Executive summary Cognitive Training Benefits Professionals Kay Grossman, M.A., and Avner Stern, Ph.D. Understanding and managing attention is now the single most important determinant of business success (Davenport & Beck, 2001). Professionals need superb attention skills to succeed in today s competitive work environment. The modern business world places unprecedented demands on attention, which is the cornerstone of concentration, problem- solving, and the ability to set priorities and focus on them. The downside of technology designed to streamline communication is that it also interrupts, distracts, and bombards us with too much information. The normal aging process takes an additional toll on our brains, reducing our ability to concentrate and to ignore distractions. Recent advances in neuroscience demonstrate that we can train our brains to improve crucial cognitive abilities, such as working memory. Working memory the ability to briefly hold information in mind and manipulate and act on it is essential to our thought processes and our ability to pay attention. Working memory training offers significant benefits, including enhancing: Focus and concentration Ability to ignore distractions Complex reasoning Time management skills Performance under pressure Introduction We live in a culture and time that places extraordinary demands on our attention. Smartphones, email alerts, RSS feeds, and more blitz us with distractions wherever we are. According to a recent study, the average person is bombarded daily with enough information to overload a laptop computer within a week (Bohn & Short, 2010). The media refer to the age of distraction and a poverty of attention. Newly coined terms, such as continuous partial attention (Stone, 2008), and a newly recognized disorder, Attention Deficit Trait or ADT (Hallowell, 2008), highlight the negative ramifications of attention overload. Sharply honed attention skills are critical at all levels of professional performance. Yet, as psychiatrist Edward Hallowell suggests in an article in the Harvard Business Review, practices in the modern office are turning steady executives into frenzied underachievers (Hallowell, 2008). The ever- increasing noise in the environment overloads our central
nervous system and causes smart people to under- perform. Attention overload limits our ability to engage in complex problem- solving; to prioritize large, difficult tasks; and to handle distractions and stress. At the same time as demands on our attention increase, normal aging takes its toll on our brains. Working memory, a key cognitive function essential for thinking, planning, and attention performs at its best when we are 25 to 30 years old, after which it starts to decline at a rate of about 5 to 10 percent per decade (Klingberg T., The Overflowing Brain, 2009). A decline in working memory hampers our ability to ignore distractions. By our mid to late 40s, these declines become noticeable in our daily activities, both personal and professional. Clearly, we need help to keep our attention sharply focused. Recent neuroscientific discoveries are showing us the way. Using PET scans, EEGs and functional MRIs, neurological research offers insights into the intricacies of attention and memory, and has led to evidence- based interventions that go beyond the self- help advice found in many current books, articles, and blogs. This paper provides an overview of the rationale for cognitive training for professionals. It includes: A definition of attention and executive function An explanation of working memory A description of recent advances in science, specifically regarding the ability to modify cognitive functions with training Recognition that working memory can be improved with cognitive training The benefits of cognitive training for professionals, executives and the organizations for which they work A definition of attention and executive function We all have a sense of what it means to pay attention. Most of us, however, are unaware of how important attention is to how our brains perform. It is biologically impossible to learn, remember, or manipulate information to which the brain has not paid attention. Here s the classic definition of attention, by nineteenth century psychologist William James: It is the taking possession by the mind in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought...it implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others (James, 1890). Today we know that attention is a complex, dynamic process that involves selecting what is important to notice, to do, and to remember, moment by moment (Brown T. E., 2005). It is linked closely with executive functions, or self- regulatory mechanisms in the brain. Psychologist Thomas E. Brown, Ph.D., says, Most researchers agree that the term [executive function] should be used to refer to brain circuits that prioritize, integrate, and regulate other cognitive functions (Brown T. E., 2005). Inhibition, resistance to distraction, verbal and nonverbal working memory, and planning are examples of executive functions (Barkley, Murphy, & Fischer, 2008). What is working memory? KAY GROSSMAN MA LLC 2
