Poetic Labor: Meaning and Matter in Robert Frost's Poetry.

Claremont Colleges Scholarship @ Claremont CMC Senior Theses CMC Student Scholarship 2016 Poetic Labor: Meaning and Matter in Robert Frost's Poetry. Lina Pan Claremont McKenna College Recommended Citation Pan, Lina, "Poetic Labor: Meaning and Matter in Robert Frost's Poetry." (2016). CMC Senior Theses. Paper 1401. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/1401 This Open Access Senior Thesis is brought to you by Scholarship@Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in this collection by an authorized administrator. For more information, please contact scholarship@cuc.claremont.edu.

Claremont McKenna College Poetic Labor: Meaning and Matter in Robert Frost s Poetry. submitted to Robert Faggen and Dean Peter Uvin by Lina Pan for Senior Thesis Spring 2016 April 25, 2016

!! Abstract!! This!thesis!examines!Frost s!conception!of!poetry!as!the!labor!of!shaping!human! value.!it!investigates!how!frost!consciously!shaped!his!notions!of! sound!of! sense!and!metaphor,!which!he!deemed!fundamental!elements!of!poetic!labor,!in! contradistinction!to!the!modernist!poetics!of!eliot!and!pound.!the!author!closely! examines!a!representative!sample!of!frost s!poetry!and!prose!as!critiques!of! Modernist!poetic!theory!and!its!implications!for!what!Frost!deemed!the!essential! human!function!of!poetry.!the!thesis!will!interest!scholars!studying!strains!of! English!poetic!thought!that!developed!concurrently!with!and!against!Modernist! poetic!thought.!more!broadly,!it!will!interest!those!who!seek!a!serious!and! thoughtful!challenge!to!modernist!literary!trends!that!prevail!even!today.!!!!!

!! Table!of!Contents!! An!Overview!of!Frost s!conception!of!poetic!labor..!1! Imagining!Human!Value 20! Concluding!Remarks...51! Bibliography.52!

Pan 1! I.!An!Overview!of!Frost s!conception!of!poetic!labor.! Poetryisthemostprofoundformofhumanlabor.Andlaborisman s foremostmeansofassertinghisowntermsofworthagainsttheamoralworldof matter.theseattitudes,whichemergeoverthecourseofhiswritings,are fundamentaltofrost spoetics. FrostdoesnotgosofarasEmersoninportrayingtheuniverseas the externizationofthesoul. 1 Instead,hewithholdsfromthepoetElaborerabsolute dominionoverhismaterials.withoutemerson sguarantee,naturerevertsto indifferenceandattimeshostilitytowardsthepoet sattemptstoharnessit. Therenonethelessremainsanextenttowhichhemaysucceedinshapingthat greatruck,chieflythroughcreativeeffortsthatmanipulateperspective.itisto thisextentthatthepoetmayusenatureastherawmaterialofhismetaphors. Thisattitudetowardscreativityisallegorizedin Birches : ButIwasgoingtosaywhenTruthbrokein WithallhermatterEofEfactabouttheiceEstorm Ishouldprefertohavesomeboybendthem Ashewentoutandintofetchthecows 2 Frostrecognizesman sinstinctto prefer natureacertainway,andtolaborto realizethatpreference,thoughitsattainmentmayproveimpossible.hepresents thiscreativetendencyasthetruedrivingforceofthepoet.one seventualfailure tounitemeaningwithmatter,theargumentgoes,shouldnotdiscourageone fromreachingasfarasonecanintotheruckofnatureandmakingasmuchuse ofitaspossible.asfrostwritesin NewHampshire, hewould hatetobea 1RalphWaldoEmerson, ThePoet, inthe'essential'writings'of'ralph'waldo'emerson,ed.brooks Atkinsonetal.(NewYork:ModernLibrary,2000),293. 2RobertFrost, Birches, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryofamerica,1995, 118.

