Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition HOLBROOK MAHN The far-reaching influence that the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896 1934) has had on second language acquisition (SLA) research is reflected in studies which emphasize the important role played by semiotic mediation in social interaction within social, cultural, physical, and historical contexts. While Vygotsky did not write extensively about SLA per se, he did provide a foundation for SLA research through his analysis of the development of mental systems as humans acquire and develop the ability to communicate through language. His study of the interrelationship between thinking processes, those involved in perceiving, processing, organizing, and storing information from the environment and using it to guide action, and language processes, those involved in using signs/symbols to make and communicate meaning in social interaction, provides a foundation for understanding the interrelationship between thinking and language processes involved in communicating meaning in a second language. The system of meaning created by the unification of thinking and language processes was at the center of Vygotsky s work and constitutes the foundation upon which rise the concepts for which he is best known, including the zone of proximal development, social interaction, sign/symbol use to mediate activity and the consequent development of higher psychological processes, inner and private speech, play, and the role of the social/cultural/ historical situation of development. Many researchers use these concepts to guide their investigations into aspects of second language development. Not as well known is the fact that Vygotsky used the concept system of meaning to study the development of the human psyche by analyzing higher psychical processes such as logical memory, voluntary attention, and verbal perception in relationship to language use and development. Analyzing mental systems to reveal the origins and development of human consciousness was the central focus for Vygotsky s decade-long research. He conceived of consciousness as a system of systems, and began his investigation of consciousness by analyzing the system of meaning created through the unification of thinking and language processes. In spite of its centrality, the system of meaning has not been widely explored in second language research informed by sociocultural theory, or in sociocultural studies in general. This entry describes Vygotsky s analysis of the system that results from and in turn develops language use, and then describes how this analysis illuminates the processes involved in SLA and development. Internal System of Meaning A fundamental concept for sociocultural studies is the role signs/symbols play in the mediation of human activity. Vygotsky s fundamental theoretical insight is that the higher forms of human mental activity are always and everywhere mediated by symbolic means (Lantolf, 1994, p. 418). Vygotsky acknowledged that mediation was central to his theoretical analysis, but at a meeting with his closest collaborators near the end of his life, he reiterated that the focus of their work was not mediation in and of itself but rather the internal system of meaning created through mediated social interaction. He acknowledged The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, First Edition. Edited by Carol A. Chapelle. 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
2 vygotsky and second language acquisition their focus on sign and sign operations in earlier investigations, but added we ignored that the sign has meaning (Vygotsky, 1997a, p. 130) and consequently they did not study the development of meaning. We proceeded from the principle of the constancy of meaning, we discounted meaning (1997a, p. 133). He noted that linguistic and psychological theories of his time took the development of meaning for granted, viewing it as stable and unchanging. In those theories the constancy of meaning is given as the starting point which terminates the process as well (p. 132) and therefore the origins and the course of development of meaning are ignored. In that same meeting Vygotsky clarified his conception of meaning: Meaning is not the sum of all the psychological operations which stand behind the word. Meaning is something more specific it is the internal structure of the sign operation. It is what is lying between the thought and the word. Meaning is not equal to the word, not equal to the thought. (Vygotsky, 1997a, p. 133) Focusing on the systemic nature of consciousness, Vygotsky looked at the development of meaning as a process, one that is shaped by its relationship with other psychological functions, processes, structures, and systems. The system of meaning is part of larger systems the human psyche and human consciousness and therefore, The structure of meaning is determined by the systemic structure of consciousness (1997a, p. 137). Unlike other psychologists of his time who examined mental entities by isolating them in their external manifestations or by conceptualizing them separately from other mental entities, Vygotsky analyzed the systemic relationships and connections between the child s separate mental functions in development (1987, p. 323) and conceived of the relationships between functions as constituting a psychological system (1997a, p. 92). In addition to conceptualizing the system of meaning created through the sign operation as a psychological system, Vygotsky recognized other systems of meaning based on mathematics, music, art, aesthetic response, and volition and affect, among others. Because his main focus was on the system that results from the unification of language and thinking processes, system of meaning in this entry refers to that particular system. In describing the system of meaning, rather than focusing on secondary sources, this entry draws on Vygotsky s writings, particularly those which explain: his methodological approach; his analysis of predominant theories about the relationship of thinking and speaking; his phylogenetic analysis of the development of thinking and speaking; his examination of the structure of generalization; his description of the development of a system of concepts; and his analysis of times of qualitative transformation in a child s development, including the development of higher psychological processes, periods of crisis, and the development of conceptual thinking. In his use of the concept mental system Vygotsky emphasized that the relationships among mental functions determine the character of the system. The functions in and of themselves might not qualitatively change, but the relationships among them go through transformations leading to different stages of development. Such functions as voluntary attention, logical memory, higher forms of perception and movement, which thus far have been studied in isolation, as separate psychological facts, now, in the light of our experiments, appear essentially as phenomena of one order united in their genesis and in their psychological structure (Vygotsky, 1999, p. 38). These functions are internally connected with the development of the symbolic activity of the child (p. 39). Vygotsky saw a dialectical relationship between language and thinking processes, with each process shaping and being shaped by the other in an internal mental system that resulted from their unification. Vygotsky (1987) devoted most of his final work, Thinking and Speech, to describing investigations into the origins and nature of this unification and
