Anatoli I. Dashchenko (Ed.) Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems and Transformable Factories Sprin ger
Contents PART I: STATE OF THE ART Chapter 1 Globalization and Decentralization of Manufacturing E. Abele, J. Elzenheimer, T. Liebeck, T. Meyer 1.1 International Production and Trade is Becoming a Dominant Theme 3 1.2 Criteria for Production Site Selection and the Importance of Flexibility in Factories and Machinery 5 1.3 International Production Setup Categories 11 1.4 Summary and Conclusion on the Globalization and Decentralization of Manufacturing 13 Chapter 2 New Trends in Production E. Westkämper 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Strategies of Manufacturing 17 2.3 New Paradigms for Manufacturing 18 2.3.1 Life Cycle Orientation 18 2.3.2 Product Integrated Knowledge 20 2.3.3 Integration and Automation of Service 20 2.4 Driving Transformation Processes by Innovative Manufacturing Technologies 21 2.4.1 Technologies for the Future 21 2.4.2 Advanced Industrial Engineering for Manufacturing 22 2.4.3 NewTaylorism 26 2.5 Summary 26 Chapter 3 General RMS Characteristics. Comparison with Dedicated and Flexible Systems Y. Koren 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 The Challenge 28 3.2.1 Traditional Manufacturing Systems 28 3.2.2 The Need for Responsiveness 30
XX Contents 3.3 RMS-A New Class of Systems 31 3.3.1 RMS The Best of Both Worlds 32 3.3.2 Comparison of Manufacturing Systems 33 3.3.3 RMS Operation 34 3.4 Enabling Technologies and Reconfiguration Characteristics 35 3.4.1 RMS Enabling Technologies 35 3.4.2 RMS Core Characteristics 37 3.4.3 Sufficient and Necessary Conditions for RMS 39 3.4.4 Reconfiguration Principles 40 3.5 Reconfigurable Machines 41 3.5.1 Reconfigurable Machine Tools 41 3.5.2 Reconfigurable Inspection Machines 43 3.6 Summary 43 Chapter 4 Progress in Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems U. Heisel, M. Meitzner 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Definition of Reconfigurability 48 4.3 Benefits of RMS 49 4.3.1 Delimitation 49 4.4 Requirements of the Users 52 4.5 Reconfigurability from the Producers' Point of View 54 4.6 The Way to RMS 55 4.7 Future Prospects 59 Chapter 5 Agile Manufacturing Systems - a Significant Quantum Leap for High Volume Production Approaches Flexibility Requirements as well as Fastest Reaction to Market Demands M. Berger 5.1 Definition 63 5.2 Significant Features of Agile Manufacturing Systems 64 5.3 Case Study - Agile Manufacturing System for Cylinder Heads 68 5.4 Adaptor Plates for Agile Manufacturing Systems 72 5.5 Summary 75
Contents PART II: MACHINES AND CONTROLS FORMS Chapter 6 Reconfigurable Manufacturing Equipment R. G. Landers, J. Ruan, F. Liou 6.1 Introduction 79 6.2 Manufacturing Equipment Types 81 6.2.1 Production and Operation Requirements 82 6.2.2 Dedicated Manufacturing Equipment 82 6.2.3 Flexible Manufacturing Equipment 83 6.2.4 Reconfigurable Manufacturing Equipment 84 6.2.5 Example 85 6.3 Reconfigurable Machine Tools 87 6.3.1 Hardware Characteristics 87 6.3.2 Software Characteristics 89 6.3.3 Prototype Reconfigurable Machine Tool 90 6.3.4 Parallel Machine Tool 93 6.4 Hybrid Deposition-Removal Processes 96 6.4.1 Layer-Based Hybrid Systems 98 6.4.2 Integrated Hybrid Systems 100 6.4.3 Description of Hybrid Systems 102 6.4.4 Integrated Hybrid Manufacturing System Example 103 6.4.5 Applications 107 Chapter 7 Reconfigurable Machine Tool Design Y. M. Moon 7.1 Introduction Ill 7.2 Reconfigurable Machine Tool Design 113 7.2.1 Design Process Overview 113 7.2.2 Kinematic Modeling of Operation Requirements 114 7.2.3 Graph Generation 120 7.2.4 Function Mapping 123 7.2.5 Module Selection 125 7.3 Configuration Evaluation 129 7.3.1 Introduction 129 7.3.2 Work Envelope 130 7.3.3 Degrees of Freedom 130 7.3.4 Number of Modules 131 7.3.5 Dynamic Stiffness 131 7.4 Summary of RMT Design Methodology 133
