The Importance and Role of Organizational Culture in (Online) Recruiting Processes

The Importance and Role of Organizational Culture in (Online) Recruiting Processes DIPLOMARBEIT zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Diplom-Ingenieur im Rahmen des Studiums Business Informatics eingereicht von Roland Ulbricht, B.Sc. Matrikelnummer 0525359 an der Fakultät für Informatik der Technischen Universität Wien Betreuung: Univ.Prof. Mag.rer.soc.oec. Dr.rer.soc.oec. Sabine Theresia Köszegi Mitwirkung: Univ.Ass. Mag.rer.nat. Dr.phil. Martina Hartner-Tiefenthaler Wien, 29.01.2014 (Unterschrift Verfasser) (Unterschrift Betreuung) Technische Universität Wien A-1040 Wien Karlsplatz 13 Tel. +43-1-58801-0 www.tuwien.ac.at

The Importance and Role of Organizational Culture in (Online) Recruiting Processes MASTER S THESIS submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Diplom-Ingenieur in Business Informatics by Roland Ulbricht, B.Sc. Registration Number 0525359 to the Faculty of Informatics at the Vienna University of Technology Advisor: Assistance: Univ.Prof. Mag.rer.soc.oec. Dr.rer.soc.oec. Sabine Theresia Köszegi Univ.Ass. Mag.rer.nat. Dr.phil. Martina Hartner-Tiefenthaler Vienna, 29.01.2014 (Signature of Author) (Signature of Advisor) Technische Universität Wien A-1040 Wien Karlsplatz 13 Tel. +43-1-58801-0 www.tuwien.ac.at

Erklärung zur Verfassung der Arbeit Roland Ulbricht, B.Sc. Unterer Wagram 35, 3464 Goldgeben Hiermit erkläre ich, dass ich diese Arbeit selbständig verfasst habe, dass ich die verwendeten Quellen und Hilfsmittel vollständig angegeben habe und dass ich die Stellen der Arbeit - einschließlich Tabellen, Karten und Abbildungen -, die anderen Werken oder dem Internet im Wortlaut oder dem Sinn nach entnommen sind, auf jeden Fall unter Angabe der Quelle als Entlehnung kenntlich gemacht habe. (Ort, Datum) (Unterschrift Verfasser) i

Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support of several individuals. First of all, I want to thank my advisor Univ.Prof. Dr. Sabine Köszegi and Dr. Martina Hartner-Tiefenthaler for making this work possible and for their competent support, patience and time. Deepest gratitude goes to my parents, Elvira Ulbricht and Ing. Dieter Ulbricht for their support throughout my studies. I would also like to thank the interview partners who supported the qualitative part of the research and the participants of the online survey. Finally, special thanks to all people who supported this work through discussions, ideas or emotional support. iii

Abstract The aim of this thesis was to find out how culture fit influences recruiting from both the organizational as well as the individual perspective. Qualitative research of nine different organizations and a quantitative survey of potential applicants were conducted. The most important questions concerned the relevance of fit in decisions of both sides and how communication about these issues worked. On the employer side, cultural fit was an important selection criterion for most examined organizations, however they were unsure how to communicate their values and how to select fitting individuals. The organizations used online recruiting intensively, however, also indicated that transmitting information about their culture was difficult when done in written form and much easier in person through referrals or campus recruiting. On the side of individuals, fit was also an important aspect when choosing an employer. Survey participants stated that the most important sources of information about employers are personal contacts and the organizations websites. In conclusion the findings indicate that providing richer information for individuals through personnel marketing leads to better self-selection from their side and better fitting applications. v