vygotsky and second language acquisition 3 the new entity, verbal thinking, created by thinking and language processes. In examining the processes through which both the human species and individuals create internal mental systems as they develop the ability to receive and produce signs to communicate meaning, he made the analysis of the origins and nature of verbal thinking the central focus of his investigations. He conceived of mental activity as a process that is organized as a system with other systems, in the development of which there are times of qualitative change during which fundamental, essential transformations in verbal thinking and its relationship to other mental functions occur. The stage that individuals have reached in the development of their systems of meaning will influence their SLA and development. Methodological Approach The methodological approach Vygotsky developed to study the relationships between thinking and speaking processes can also help inform investigations into the processes involved in acquiring and developing communicative capacity in a second language. To find the essence of the unification of thinking and language processes Vygotsky sought an aspect of this unification that was primary, basic, irreducible, essential, and yet still maintained the essence of verbal thinking, the whole being investigated. What then is a unit that possesses the characteristics inherent to the integral phenomenon verbal thinking and that cannot be further decomposed? In our view, such a unit can be found in the inner aspect of the word, its meaning [znachenie slova] (1987, p. 47). In his investigation of znachenie slova, Vygotsky examined the social origins of the ability for both the human species and individual to use language to communicate, as well as analyzing the origins and development of the internal mental systems that are necessary for and result from this communicative ability. Because of the way znachenie slova has been translated into English, Vygotsky s investigation of it is often not addressed in interpretations of his work. The Russian znachenie translates as meaning and slova as word, but Vygotsky made clear that he was using slova as a synecdoche (Kozulin, 1990, p. 151) to refer to language use as a whole, as in in the beginning was the word (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 284). Because znachenie slova is translated into English as word meaning, the focus in interpretations of Vygotsky s work has generally been on the meaning of words, on the external use and relationships of words, and on the role of words in semiotic mediation; this causes the role of thinking processes to be overlooked. Consequently, the concepts of the internal system of meaning and znachenie slova that Vygotsky held central to his theoretical framework, and that provided a focus for his research, have been neglected. In Thinking and Speech Vygotsky analyzes znachenie slova from three perspectives: genetically its origins; structurally the development of and interconnection to psychological functions and processes related to it; and functionally its psychological activity and motivating factors. Through this analysis, Vygotsky is able to disclose the internal essence that lies behind the external appearance of the process, its nature, its genesis (1997b, p. 70). This was an important part of Vygotsky s approach to second language studies as well. In his article The Question of Multilingual Children (1997b, pp. 253 9) Vygotsky writes that in setting up studies on the bilingual child a prerequisite is to descend from the surface, from taking into account external traits and indicators, and to penetrate deeply, to take into account internal structures of the processes that are directly involved in the speech development of the child (p. 257). Vygotsky examined the origins of znachenie slova in an individual as a process that has its foundation in the infant s physical brain and in the elementary thinking processes with which humans are born and which develop in infancy, such as mechanical memory,
4 vygotsky and second language acquisition involuntary attention, and perception. These elementary mental functions are shaped by the sociocultural situation of development into which children are born and by their social interactions in those situations. An infant s developing perception, attention, and memory lead to communication between the child and caregivers, with the latter ascribing communicative intent to the infant s gestures and sounds. Through this early social interaction children develop communicative intentionality and the initial use of symbols to convey meaning key elements in the acquisition of language. A qualitative transformation in social interaction takes place as communication of meaning is accomplished through signs and the development of language use, and through the ability to generalize in the creation and the use of signs (Vygotsky, 1997b, p. 55). It turns out that just as social interaction is impossible without signs, it is also impossible without meaning. To communicate an experience of some other content of consciousness to another person, it must be related to a class or group of phenomena. As we have pointed out, this requires generalization. Social interaction presupposes generalization and the development of verbal meaning; generalization becomes possible only with the development of social interaction. (Vygotsky, 1987, p. 48) Two basic functions of speech, reflection of reality in a generalized way and communicative social interaction, are important components of the system of meaning and thus of verbal thinking. The ability to generalize, which is developed through play and communicative social interaction, is manifest internally in the structure of generalization that a child develops, a structure that provides the foundation for the system of meaning. In Thinking and Speech, Vygotsky (1987) describes the development of this structure of generalization as the child acquires language, focusing on the different modes of thinking that create the formation of connections, the establishment of relationships among different concrete impressions, the unification and generalization