XXII Contents 7.5 Future Direction of Reconfigurable Machine Tool Design 135 7.5.1 Technology for RMT 135 7.5.2 Logistics Issues 137 7.5.3 Implementation Issues 137 Chapter 8 Challenges in the Design of Reconfigurable Machine Tools Z J. Pasek 8.1 Introduction 141 8.2 Challenge #1: Defining Part Families 143 8.3 Challenge #2: Mechanical Design Process 146 8.4 Challenge #3: Control System Design 149 8.5 Challenge #4: System Integration 151 8.6 Challenge #5: Reconfiguration and Calibration 152 8.7 Summary 153 Chapter 9 Reconfigurable Fixtures for Automotive Engine Machining and Assembly Applications C.-H. Shen, Y.-T. Lin, J. S. Agapiou, P. Bandyopadhyay 9.1 Introduction 155 9.1.1 Previous Work 155 9.1.2 Automotive Engine Machining and Assembly Environments 158 9.2 Reconfigurable Engine Machining Fixture 159 9.2.1 Examples of Engine Cylinder Head Machining Fixtures 160 9.2.2 The Automated Reconfigurable Machining Fixture (ARMF) 162 9.2.3 Characterization and Performance of the ARMF 168 9.2.4 R&D Issues for ARMF System Production Implementation 176 9.3 Reconfigurable Engine Assembly Pallet 177 9.3.1 Examples of Engine Assembly Pallets 177 9.3.2 Reconfigurable Pallet Design Requirements 179 9.3.3 Modular Stanchion Design Options 181 9.4 Summary 191 9.4.1 Reconfigurable Machining Fixture 191 9.4.2 Reconfigurable Engine Assembly Pallet 192 Chapter 10 Control Systems for RMS and Methods of their Reconfiguration G. Pritschow, C. Kircher, M. Kremer, M. Seyfarth 10.1 Challenges in the Range of Control Systems for RMS 195 10.2 Requirements for Controllers in RMS 197 10.3 Elements of a Reconfigurable, Self-adapting Control System for RMS 198
Contents XXIII 10.3.1 Open Controller Architecture as a Basis for Self-adapting Control Systems 199 10.3.2 Extensions for Self-adapting Control Systems 201 10.4 Method for the Reconfiguration of Self-adaptable Control Systems 205 10.4.1 The Model Based Configuration Process 206 10.4.2 The Model Based Reconfiguration Process 206 10.5 An Exemplary Reconfiguration Sequence 208 10.6 Summary 209 Chapter 11 Closed-loop, Fieldbus-based Clock Synchronisation for Decentralised Control Systems R. Koninckx, H. Van Brüssel 11.1 Introduction 213 11.2 Definition of Concepts 214 11.3 Synchronisation Requirements for Distributed Motion Controllers 216 11.4 Approaches to Synchronisation 217 11.4.1 A Centralised Oscillator 217 11.4.2 Clock Discipline 218 11.5 Clock Characterisation 218 11.5.1 Frequency Domain Characterisation 218 11.5.2 Time Domain Characterisation 219 11.6 Clock Discipline 221 11.6.1 Phase Locked Loop 221 11.6.2 Consequences of a Bus System 223 11.6.3 Frequency Domain Analysis 223 11.7 Implementation Details 226 11.7.1 Measuring the Synchronisation Error 227 11.7.2 Augmented Plant Model and Choice of States 228 11.7.3 Controller Design 229 11.7.4 Experimental Results 231 11.8 Conclusion 233 PART III: SYSTEM-LEVEL ISSUES IN RMS Chapter 12 Production System Modelling for the Evaluation of the Degree of Reconfigurability A. Urbcmi, S. P. Negri 12.1 Introduction 239 12.2 A Comprehensive Modelling Method for Reconfigurability Analysis 240 12.2.1 Functional Decomposition 240 12.2.2 Assessment of the Modification Effort 241 12.2.3 Reconfigurability Assessment 242 12.2.4 Application to One System Component: Machine 243