Kurzfassung Diese Arbeit untersuchte die Rolle von kultureller Passung ( cultural fit ) in der Personalrekrutierung sowohl aus der Organisationsperspektive als auch aus der Perspektive der BewerberInnen. Es wurde eine qualitative Studie von neun unterschiedlichen Organisationen durchgeführt gefolgt von einer quantitativen Befragung von potenziellen BewerberInnen. Die wichtigsten Fragen dabei waren die Wichtigkeit von fit in den Rekrutierungsentscheidungen beider Seiten und wie die Kommunikation über diese Themen erfolgt. Auf der Organisationsseite war fit ein wichtiges Auswahlkriterium für die meisten betrachteten Organisationen. Darüber, wie sie ihre Werte kommunizieren können und wie passende Individuen ausgewählt werden können, waren sich die Organisationen unsicher. Die Organisationen nutzten online recruiting intensiv, gaben jedoch auch an, dass die Kommunikation über Kultur auf schriftlichem Weg schwierig war und auf persönlichem Weg viel einfacher wäre, zum Beispiel durch Empfehlungen oder Campus-Werbung. Fit war auch für Individuen ein wichtiger Aspekt in der Auswahl von Arbeitgebern. Die UmfrageteilnehmerInnen gaben an, dass persönliche Kontakte sowie die Websites von Organisationen die wichtigsten Informationsquellen über Arbeitgeber seien. Zusammenfassend deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass die Bereitstellung von reichhaltiger Information auf dem Wege des Personalmarketings zu besserer Selbstselektion der potenziellen BewerberInnen and folglich zu besser passenden Bewerbungen führt. vii

Contents List of Tables xi 1 Introduction 1 2 Theoretical Background 3 2.1 The emergence of organizational culture................... 3 2.2 Defining good person-organization fit................... 4 2.3 Actions taken by organizations to recruit the best people.......... 7 2.4 Ways information technology can support recruiting processes....... 10 2.5 Decisions made by individuals about joining organizations......... 13 2.6 Research gap.................................. 15 3 Organizational / recruiter perspective by qualitative research 17 3.1 Research objectives............................... 17 3.2 Data collection................................. 18 3.2.1 Expert interviews............................ 18 3.2.2 Artifact analysis............................ 19 3.2.3 Protection of research subjects.................... 19 3.3 Data analysis.................................. 20 3.3.1 Organizations examined........................ 23 3.3.2 Personnel marketing.......................... 26 3.3.3 Personnel selection........................... 29 3.3.4 Differences between type, size, structure of organizations...... 32 4 Individual perspective by quantitative research 33 4.1 Research objectives............................... 33 4.2 Survey procedure................................ 35 4.3 Measures.................................... 35 4.4 Data analysis.................................. 39 4.4.1 Participants............................... 39 4.4.2 Preferences regarding employers................... 41 4.4.3 Scenario: decision between values and money............ 48 4.4.4 Preferences regarding voluntary organizations............ 53 4.4.5 Sources of information about employers............... 58 ix

5 Discussion 63 5.1 Limitations and strengths........................... 66 5.2 Implications and recommendations for further research........... 67 A Survey design 69 B Responses from question J002 77 References 81 x

List of Tables 2.1 Comparison of online job board providers in Austria.............. 12 3.1 Location, industry, ownership, size and structure of the organizations examined in qualitative research............................ 25 3.2 Marketing channels used for recruiting by organizations examined in qualitative research................................... 28 3.3 Selection criteria and selection methods of organizations examined in qualitative research................................... 31 4.1 Survey questions overview............................. 36 4.2 Overview of scenario questions.......................... 38 4.3 Survey participant education........................... 39 4.4 Survey participant occupation........................... 40 4.5 Survey participant country of residence..................... 40 4.6 Survey participants about voluntary work.................... 41 4.7 Descriptive statistics of self-rated employability (SRE)............. 41 4.8 Survey participants most important employer criterion when choosing an employer....................................... 42 4.9 Survey participant employer preferences..................... 43 4.10 PCA pattern matrix of survey participant s employer preferences....... 44 4.11 PCA Component Correlation Matrix of survey participants employer preferences........................................ 45 4.12 Employer selection preferences component scales................ 47 4.13 Participants responses to scenario questions................... 49 4.14 Participants responses to scenario questions (grouped)............. 49 4.15 Scenario answer values............................... 49 4.16 Scenario answers descriptive statistics...................... 50 4.17 Scenario answers descriptives depending on participant s gender........ 51 4.18 ANOVA of scenario answers depending on participant s gender........ 52 4.19 Survey participant preferences regarding voluntary work organizations.... 53 4.20 Paired samples correlations of preferences regarding employment and regarding voluntary organizations............................ 55 xi

