2: Detection of Event Boundary Nodes 219 13.6.3 Stage 3: Improvement of Event Boundary Node Detection 220 13.7 Review Questions 220 14 Information Operations and Electronic Warfare 221 14.1 Electronic Support 223 14.2 Electronic Attack 224 14.3 Electronic Protection 225 14.4 Review Questions 225
xii Contents 15 Standards 227 15.1 X.800 and RFC 2828 227 15.1.1 Security Threats and Attacks 227 15.1.2 Security Services 228 15.1.3 Security Mechanisms 230 15.1.4 Relationships between Security Services and Mechanisms 231 15.1.5 Placements of Security Services and Mechanisms 231 15.2 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) 231 15.2.1 How Does WEP Work? 231 15.2.2 WEP Weaknesses 236 15.3 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) 239 15.3.1 How Does WPA Work? 239 15.3.2 WEP and WPA Comparison 242 15.3.3 WPA2 242 References 245 Index 253