XXIV Contents 12.3 Application of the Modelling Method 245 12.3.1 Functional Decomposition 245 12.3.2 Structural Decomposition: Assessment of the Functional Units and of the Modules 247 12.3.3 Index of Reconfigurability of the Morpheum PKM 253 12.4 Analysis of the Results 255 Chapter 13 The Robot Cell as a Re-configurable Machining System S. Sakakibara 13.1 Introduction 259 13.2 Intelligent Robot 259 13.2.1 Basic Technologies of Intelligent Robot 260 13.3 Robot Cell - a Long Time Unmanned Machining Cell 263 13.3.1 Introduction of the Robot Cell 263 13.3.2 Configuration of the Robot Cell 265 13.3.3 Challenges to Robotize Mounting/Dismounting Processes 265 13.3.4 Accurate Grasping of Work-piece 266 13.3.5 Accurate Positioning of Work-piece 267 13.3.6 Mounting the Work-piece onto the Machining Fixture 268 13.3.7 Effects 269 13.4 Conclusion 272 Chapter 14 Development of a Standard Reconfigurable Assembly Cell for Agile Manufacturing M. F. Molnar, R. Fernandez, B. Huff 14.1 Introduction 273 14.2 Reconfigurable System Concepts 274 14.3 Early SAC Developments 277 14.4 The NCMS - LFMA Consortium 279 14.4.1 LFMA Reconfigurable Flexibility 279 14.4.2 The Demonstration Reconfigurable SAC 281 14.4.3 NCMS LFMA Lessons Learned 283 14.5 SAC Technology Commercialization 284 14.5.1 Assembly Flex 284 14.5.2 QuickCell 285 14.5.3 Flexible Feeding Technologies 286 14.6 End-User SAC Implementations 288 14.6.1 Light-Duty Aerospace: Honeywell Space Systems Division 288 14.6.2 Medium-Duty Aerospace: Lockheed Martin Missiles & Fire Control 290 14.7 Business Implications 292 14.8 Conclusions 293
Contents Chapter 15 Computer Supported Decision Making System that Generates and Optimizes Layouts of Reconfigurable Manufacturing Equipment at the Early Stage of Design O. A. Dashchenko 15.1 Synthesis and Optimization Method for Configuration of Manufacturing Systems 295 15.2 Strategic Basis for RMS Design 299 15.3 Main Functions of the CSS (Computer Support System) 299 15.4 Classification of MS Structure Scheme for Directed Search Method of Optimal Variants 305 15.5 Guided Search for Optimal Variant 305 15.6 Reconfiguration of MS for Part N 1 into MS for Part N2 316 15.7 Optimization of Machine Tools in RMS Structures 318 15.8 Conclusion 323 Chapter 16 Reconfigurable Machining System (RMS) for Machining of Case and Similar Parts in Machine Building E. Abele, A. Versace, A. Worn 16.1 Development Trend 327 16.2 Machine Concept 328 16.3 Requirements 333 16.3.1 Adaptivity of the Machine 333 16.3.2 Chaining Alternative 334 16.3.3 Adaptive Clamping Systems 335 16.3.4 Module Interfaces 335 16.3.5 Measuring Systems 337 16.4 Economic Aspects 337 16.5 Research Activities 338 16.6 Outlook 338 Chapter 17 Cellular Manufacturing System Capable of Responding to Changes in Demand H. Ebara, D. Hirotani, K. Takahashi, K. Morikawa 17.1 Introduction 341 17.2 Cell Formation 342 17.3 Formulation 343 17.3.1 Flexible Cell Formation 345 17.3.2 Redesigning Cell Formation 346 17.3.3 Rolling Planning Period 347
XXVI Contents 17.4 The Proposed Solution Method 347 17.4.1 The Basic Outline of GA 347 17.4.2 Chromosome Expression 348 17.4.3 Initialization 348 17.4.4 Evaluation of Fitness 349 17.4.5 Selection and Reproduction 349 17.4.6 Crossover 350 17.4.7 Mutation 350 17.5 Numerical Experiments 351 17.5.1 Experimental Conditions 351 17.5.2 Results and Discussion 351 17.6 Conclusion 353 Chapter 18 Example of Reconfigurable Manufacturing System in Mold Design and Manufacturing M. Nakao 18.1 Innovations in Mold Design and Manufacturing 355 18.2 Proposal of Decision-Based Process Design 356 18.3 Process Design of One-Mold Production 359 18.4 Operation Design of Multi-Mold Production 362 18.5 Summary of Reconfigurable Manufacturing System in Mold Design and Manufacturing 367 PART IV: TRANSFORMABLE FACTORY STRUCTURES Chapter 19 Factory Transformability: Adapting the