4.21 Paired samples test of preferences regarding employment and regarding voluntary organizations................................ 56 4.22 PCA pattern matrix of survey participants voluntary work organization preferences........................................ 57 4.23 PCA component correlation matrix of survey participants voluntary work organization preferences............................... 58 4.24 Sources of information about employers rated by survey participants..... 59 4.25 Scales of information sources........................... 61 4.26 Correlations between preferred sources of information (scales) and preferences regarding employers (components)........................ 62 A.1 Quantitative survey design overview....................... 70 B.1 Grouping of responses to question J002..................... 77 xii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction This work deals with the role of cultural fit in recruiting. I have for many years been a member of a voluntary non-profit student organization which suffered from a constant lack of members and observed that some people were very enthusiastic about work in certain organizations while other people were completely indifferent about the same topics different organizations seemed to appeal to different people. The interest to find out more about this was the motivation for this thesis. Essentially, recruiting is the process of matching individuals to jobs in organizations. Organizations perform personnel marketing which aims to motivate as many people as possible who have the right qualifications to apply for positions, those who apply then go through the organization s selection process and those who are selected are integrated into the organization (Achouri, 2010, p. 12; Holtbrügge, 2007, pp. 95, 113). During the 20th century the importance of recruiting grew considerably. In 1943 Winston Churchill (Speech at Harvard University, 1943 as cited by The Economist, 2006) said that the empires of the future will be empires of the mind. Changes in demographics will further increase the issue of lack of personnel in the future: In the EU the working-age population is projected to fall by 10% in the next 40 years 1. This makes recruitment of well-educated individuals an important topic for all organizations. Furthermore, methods of recruiting have changed considerably in the last decades. One of the major influences in personnel attraction and selection in recent years has been the introduction of online recruiting methods which are assumed to result in cost savings, time savings, increased numbers of applicants and other benefits (Lang et al., 2011). Hence, this research will put particular emphasis on the analysis of the effects of online recruiting. Schneider (1987) proposed that different kinds of organizations attract, select and retain different kinds of people based on their culture. Chapman et al. (2005) found that 1 Working-age population defined here as the age range from 15 to 64 years. According to projections by Eurostat (2011), the number of people in the EU aged 15-64 will fall from 336 million in 2010 to less than 300 million in 2050. 1

perceived person-organization fit (P-O fit) was a good predictor for whether a person would want to pursue a job offer. P-O fit appears to have positive effects on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, retention rates, and also organizational performance (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). However, too much fit may also produce negative effects Schneider (1987, p. 446) theorized that organizations that have a high cohesion (a lot of people of the same type ) would be unable to adapt to change and ultimately would have to fail. Taylor (2004) said that during the 20th century the concept of work has been synonymous with paid employment, however they argued that this classical conceptualization of work was insufficient and suggested a framework that accommodated a range of different work relations: paid, unpaid, public, private, formal and informal (Taylor, 2004, p. 45). This thesis will focus on work in organizations, however the research will include both paid and unpaid work. 49% of individuals who participate in voluntary work say one of their most important motivations was to meet people (Statistics Austria, 2010). This indicates that fit may be even more important in voluntary organizations. Both P-O fit and online recruiting have received considerable research attention in recent years, however only limited research could be found that evaluated the effects that the introduction of online recruiting methods had on P-O fit. Lang et al. (2011) stated that online job portals allow only very limited organization- and job-specific information to be included in postings. This may indicate that users of these systems find less information about organizations compared to users of other recruiting methods. The objective of this research was to get a holistic image of the role of cultural fit in personnel attraction and selection, with special emphasis placed on the aspect of online recruiting. Hence, both the organizational and the individual perspectives were considered: First, a number of organizations were examined qualitatively to find out what role cultural fit played in their recruiting methods and attitudes towards the topic of cultural fit. A wide variety of organizations was examined to get a complete impression, including student organizations, a university faculty and companies of various sizes. The aim of the second part of the research was to find out whether the methods used by organizations matched the preferences of potential candidates. In a quantitative survey potential applicants were queried about their preferences regarding organizations and the way they collect information. 2

CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Background This section will provide an overview of the topics involved in this thesis. In the beginning an introduction to the topic of organizational culture and person-organization fit will be given. After that, current literature regarding recruiting will be presented followed by a more detailed analysis of electronic recruiting. Finally, literature on individuals perspectives on the recruitment process will be examined. 2.1 The emergence of organizational culture Schein (2010, p. 7) proposed that culture was an abstraction, but its effects were powerful and hard to comprehend for the individual. People can often seem to be bureaucratic, political or irrational if the cultural roots of the behavior are not understood (Schein, 2010, p. 7). Schein (2010, pp. 23-33) described three levels of culture: The most visible manifestations of culture are called artifacts, which are physical or observable manifestations; the level below are espoused beliefs and values the ideals, goals, values, ideologies and rationalizations of people; the deepest level are the underlying, unconscious assumptions they determine behavior and thought, but are taken-for-granted and not questioned (Schein, 2010, pp. 23-33). One major branch of cultural research aims to find dimensions to measure culture empirically. Different scales have been suggested for example by Hofstede (see e.g. Hofstede, 2001) or the GLOBE study of 62 societies (see House et al., 2004). Hofstede (2001, pp. xix-xx) explained culture by arguing that individuals carry mental programs containing culture which are developed and reinforced throughout childhood and education. Organizational culture, according to Hofstede (2001, p. 391), is complementary to national culture. It is the study of differences in culture between organizations that are part of the same country. Hofstede s definition of organizational culture is: the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one organization from another. 3

Brodbeck et al. (2004, pp. 664-665) found that although organizational culture differs among societies and among industries, there are almost no measurable cross-regional industry-sector effects. This means that the industry influences the culture of an organization within a country, but the common assumption that organizational culture is similar for corporations in other countries as long as they are in the same industry does not hold. When an organization is founded, the founders make decisions based on what makes sense to them and according to boundaries set by their environment: they set goals based on their values and hire people who they believe share their values, which in turn creates the organization s culture (Schein, 2010; Schneider et al., 1995, pp. 752-753). Processes and structures in different organizations are different. They develop out of necessity, but they are ultimately traceable to decision makers and founders of the organization (Schneider, 1987, p. 443). The combination of different people and different environments produces differences in structures (Schneider, 1987, p. 443). The leaders who were hired by the organization s founders because of their values will in later stages make hiring decisions and hire people who share their own values, which are similar to those of the founders this process reproduces culture and leads to increased homogeneity (Schneider et al., 1995, pp. 752-761). 2.2 Defining good person-organization fit Person-organization fit (P-O fit) is one kind of person-environment fit (P-E fit) and closely related to person-group fit (P-G fit; concerned with fit in work groups; definitions of the group may range from immediate coworkers to subunits of organizations), personvocation fit (P-V fit; similarity with people who perform the same tasks or who completed the same education) and person-job fit (P-J fit) (Kristof, 1996). A more recent research area has been person-supervisor fit (P-S fit) (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). P-O fit can be described as the compatibility between individuals and organizations (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, 2000). Compatibility is usually seen as either a supplementary fit (the individual is similar to the organization; there is a congruence of values or goals; similarity of personality with the organizational climate) or complementary fit (the individual possesses characteristics which the organization is missing and/or viceversa; they are fulfilling one another s needs) (Kristof, 1996). Kristof (1996) added that the different definitions of P-O fit are not always contradictory but usually closely related different views of similar issues. According to Kristof-Brown (2000), P-J fit is a similar, yet separate concept to P-O fit recruiters associate both concepts with knowledge, skills, abilities (KSAs) as well as values of applicants, but Kristof-Brown found that recruiters mention KSA more frequently as indicators for P-J fit than P-O fit, while personality traits or values were mentioned as better indicators of the latter. The ASA model Schneider (1987) introduced the Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) model. It claims that different kinds of organizations attract, select and retain 4