Working memory is a system for temporary storage and manipulation of information (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). It s critical for controlling attention, focus, planning, problem solving, comprehending, remembering, and controlling impulses. It s also essential for fluid reasoning thinking logically and solving problems in novel situations. Working memory is one of the primary factors in the use of intelligence. In fact, research suggests it s the single most important factor in predicting both reasoning ability and general intelligence (SüB, Oberauer, Schulze, & Wilhelm, 2005). Working memory is considered a primary indicator of professional, personal and academic success. Working memory serves as the search engine of the mind, enabling us to process the onslaught of information that we encounter every day. It allows us to: Comprehend long sentences, spoken or written Understand what we read and to do math Retain information to complete a task Recall memories needed for immediate tasks Resist distractions and irrelevant information Remember what to concentrate on Neuroscientist and researcher, Torkel Klingbeg, M.D.,Ph.D., says working memory is especially important in any cognitively demanding environment with irrelevant distractions (Klingberg T., Training of Working Memory- Cogmed Research Summary, 2008). Brain plasiticity Until recently, experts thought the brain was unchangeable and that decline in brain performance was unavoidable and irreversible. Recent neuroscientific advances, however, have shattered that belief, introducing the term neuroplasticity to our lexicon. Neuroplasticity, or brain plasticity, refers to the brain s ability to change throughout life. The brain has the remarkable ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections between brain cells (neurons). Thanks to research, we now know that carefully designed training can improve certain cognitive functions and grow and reorganize neural pathways. However, the training must be specific and rigorous. Just as taking a five- minute stroll is unlikely to improve physical fitness, simply working a crossword puzzle is unlikely to improve brain fitness. Brain imaging techniques that precisely map brain function reveal the connection between thought and specific brain physiology. They, in fact, show that the mind, itself, can change the brain. This process, termed self- directed neuroplasticity, refers to our ability to change our cerebral function through the active practice of focusing attention in constructive ways (Schwartz & Begley, 2002). Further, research reveals that attention affects the physical activity of the brain. According to researcher Jeffrey Schwartz, how you direct your attention (e.g. mindfully or unmindfully) will affect both [your] experiential state and the state of [your] brain (Schwartz, Stapp, & Beauregard, 2005). Cognitive training can improve working memory KAY GROSSMAN MA LLC 3
Cognitive neuroscience research has made two important discoveries that have allowed us to significantly improve many people s lives. First, working memory plays a critical role in brain function, affecting professional, personal, and academic performance. Studies consistently show that most people with attention deficits also have a working memory deficit. This holds true for attention problems due to environmental distractions and normal aging, as well as for ADHD and traumatic brain injury. Second, working memory can be trained, and gains in working memory result in improved cognitive functioning. Studies show that with the right kind of training, we can increase working memory capacity by 18% or more. In contrast to the extensive research on the basic science of working memory, research on the training of working memory is more recent. Research in this decade challenges the long- held view that working memory capacity is fixed and cannot be increased with training. Gold standard research reported in a substantial body of scientific literature (including Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, Neuroscience, Journal of the American Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Brain injury, Developmental Science, Science, Applied Cognitive Psychology, School Mental Health, Psychology and Aging) indicates that working memory capacity can increase with intensive training. Furthermore, the research shows a link between increasing working memory capacity and subsequent improvement in important aspects of real world functioning. A brief summary of both the past and ongoing research on working memory training indicates the following: Working memory training in young adults and older adults shows significant improvement in working memory capacity, sustained attention, and everyday functions. Working memory training can result in improvement of working memory capacity across all ages. An initial impairment is not necessary for improvement of working memory to occur (Westerberg, D'Hondt, Soderlund, & Backman, 2007). The neural systems that underlie working memory are plastic and can be improved by training (Olesen, Westerberg, & Klingberg, 2004). Working memory training changes brain biochemistry in the prefrontal and parietal areas of the brain, the brain regions shown to be active when participants performed working memory tasks (McNab, et al., 2009). Working memory training effects continue over time (Klingberg, et al., 2005). In sum, working memory training results in lasting improvement in attention, concentration, and overall professional and personal functioning. Not all working memory training is equal, however. It pays to be an informed consumer in this age of brain fitness, with many programs marketed to train our brains. The most widely researched and validated working memory training available today is Cogmed Working Memory Training. Cogmed offers evidenced- based, professionally supported training for children and adults. KAY GROSSMAN MA LLC 4