Pan 2 runawayfromnature. Hedeemspoetswhosuccumbtowhathecalls Matthew Arnoldism, whoknow toowellforanyearthlyuse Thelinewheremanleavesoffandnaturestarts, AndneveroverEsteppeditsaveindreams 3, inferioraesthetesforfallingback onwords,and[trying]hisworsttomake wordsspeak/louderthanactions,andsometimes[achieving]it. 4 Thisuneasyrelationshipbetweenmeaningandmatterinformsboth Frost sconceptionofmetaphorandhisunderstandingofpoeticlanguage.to Frost,poemsthatshyawayfromauthenticexperienceandonlyconcern themselveswithtextualexperimentsareproductsofapoetwho can tdo anything. 5 Whetheroutoffearorpretension,suchapoettoyswithlanguage withoutacknowledgingitsrootsinlife,andfailstoachievemorethanthe superficialrearrangementofwords.butfrostdeemedlifethetruematerial, concern,andendofpoetry indeed,ofcreativityitself.heremarkedtopoetand criticwilliambraithwaitethat [w]henwordsworthsaid, Writewithyoureyeontheobject...he reallymeantsomethingmore.thatsomethingcarriesoutwhati meanbywritingwithyoureartothevoice.thatiswhat Wordsworthdidhimselfinallhisbestpoetry,provingthat'there' can'be'no'creative'imagination'unless'there'is'a'summoning'up'of' experience,'fresh'from'life,'which'has'not'hitherto'been'evoked.as languageonlyreallyexistsinthemouthsofmen,hereagain Wordsworthwasrightintryingtoreproduceinhispoetrynot onlythewords andintheirlimitedrangetoo,actuallyusedin commonspeech buttheirsound. 6 [emphasisadded] 3RobertFrost, NewHampshire, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,161. 4Frost, NewHampshire, 161. 5Frost, NewHampshire, 161. 6RobertNewdick, RobertFrostandtheSoundofSense, American'Literature9(3).Duke UniversityPress:294,doi:10.2307/2919660.

Pan 3 Indiscussingthenatureofpoeticlanguage,Frostremainstruetohisviewthat creativeimaginationdependsuponthe summoningupofexperience,freshfrom life,whichhasnothithertobeenevoked. Poeticlanguagemustcapturethe underlyingcadencesoflivingspeechifthepoetisevertoachieveauthenticity andoriginalityofexpression.theproblemwithpoetrythatlimitsits considerationstothoseofthetext,hearguestobraithwaite,is notsomuchthatitkeepsforevertothesamesetphrases(though Heavenknowsthosearebadenough)butthatitsoundsforever withthesamereadingtones.wemustgooutintothevernacular fortonesthathaventbeenbroughttobook.wemustwritewith theearonthespeakingvoice.wemustimaginethespeaking voice. 7 TheimportanceoftheverbalimaginationtoFrostcannotbeunderstated.Ina letteraddressedtoliterarycriticsidneycox,hearguesfortheprimaryaesthetic importanceofthe hearingear, statingthatpoets valuetheseeingeyealready.timewesaidsomethingaboutthe hearingeareetheearthatcallsupvividsentenceforms. Wewriteofthingsweseeandwewriteinaccentswehear.Thus wegatherbothourmaterialandourtechniquewiththe imaginationfromlife:andourtechniquesbecomesasmuch materialasmaterialitself. 8 ButitwouldbeuntruetoclaimthatFrostdeemsvisualmaterialsin'themselves alienatedfromlifeandirrelevanttopoetry.hischallengeistowardapoetrythat concernsitselfsolelywiththevisualpossibilitiespresentedbytextual manipulation,renderingsecondaryorevennonexistentconsiderationsof authentichumanexpression.tofrost,visualandverbalmaterialsmustbothbe gatheredby theimaginationfromlife toservetheirrespectiveendsinthe 7RobertFrost, LettertoWilliamBraithwaite,March22,1915, inthe'letters'of'robert'frost,' 1886G1920,ed.DonaldSheehyetal.(Cambridge,MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014.), 265. 8RobertFrost, LettertoSidneyCox,Dec1914, inthe'letters'of'robert'frost,'1886g1920,ed. DonaldSheehyetal.(Cambridge,MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014.), 234.