Structures of Manufacturing E. Westkämper 19.1 Introduction 371 19.2 Transformation of Factories 371 19.2.1 Adapting to Changes in a Turbulent Environment 371 19.2.2 Restructuring of Factories 372 19.2.3 Activating the Human Potential 372 19.2.4 Autonomous (Self) Organization 373 19.2.5 Permanent Adaptation of Factory Structures 375 19.3 Advanced Industrial Engineering 375 19.3.1 Adoption of Complex Systems in Engineering Phases 376 19.3.2 Re-Structuring and Re-Configuring Factories More Rapidly 377 19.3.3 Adaptivity Made by Industrial Engineers 379 19.4 Summary 381
Contents XXVII Chapter 20 The Transformable Factory - Strategies, Methods and Examples H.-P. Wiendahl, R. Hernandez 20.1 Factories - Production Sites in Production Networks 383 20.2 Systematic of Changeability 385 20.3 Types of Factory Changeability 386 20.4 Transformability 387 20.4.1 Objects of Transformability 387 20.4.2 Enablers of Transformability 388 20.5 Methods and Principles for the Planning of Transformability 389 20.6 Case Study 391 20.7 Conclusion 392 Chapter 21 Analysis of Modern Factory Structures and Their Transformability O. Dashchenko 21.1 Introduction 395 21.2 What is Transformability? 396 21.3 Modern Factory Structure Trends 401 21.4 Examples of Today's Factory Structures 402 21.5 Concept of the Method for the Evaluation of Production Structures and Their Transformation Ability 409 21.6 Development of a Transformable Automobile Factory Layout (Example) 411 21.7 Conclusion 422 Chapter 22 Innovative Logistics is a Vital Part of Transformable Factories in the Automotive Industry H. Graf 22.1 Overview of the Automotive Industry 423 22.1.1 Introduction 423 22.1.2 Customer Orientation and Product Complexity 424 22.1.3 Outsourcing of Value Added Scopes to the Suppliers 426 22.1.4 Location Transfers and Globalization 427 22.2 Logistical Built-to-Order Business Process Model of a Premium Vehicle Manufacturer 428 22.2.1 Integration and Synchronization of Core Processes 428 22.2.2 Process Description 429 22.3 Customer Order-Managed Program Planning and Order Processing 430 22.3.1 Customer Ordering Process 430 22.3.2 Order Scheduling and Management Using the In-line Sequencing (Perlenkette) Principle 432
XXVIII Contents 22.4 Process-oriented Material Procurement 433 22.4.1 Standard Systems in the Automobile Industry 433 22.4.2 Standard Delivery Forms 434 22.4.3 Supplier Location 438 22.5 Synchronous Management of Networks in Production and Procurement 439 22.5.1 Introduction 439 22.5.2 Innovative Methods for Managing Production and Procurement Networks 441 22.5.3 Management of Inventories, Requirements and Capacities 444 22.5.4 Control-Loop-Oriented Management through Integration of Innovative Methods 450 22.6 Flexibility Management in Production Program Planning 452 22.7 Outlook 454 PART V: PRODUCT AND PROCESS OPTIMIZATION FOR RECONFIGURABLE MANUFACTURING Chapter 23 Products Design and Analysis for Transformable Production and Reconfigurable Manufacturing M. Abdi, A. Labib 23.1 Introduction 461 23.2 Reconfiguration Link 462 23.3 Product Design 464 23.4 Products Analysis Using the AHP 466 23.4.1 The AHP Theory 467 23.4.2 The AHP Model 468 23.4.3 A Case Study 472 23.4.4 Analysis of Solutions 473 23.5 Conclusions 477 Chapter 24 Optimal Design of the Vehicle S. V. Bakhmutov, A. L. Karunin 24.1 Introduction 479 24.2 Theoretical Principles for Optimization of the Vehicle Design by the Specified Complex of Quality Criteria 479 24.2.1 Total Algorithm for Statement of the Two-Stage Optimization Problem 482 24.2.2 The First Stage of the Optimization Problem 485 24.2.3 Development of the Vehicle Mathematical Model Adapted for Multicriterion Parameter Optimization 489 24.2.4 Method for Solution of Multicriterion Optimization Problems..508 24.3 The Second Stage of the Optimization Problem 510