Benefits of cognitive training for professionals, executives and their organizations In today s knowledge- based economy, leaders excel through their use of complex thought and reasoning, which is inextricably tied to working memory and attention. It s no surprise that many high- achieving professionals seek ways to keep themselves at peak performance in light of the challenges they face. Cogmed Working Memory Training provides a science- based program for improving attention. Studies and experience with successful professionals in our own practices have shown significant working memory gains after training. This dramatic outcome is roughly equivalent to gaining about 8 IQ points and reversing decades of cognitive decline due to natural aging. Common practical benefits including improvement in focus, complex reasoning, time management, and ability to excel under pressure. Conclusion Experts suggest that understanding and managing attention is now the single most important determinant of business success (Davenport & Beck, 2001). Today s business professionals face enormous demands on their attention, including ever- increasing volumes of information, frequent interruptions and an accelerating business pace. Working memory training offers a proven solution to counter information overload and the normal effects of aging. It helps business leaders achieve greater success and operate with peak mental performance. Works Cited 1. Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working Memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory (pp. 47-90). New York: Academic Press. 2. Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., & Fischer, M. (2008). ADHD in Adults: What the Science Says. New York: The Guilford Press. 3. Bohn, R. E., & Short, J. E. (2010, January). How Much information? 2009 Report on American Consumers. Retrieved May 16, 2010 from How Much Information?: http://hmi.ucsd.edu/pdf/hmi_2009_consumerreport_dec9_2009.pdf 4. Brown, T. E. (2005). Attention Deficit Disorder: The Unfocused Mind in Children and Adults. New Haven: Yale University Press. 5. Brown, T. E. (2005). Attention Deficit Disorder: The Unfocused Mind in Children and Adults. New Haven: Yale University Press. 6. Davenport, T. H., & Beck, J. C. (2001). The Attention Economy: Understanding the New Currency of Business. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. 7. Edin, F., Klingberg, T., Johansson, P. M., Tégner, J., & Compte, A. (2009). Mechanism for top=down control of working memory capacity. PNAS, Online early edition. 8. Hallowell, E. M. (2008, February). Overloaded Circuits: Why Smart People Underperform. Harvard Business Review, Online Version, 1-7. 9. Helsinki, U. o. (2010, May 8). Retrieved May 18, 2010 from ScienceDaily: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100413105704.htm KAY GROSSMAN MA LLC 5
10. James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Henry Holt & Company. 11. Klingberg, T. (2009). The Overflowing Brain. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 12. Klingberg, T. (2008). Training of Working Memory-Cogmed Research Summary. Karolinska Institute. 13. Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlstroem, K., et al. (2005). Computerized Training of Working Memory in Children with ADHD- - a Randomized, Controlled Trial. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177-186. 14. Klingberg, T., Forssberg, H., & Werterberg, H. (2002). Training of working memory in children with ADHD. Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24, 781-791. 15. McNab, F., Varrone, A., Farde, V., Jacaite, A., Bystritsky, P., Forssberg, T., et al. (2009). Changes in Cortical Dopamine D1 Receptor Binding Associated withcognitive Training. Science. 16. Olesen, P., Westerberg, H., & Klingberg, T. (2004). Increased prefrontal and parietal brain activity after training of working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 7, 75-79. 17. Pocheptsova, A., Amir, O., Dhar, R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2008). Deciding Without Resources: Resource Depletion and Choice in Context. Journal of Marketing Research, 31. 18. Rubenstein, J. S., Meyer, D. E., & Evans, J. (2001). Executive Control of Cognitive Processes in Task Switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27. 19. Schwartz, J. M., & Begley, S. (2002). The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force. Harper. 20. Schwartz, J., Stapp, H., & Beauregard, M. (2005). Quantum physics in neuroscience and psychology: a neurophysical model of mind- brain interaction. Pholosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1313. 21. Stone, L. (2008, January 9). Fine Dining With Mobile Devices. Retrieved May 16, 2010 from Huffington Post: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/linda- stone/fine- dining- with- mobile- d_b_80819.html 22. Westerberg, H. B., D'Hondt, N., Soderlund, D., & Backman, L. (2007). Working memory training for young adults and elderly without WM impairments. Karolinska Institute, Aging Resource Center. Stockholm: submitted. 23. Zanto, T. P. (2010). Predective knowledge of stimulus relevance does not influence top- down suppression of irrelevant information in older adults. Cortex. KAY GROSSMAN MA LLC 6