of separate objects, and the ordering and the systematization of the whole of the child s experience (p. 135). Vygotsky emphasizes the processes necessary to acquire these modes of thinking voluntary attention, partitioning, comparison, analysis, abstraction, and synthesis essential for the development of verbal thinking and the structure of generalization. In his analysis of the development of conceptual thinking, Vygotsky focuses on the origins and development of the pseudo-concept, which occurs when a child and an adult both focus on an object designated by a word, and in that shared interactive contact they are able to communicate; however, they use different forms of thinking to arrive at the point where they are using the same word for an object. The child thinks the same content differently, in another mode, and through different intellectual operations (1987, p. 152). The child and the adult have different modes of thought as the foundation for their systems of meaning. The child and adult understand each other with the pronunciation of the word dog because they relate the word to the same object, because they have the same concrete content in mind. However, one thinks of the concrete complex dog [the pseudo-concept] and the other of the abstract concept dog (p. 155). Vygotsky claims that children develop their own sense of a word as it is internalized, with sense both developing and being developed by the system of meaning. Sense (smysl) is an important component in the system of meaning, with the more stable lexical meaning as an essential but subordinate part of sense. In inner speech, we find a predominance of the word s sense over its meaning (1987, p. 274). Vygotsky describes the process of social interaction through which meaning is internalized into an individual s sense with the meaning of the word in inner speech as an individual meaning, a meaning understandable only in the plane of inner speech (p. 279). There are always going to be degrees of divergence among meanings that have developed in a particular social setting and the
vygotsky and second language acquisition 5 sense of words or concepts incorporated into an individual s system of meaning. Vygotsky explains that [t]o some extent, [sense] is unique for each consciousness and for a single consciousness in varied circumstances (p. 276). The sense of a word is never complete, but evolves with the system of meaning of which it is a part through activity in the social situation of development. Sense as the aggregate of all the psychological facts that arise in our consciousness as the result of the word (pp. 275 6) is a key component in the system of meaning. Ultimately, the word s real sense is determined by everything in consciousness which is related to what the word expresses... [and] ultimately sense depends on one s understanding of the world as a whole and on the internal structure of personality (p. 276). Connected to an individual s system of meaning is an individual s system of concepts. The generalization and abstraction needed to acquire conceptual thinking can only be accomplished through the process of developing a system of concepts, concepts that are introduced externally, primarily through school, concepts that are organized into systems and interconnected with multiple other systems what Vygotsky refers to as scientific concepts. These are internalized in a system of concepts, which becomes similar to the system of meaning during this transition from complexive to conceptual thinking. [P]sychologically, the development of concepts and the development of znachenie slova are one and the same process (1987, p. 180). Recognizing that the development of meaning and concepts takes place through the interrelationships of systems within systems, and understanding where a student is in that process, are important for teachers, whether working with school-aged or with adult second language learners. The recognition that an adult learner has developed a system of meaning in their native language as described above by Vygotsky is an important initial step when working with adults learning a second language. Vygotsky, SLA, and Development Vygotsky argues that learning a second language must be studied in all its breadth and in all its depth as it affects the whole mental development of the child s personality taken as a whole (1997b, p. 259). Studies of second language learners must take into account the whole aggregate of social factors of the child s intellectual development, and must use the genetic method both to trace this development with all of its multifaceted qualities (p. 257) and to explore the complexity of this process, which depends on the age of the children, on the nature of the meeting of the one language with the other and finally, what is most important, on the pedagogical effect on the development of the native and the foreign language (p. 257). His aim was to take into account internal structures of the processes that are directly involved in speech development of the child (p. 257). Even though he laid out key criteria for studying SLA, he did not conduct research in this area himself. Vygotsky does use the processes involved in learning a second or a foreign language to draw an analogy with the processes involved in the development of concepts in systems, what he called scientific concepts, as both are marked by a level of conscious awareness not present in learning one s native language or acquiring everyday, spontaneous concepts. The development of scientific concepts begins in the domain of conscious awareness and volition. It grows downward into the domain of the concrete, into the domain of personal experience (1987, p. 220). Everyday concepts develop in the opposite direction, from the concrete to the more abstract, toward conscious awareness and volition. Scientific concepts restructure and raise spontaneous concepts to a higher level, forming their zone of proximal development (p. 220). Vygotsky compares the relationship between the paths of development of concepts in systems (scientific) and of spontaneous concepts with the relationship that exists between the acquisition of a native language and a second language:
6 vygotsky and second language acquisition The child learns a foreign language in school differently than he learns his native language. He does not begin learning his native language with the study of the alphabet, with reading and writing, with the conscious and intentional construction of phrases, with the definition of words, or with the study of grammar. Generally, however, this is all characteristic of the child s first steps in learning a foreign language. The child learns his native language without conscious awareness or intention; he learns a foreign language with conscious awareness and intention. (1987, p. 221) The level of conscious awareness that children have of their own thinking processes will affect their acquisition of a second language. In drawing a comparison between learning to write and learning a second language, Vygotsky argues that both processes involve a level of conscious awareness that is not present when children learn their native language. When they enter school, children begin to develop a conscious awareness of their attention and memory, but they do not have a conscious awareness of their own thinking processes, an ability that they acquire in adolescence. Where children are in the process of development of their internal systems of meaning is related to the level of conscious awareness they have developed. Vygotsky outlines a number of other differences between the processes of learning a native language and learning a foreign language including affective and emotional concerns, and concludes by stating, The child already possesses a system of meanings in the native language when he begins to learn a foreign language. This system of meanings is transferred to the foreign language (1987, p. 221). He acknowledges that children who acquire two languages from infancy develop two relatively distinct systems of meaning through each language. Citing a study by Ronget, he states, The result of the experiment showed that the child acquired both languages in parallel and almost completely independently of each other (1997b, p. 255). Vygotsky s writings on the development of the system of meaning, and the concomitant formation of concepts, are useful in looking at second language learners. In analyzing both, he examines ways in which changes in internal relationships between mental processes also affect children s experiences of their sociocultural environment and the meaning that they make of these experiences. He calls this experience of meaning one of the most complex problems of contemporary psychology and psychopathology of the personality (1998, p. 290). Understanding the nature of the structure of generalization is key to the development of meaning. Thus, in concept development, the movement from the general to the specific or from the specific to the general is different for each stage in the development of meaning depending on the structure of generalization dominant at that stage (1987, p. 226). Understanding where children are in their concept development can help in understanding their processes of acquiring a second language. Conclusion The fundamental concept that all mental activity is part of an interconnected system of systems is central to all of Vygotsky s work. In approaching second language research, he stressed the importance of studying the interconnectedness of the processes of SLA with processes involved with acquiring one s native language and with the processes at play in the development of the human brain/mind unity the development of the human psyche. Although he did not write about SLA extensively, he did provide a theoretical framework and a methodological approach to guide research into SLA. Unfortunately, an essential aspect of Vygotsky s theoretical framework the system of meaning that is created through the unification of thinking processes and language processes has often been overlooked by researchers who rely on his work.
vygotsky and second language acquisition 7 Mahn (2008) gives an overview of this essential concept, znachenie slova, that provided the focus for Vygotsky s investigation of the relationships between thinking and language use in the development of human consciousness. Without exploring the essence of Vygotsky s work meaning as a system within systems in the thinking body there has been a tendency in SLA research to extrapolate a concept of Vygotsky s from his overall theoretical framework and use it to study some aspect of human development. This isolation is problematic because it leads to overlooking an essential aspect of his work: his investigation of human development as a system within dynamic, physical, social, cultural, natural, and historical systems at the center of which are the processes and interactions through which language is acquired and a system of meaning is created. Vygotsky continually emphasized the need to go beyond appearance, beyond the surface manifestations of a phenomenon, and to look at its interconnectedness with other systems and its process of development from its beginnings to its end. That advice aptly applies to the study of his work. In critiquing Vygotsky s theoretical framework, sociocultural researchers have often relied more heavily on interpretations of his work than on his actual writings. Understanding his central concepts is essential if his theoretical framework is used to guide investigations of SLA, and can best be achieved by reading Vygotsky s major work, Thinking and Speech, in its most complete form (1987) (translation issues notwithstanding) rather than abridgements of that work (1962, 1986). His work is complex and challenging, but his theoretical framework and the methodological approach that constructs it can make a significant contribution to the analysis of language acquisition and its role in the development of the human mind/psyche. SEE ALSO: Methodological Foundations of Sociocultural Theory References Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky s psychology: A biography of ideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lantolf, J. (1994). Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Modern Language Journal, 78(4), 418 20. Mahn, H. (2008, September). Vygotsky s analysis of the system of meaning. Paper presented at the 2008 ISCAR Conference, San Diego, CA. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Problems of general psychology (including the volume Thinking and speech). In The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 1 (pp. 39 285). New York, NY: Plenum Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1997a). Problems of the theory and history of psychology. In The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 3. New York, NY: Plenum Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1997b). The history of the development of higher mental functions. In The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 4. New York, NY: Plenum Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1998). Child psychology. In The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 5. New York, NY: Plenum Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1999). Scientific legacy. In The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 6. New York, NY: Plenum Press. Suggested Readings van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (Eds.). (1994). The Vygotsky reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Vygotsky, L. S. (1993). The fundamentals of defectology (abnormal psychology and learning disabilities). In The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky. Vol. 2. New York, NY: Plenum Press.