Pan 4 creativeprocess.thepoet sfollywouldbetoconflateorconfusetheseends,for eachmaterialcanonlybeusedtoachieveitsparticularend.onecannot,in Frost sopinion,generatenew,authenticmeansofaccessinghumanexperience solelythroughthemanipulationoftext,fortheonlyauthenticgeneration possibleinpoeticlanguage andindeedalllanguage isonethattakesplace spontaneouslyinspeech.ifthegreatendofpoetryistoaccesssomeauthentic truthofexperience,thenthepoetmustgatherandwriteinorganictonesofvoice soastobestreachthefacilityinthereaderthatrecognizesalltrueexpressions ofitshumanity: Inliteratureitisourbusinesstogivepeoplethethingthatwill makethemsay, OhyesIknowwhatyoumean. Itisnevertotell themsomethingtheydontknow,butsomethingtheyknowand hadntthoughtofsaying.itmustbesomethingtheyrecognize. 9 Tocapturetherealcadencesoflivingexperience,then,thepoetmustnotlookto inventbetter,butperceivedeeper;hemustgather sentencesounds bytheear freshfromtalk,wheretheygrowspontaneously. 10 Frostconceivesofsentencessoundsasfundamentalunitsofmeaning uponwhich othersoundscalledwordsmaybestrung : Itmaytakesometimetomakepeoplesee theyareso accustomedtolookatthesentenceasagrammaticalclusterof words.thequestioniswheretobegintheassaultontheir prejudice.formypartihaveaboutdecidedtobeginby demonstratingbyexamplesthatthesentenceasasoundinitself apartfromthewordsoundsisnomerefigureofspeech.ishall showthesentencesoundsayingallthesentenceconveyswith littleornohelpfromthemeaningofthewords.ishallshowthe sentencesoundopposingthesenseofthewordsasinirony.and sotilliestablishthedistinctionbetweenthegrammaticalsentence 9RobertFrost, LettertoJohnBartlett,February22,1914, inthe'letters'of'robert'frost,'1886g 1920,ed.DonaldSheehyetal.(Cambridge,MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014.), 174. 10Frost, LettertoJohnBartlett,February22,1914, 173.

Pan 5 andthevitalsentence. 11 Inconsideringthetrue,vitalsourceofpoeticmeaning,Frostdistinguishes between sentencesounds and wordsounds. Hedescribestheformeras organicoutgrowthsofspokenlanguagethatthepoet [summons]fromheaven knowswhereunderexcitementwiththeaudileimagination,andthelatteras merevisualmarkersoftheformer,withafunctionakintothatofmusical notation.thegrammaticalsentence,hestates,is merelyaccessoryto[thevital sentence]andchieflyvaluableasfurnishingacluetoit. 12 Thetruesourceof poeticmeaning,then,cannotbetext,whichonitsownservesonlyasnotation. Instead,poeticmeaningisrootedinsentencesoundsthatcommunicatethe soundofsense withlittleornohelpfromthemeaningofthewords. 13 Moreover,thesesentencesoundscanonlybecaught freshfromtalk,wherethey growspontaneously 14 ;thepoetcannotinventthem.frostwasunderstandably suspiciousofproclaimedinnovationsinpoeticformthatdependedon experimentingwiththetextitself: [Freeverse]sometimessucceedsinpaintingapicturethatisvery clearandstartling.it sgoodassomethingcreatedmomentarilyfor itssuddenstartlingeffect.ithasn tthequalities,however,of somethinglastinglybeautiful. Andsometimesmyobjectiontoitisthatit sapose.it snothonest. Whenamansetsoutconsciouslytotearupformsandrhythms andmeasures,thenheisnotinterestedingivingyoupoetry.he justwantstoperform;hewantstoshowyouhistricks.hewillget aneffect;nobodywilldenythat,butitisnotaharmoniouseffect. 15 ToFrost,originalityinpoetryhasnothingtodowithmanipulatingthetextto createstartlingeffects.instead,apoetachievestrueoriginalitywhenhehas 11Frost, LettertoSidneyCox,Dec1914, 233. 12Frost, LettertoSidneyCox,Dec1914, 234. 13Frost, LettertoSidneyCox,Dec1914, 233. 14Frost, LettertoJohnBartlett,February22,1914, 173. 15Newdick, RobertFrostandtheSoundofSense, 294.