Contents XXIX 24.3.1 Estimation of the Two-Stage Optimization Efficiency 511 24.4 General Conclusions 518 Chapter 25 New Generation of Engines with Controlled Pistons Movement for Reconfigurable Manufactures G. G. Ter-Mkrtichjan 25.1 Introduction 519 25.2 Traverse Engines with Piston Movement Control 520 25.2.1 Idea - Traverse Power Mechanism 520 25.2.2 Possible Production of Traverse Engines at Reconfigured Motor Factories 523 25.3 Mathematical Model of the Conversion Mechanism of Engines with Controlled Movement of Pistons 523 25.3.1 Introduction 523 25.3.2 Matrix Research of the Traverse Conversion Mechanism Kinematics 525 25.3.3 Calculation and Design of the Conversion Mechanism for Engines with Controlled Movement of Pistons 528 25.3.4 Optimization of the Traverse Mechanism Parameters 530 25.4 Combined Regulation of Compression Ratio and Displacement in Traverse Engines 531 25.5 Inference 533 Chapter 26 Experience of Rapid Prototyping Technologies Usage for Moulding Case Parts A. A. Ipatov, M. A. Zlenko 26.1 Introduction 535 26.2 Types of RP Technologies 535 26.3 Examples of Implementation 537 Chapter 27 Theory and Practice of Technology for Machining Non-Rigid Smooth Shafts in Reconfigurable Production Yu. V. Maksimov, A. V. Ankin 21Л Solution of the Problem 545 27.2 Analysis of Combined Machining Processes 550 27.3 Analysis of Errors in Parts' Combined Machining 554 27.4 Simulation and Optimization of Processes 560 27.5 Conclusion 567
XXX Contents Chapter 28 Application of Non-Traditional Assembly Methods in Reconfigurable Manufacturing O. A. Dashchenko, P. E. Elchov, A. I, Dashchenko 28.1 Introduction 569 28.2 Assembly as the Main Application Domain for the Reconfigurable Equipment 569 28.3 Impact of New Technologies on Reconfigurability 571 28.4 Parametric Optimization of the Processes 573 28.5 Reconfigurable Assembly Line based on Multi-Position Pneumovortical Automates 577 28.6 Conclusion 580 Chapter 29 Laser Technologies K. V. Frolov, A. K. Skvorchevsky 29.1 Introduction 583 29.2 Physical Fundamentals of Laser Methods 583 29.3 Connection between Measured Parameters and Assembling Exterior Technological Conditions 586 29.4 Mathematical Model of Connection of the Optical Parameters of Transformation of a Signal with Design and Technological Parameters of Assembling 590 29.5 Theory of Conjugation and Transformation Functions Restoration of a Signal of Assembling 596 29.6 Measurements under Vacuum Assembling 598 29.7 Laser Assembly Algorithm 602 Chapter 30 Selecting an Optimal Production Order and Its Corresponding Configuration in a Reconfigurable Manufacturing System with Multiple Product Groups K. Takahashi, K. Morikawa, Myreshka, T. Ohiro, A. Takubo 30.1 Introduction 609 30.2 Background 610 30.3 Modeling RMS 611 30.3.1 Assumptions 611 30.3.2 The Selection Policy 612 30.4 Optimal System Configuration Problem 613 30.4.1 The Previous Method 613 30.4.2 The Proposed Method 614 30.4.3 Modelling the Proposed Method 615 30.4.4 Algorithms for Selecting System Configuration 618 30.5 Numerical Examples 619