different kinds of people. Unlike other theories that attribute organizational culture and behaviors of individuals to those people s environment (e.g. technologies, leadership, the stories, myths and assumptions of an organization), Schneider (1987) argued that differing personalities resulted in certain people s attraction and selection into an organization while others whose personality did not fit were deterred, leading to a cycle whereby similar people would be attracted: My thesis suggests that Kurt Lewin may have overstated the case when he hypothesized that behavior is a function of person and environment, that is, B = f(p, E). My thesis is that environments are function of persons behaving in them, that is, E = f(p, B). (Schneider, 1987, p. 438) The first step of ASA is Attraction. Hollande (1976, 1985, as cited in Schneider, 1987, p. 441) had found that careers are groupable into six types and that people are differently attracted to them. Furthermore, Tom (1971, as cited in Schneider, 1987, p. 441) had made similar findings regarding different environments. People choose their career and join organizations based on these preferences, therefore similar people will select similar places (Schneider, 1987). Attrition is the reverse side of attraction. Mobley (1982, as cited in Schneider, 1987, p. 442) found that people who do not fit an environment tend to leave. As a result, those who stay are likely to be similar to one another and thereby form a more homogeneous group. The counterpart of attraction and attrition of individuals is selection done by the organization. In addition to personality traits, organizations select by competences, further restricting the kinds of people that can join (Aldrich, 1979 as cited in Schneider, 1987, p. 444). As organizations evolve, this evolution will be based on the basic personality characteristics of the people in the organization (Schneider et al., 1995, p. 754). Further stabilizing factors are that members of a group will mimic the behaviors they observe and that even decision makers do not critically evaluate institutionalized practices (Dickson et al., 2004, pp. 81-82). The role of fit in the hiring process As predicted by the ASA model, P-O fit has been shown to be related to individual preferences for organizations as well as organizations selection decisions (Kristof, 1996). Sekiguchi (2003) found that managers judgements of applicants qualifications were strongly correlated with both P-O fit (r =.60; p <.01) and P-J fit (r =.56; p <.01). Traditional models focussed primarily on P-J fit, but scholars suggested that P-O fit was a more desired outcome of the hiring process in order to select employees who will stay in the organization for the long-term as well as enhancing future organizational flexibility (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown, 2000). Sekiguchi (2007) on the other hand 5

proposed that P-O fit was more desirable than P-J fit only for certain situations: longterm relational psychological contracts, for firm-specific human capital 1, and locals 2 (Sekiguchi, 2007). Sekiguchi (2007) assumed that there is a trade-off between P-J and P-O fit. The consequences of fit P-O fit (both from a needs-supplies perspective as well as from supplementary perspective) has been found to positively influence work attitudes resulting in higher job satisfaction, organizational commitment and lower intentions of quitting (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) performed a meta-analysis on fit to find the correlation between overall performance and different types of fit. They found a moderate correlation of performance with P-G fit, but for P-O, P-J and P-S fit the results were inconclusive. Schneider (1987, pp. 445-446) proposed that, over time, organizations can become ingrown in type and become less adaptable, which is one reason why they can fail as adapting to change without changing the types of people in the organization is very difficult. Schneider et al. (1995, pp. 765-766) said that the consequences of homogeneity may not be exclusively positive or negative. They argued that early in an organization homogeneity may have positive effects because it facilitates coordination, communication and cooperation, but it may lead to inflexibility and inability to adapt later on. In later stages of an organization s development, heterogeneity in higher hierarchy levels may be important in order to increase flexibility and more quickly adapt to market needs (Schneider et al., 1995, pp. 765-766). Measuring fit There are several different ways to assess fit. One possibility is to describe persons and organizations using the same dimensions to make them directly comparable (Kristof, 1996). Another option is to assess subjective or perceived fit, which is said to exist if it is perceived to exist, regardless of the actual properties of the research subjects (Kristof, 1996). The problem with the latter method is that is often difficult to judge which dimensions are being considered by the respondents (Kristof, 1996). Ravlin and Ritchie (2006) found that actual fit and perceived fit are independent from one another and have separate and independent positive effects on work attitudes. Schneider (1987, pp. 446-447) suggested using personality tests to select people of various kinds, however they warn that personality tests should not be considered as fine-grained selection mechanisms. They also emphasized the importance of recruiting activities in order to enlarge the pool of possible candidates (Schneider, 1987, p. 448): The ASA framework suggests that the major way organizations can actively determine the pool of candidates from which they will choose their members is through recruitment activities. Thus, if organizations are to 1 i.e. people with knowledge and skills that is only applicable in one organization 2 Sekiguchi (2007) referred to Gouldner s (1957) cosmopolitan-local theory. Locals are individuals who have have a high loyalty to an organization and perform tasks that are deeply embedded in the organizational context. 6