Contents 30.6 Simulation 621 30.6.1 Algorithms for Selecting System Configuration by Using Simulation 621 30.6.2 Experiments 622 30.7 Concluding Remarks 625 PART VI: ECONOMICS OF RMS Chapter 31 Economical Models for Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems M. Bruccoleri, G. Perrone 31.1 Introduction 629 31.2 The DML Model 631 31.3 The Parametric Approach 632 31.4 The FMS Model 632 31.5 The RMS Model 633 31.6 The Factors Constraints 635 31.7 Numerical Example 637 31.8 Conclusions and Further Developments 640 Chapter 32 Life Cycle Cost Calculation for Manufacturing Systems by Means of Reconfigurability Analysis A. Urbani 32.1 Introduction 643 32.2 Overview of the Approach 644 32.3 Model and Method for Lifecycle Analysis 646 32.3.1 Generation of Production Alternatives 646 32.3.2 Life Cycle Analysis of Each Generated Alternative 647 32.4 A Model for the Life Cycle Analysis of Production Solutions Based on the Assessment of their Reconfigurability 649 32.4.1 Modification of the Production Mix 650 32.4.2 Change in Available Production Time 652 32.4.3 Reconfigurations 655 32.5 Method for Life Cycle Cost (LCC) Analysis 656 Chapter 33 An Analytical Comparison on Cost and Performance among DMS, AMS, FMS and RMS G. Zhang, R. Liu, L. Gong, Q. Huang 33.1 Evolution in Manufacturing Systems 659 33.1.1 Dedicated Manufacturing Systems (DMS) 660 33.1.2 Adjustable Manufacturing Systems (AMS) 660
XXXII Contents 33.1.3 Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) 661 33.1.4 Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems (RMS) 661 33.2 Description of the Method 662 33.3 Adaptability for Multiple Products 662 33.4 System Complexity 665 33.5 Production Rate 666 33.6 Reconfiguration Time and Ramp-up Time 667 33.7 Life Cycle Cost 668 33.8 Discussion 671 33.8.1 Analysis on SDIs 671 33.8.2 Ramp-up Time 671 33.8.3 Application of SMED Methodology 672 33.8.4 Combination and Adjustment 672 33.8.5 Standardization 672 33.9 Conclusion 672 Chapter 34 Real Options: an Application to RMS Investment Evaluation M. Amico, F. Asl, Z. Pasek, G. Perrone 34.1 Introductions 675 34.2 Real Option Framework 677 34.3 The Payoff Function 679 34.4 The Manufacturing Scenario 682 34.5 Conclusions 691 PART VII: FUTURE TRENDS Chapter 35 Future Scenarios, Describing Consistent Networks of Influences from Markets, Technologies and Business Environment with a Time Horizon of 2020 /. Gausemeier, G. Stollt, C. Wenzelmann 35.1 The Product Innovation Process - the Path from an Idea to a Successful Product Launch 697 35.2 Scenario Technique - Systematic Recognition of Future Success Potentials 700 35.2.1 Identification of Influence Factors 703 35.2.2 Systems Analysis and Determination of Key Factors 703 35.2.3 Description of Alternative Developments in Future (Future Projections) 704 35.2.4 Development of Consistent and Plausible Scenarios 704 35.2.5 Comprehensible Description (Prose) of Scenarios 704 35.2.6 Identification of Opportunities and Threats 704 35.2.7 Determination of Options for Actions 705
Contents XXXIII 35.3 Developing Market and Business Environment Scenarios Considering the European Machine-Tool Industry as Example 705 35.4 Systematic Development of Business-, Product-, and Technology-Strategies 712 35.5 Conclusion 716 Chapter 36 Intelligent Systems, Self-optimizing Concepts and Structures J. Gausemeier, U. Frank, D. Steffen 36.1 From Mechatronics to Self-Optimization 719 36.2 Architecture of the Information Processing of Self-Optimizing Systems 723 36.3 Basic Constructs for the Development of Self-Optimizing Systems 726 36.4 The Early Phases of the Development Process for Self-Optimizing Systems 731 36.5 Summary 741 Chapter 37 Virtual Production - Computer Model-Based Planning and Analyzing of Manufacturing Systems J. Gausemeier, P. Ebbesmeyer, R. Eckes 37.1 The Product Creation Process 743 37.2 Current Focal Points in Virtual Product Creation 747 37.2.1 Process Planning 749 37.2.2 Layout Planning 750 37.2.3 Manufacturing Cell Planning 751 37.2.4 Material Flow Simulation 752 37.2.5 Simulation of Manufacturing Technology 752 37.3 A Reference Model for the Development of Production Systems 754 37.4 Conclusion 757