make active choices to increase the range of the types of people they select, then it will be primarily through a focus on increasing the pool of candidates that this will happen. Haphazard recruitment and/or faith in the selection process, either self-selection or organizational selection, cannot be expected to yield the non-right types required for long-term viability. (Schneider, 1987, p. 448) Several researchers suggest that P-O fit has always been implicitly included in selection processes as part of selection interviews (Sekiguchi, 2003). 2.3 Actions taken by organizations to recruit the best people Barnard (1938, p. 73) defined organizations as system[s] of consciously coördinated [sic] activities or forces of two or more persons. This definition is interesting as organizations are not defined as groups of people, machines or rooms but rather as systems of some of the of activities of many individuals which can include investors, creditors, customers and suppliers (Berger and Bernhard-Mehlich, 2002). Berger and Bernhard-Mehlich (2002) stated that control of organizational leadership over employees was limited which is why organizations are dependent on employees who make decisions in the interest of the organization independently themselves. These statements illustrate the important role of people within an organization: their actions are what defines the organization itself and they have to make decisions independently, which makes goal and value congruence between organization and employees so important. This congruence can be reached either through selection of people who possess the desired values or by training people to obtain them. Barber (1998, p. 5) defined recruiting as those practices and activities carried on by the organization with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees. Recruiting consists of three phases: (1) attraction phase (personnel marketing); (2) selection phase (personnel selection); (3) integration phase (Achouri, 2010, p. 12; Holtbrügge, 2007, pp. 95, 113). Only the first two phases are to be examined in this thesis. In some literature, the second phase is split into maintaining applicant status (during which organizations try to maintain applicants interest in the organization and decide which applicants to keep in their applicant pool) and job choice (during which applicants decide whether to accept a concrete job offer by the organization) (Barber, 1998). The transfer of current employees to different positions within an organization is called placement, a field that is closely related to recruiting but separate (Achouri, 2010, p. 65). Other authors (e.g. Barber, 1998, p. 3), refer to this process as internal recruitment and consider it a sub-field of recruiting. However, this work will address only the attraction and selection of personnel from outside the organization. 7

Personnel demand planning Before the recruiting process starts, personnel demand needs to be evaluated. It must be decided how many people (quantitative dimension) with which qualifications (qualitative dimension) are needed at what time (temporal dimension) at which place (geographic dimension) (Holtbrügge, 2007, pp. 88-93). Literature contains different methods to estimate personnel demand, especially for routine tasks (for example in an industrial environment) mental and managerial tasks are harder to estimate which is why analytical planning methods are less useful (Holtbrügge, 2007, p. 94). Barber (1998, pp. 19-22) said that deciding whom to target was the first step of applicant generation. They mentioned the geographic and skills dimensions as most important, but also asserted that the importance of skills was often overestimated as job requirements could be adapted to individuals (Barber, 1998, pp. 19-22). Personnel marketing According to Holtbrügge (2007, p. 95), personnel marketing has three functions: (1) information function (informing non-members of an organization about vacancies); (2) action function (aims to motivate an adequate number of individuals to apply); (3) selection function (information about requirements) Methods used in personnel marketing include: job advertisements in print media, public employment services, campus recruiting (offering lectures, thesis topics, company tours, internships, participation in career fairs), recruitment agencies (headhunters), staff leasing (hiring staff for limited period of time through an agency), and internet recruiting (Holtbrügge, 2007, pp. 97-103). Also word-of-mouth and employee referrals are important marketing methods (Holzer, 1988; Barber, 1998). Kristof (1996) proposed that recruitment strategies that provide realistic previews to applicants (such as site visits) would increase P-O fit. Personnel selection Personnel selection uses a wide array of methods such as review of application documents, questionnaires, Critical Incident Technique (CIT), job interviews, open question techniques, stress situation interviews and assessment centers (Achouri, 2010, pp. 27-39; Holtbrügge, 2007, pp. 103-104). Face-to-face interviews are the most used method in the personnel selection phase, used not only to exchange information about the organization and the applicant but frequently also to increase the interest of the other party in further pursuit of the selection process Barber (1998, pp. 52-54). Traditional literature recommends selecting the candidate who has the highest match with the requirements profile that has been developed in personnel demand planning (Achouri, 2010, p. 27; Holtbrügge, 2007, p. 103). In reality, of course, a lot more aspects than qualification are involved in selection. Holzer (1988, p. 2) found that applicants who were recommended to the company by current employees have a much higher acceptance rate than other applicants, which indicates that employers regard referrals as the better sources of information than direct applications. However, the high acceptance rate may also be rooted in a high cultural fit as the current employee and the referred applicant are likely to be similar to one 8