Pan 6 posturedhiswordswithlivingtonesofvoicethathavenotyetbeentransmuted intopoetry.withinfrost spoeticsofsound,then,thetextitselfdoesnot generatemeaningorform,butservesasamediumthroughwhichthepoetmay posturetheorganicinflectionsofemotionthatdevelopspontaneouslyinhuman speech. Frostconceivesoftherelationbetweensoundandmeaningsuchthat everymeaninghasaparticularsoundeposture,ortoputitanotherway,the senseofeverymeaninghasaparticularsoundwhicheachindividualis instinctivelyfamiliarwith. 16 Hisconceptionofsoundasthe posture ofpoetic meaningpointstoapositiveviewofpoeticform:itsuggeststhatthepoetcan achievelastingmeaningandformbyincorporatingthesoundofsenseintohis poeticefforts,andthatthepotentialforlastingformandmeaninginfact preexistsintherawmaterialofpoetry(i.e.sounditself).frosthadaconfidence inwhatthepoetcouldachievewithsoundposturesthatfarsurpassedhis confidenceinwhatthepoetcouldachievewithmetaphor: Thevisualimagesthrownupbyapoemareimportant,butit s moreimportantstilltochooseandarrangewordsinasequenceso asvirtuallytocontroltheintonationsandpausesofthereader s voice.bythearrangementandchoiceofwordsonthepartofthe poet,theeffectsofhumor,pathos,hysteria,anger,and,infact,all effects,canbeindicatedandobtained. 17 Here,Frostdescribesthepoetasaskillfulagentabletomanipulatewordsand soundsintosequencestoelicitspecificauditoryandemotionaleffectsinthe reader.thisdescriptionaddsanimportantnuancetoourunderstandingof Frost spoet:hedoesnotmerelyrecordthetonesofvoicehereceivesfromlife, 16Newdick, RobertFrostandtheSoundofSense, 292. 17Newdick, RobertFrostandtheSoundofSense,298.

Pan 7 butexerciseshiscreativewilloverthem.theproofofhiscreativewilland judgmentishisabilitytobringthosetonesintoform.hence,therearetwotasks forthepoetconcernedwithrenderingthesoundofsenseintolanguage.itisnot enoughforhimtobeattunedtothetonesofvoicefromlife;hemustknowhow toshapetheseraw,irregularmaterialsintopoetry,chieflybybringingtheminto tensionwiththeregularbeatofmeter.inalettertojohnbartlett,frostwrites: Butrememberwearestilltalkingmerelyoftherawmaterialof poetry.anearandanappetiteforthesesoundsofsenseisthefirst qualificationofawriter,beitofproseorverse.butifoneistobea poethemustlearntogetcadencesbyskillfullybreakingthe soundsofsensewithalltheirirregularityofaccentacrossthe regularbeatofthemetre.verseinwhichthereisnothingbutthe beatofthemetrefurnishedbytheaccentsofthepollysyllabic[sic] wordswecalldoggerel. 18 AndinalettertoWalterPritchardEaton,headds: [Thesesounds]arerealcavethings:theywerebeforewordswere. Andtheyareasdefinitelythingsasanyimageofsight.Themost creativeimaginationisonlytheirsummoner.butsummoningthem isnotall.they'are'only'lovelywhenthrownanddrawnand displayedacrossspacesofthefootedline.everyoneknowsthat exceptafreeeverster. 19 [emphasisadded] Frost sconfidenceinthepoet sskilltobringthesoundofsenseintoform indeed,toimproveitwithform standsinsharpcontrasttohisambiguous attitudetowardsthepoet sabilitytoaccomplishanythingequalwithhisvisual materials.thatmayhavetodowithhislackofconfidenceinhisvisualmaterials, asillustratedbythisexcerptfromhisnotebooks: Natureisachaos.Humanityisaruck theruckisadiscouraging mediumtoworkin.formisonlyroughlyachievedthereandat bestleavesthemindadissatisfaction,afearofimpermanence,and 18RobertFrost, LettertoJohnBartlett,July4,1913, inthe'letters'of'robert'frost,'1886g1920, ed.donaldsheehyetal.(cambridge,ma:belknappressofharvarduniversitypress,2014.),123. 19RobertFrost, LettertoWalterPritchardEaton,September18,1914, inthe'letters'of'robert' Frost,'1886G1920,ed.DonaldSheehyetal.(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversity Press,2014.),335.

Pan 8 arelativeconfusion.itisalwaystransitionalasrollingclouds cohere afigureneverquitetakesshapebeforeitbeginstobe anotherfigure.contemplationturnsfromitinmentaldistressto thephysicians.thetruerevoltfromitisnotintomadnessorintoa reform.itisoutwardinthelineprojectedbynaturetohuman natureandsoontoindividualnature.itistheonemanworkingin amediumofpaintwordsornotes orwoodoriron.nothing composesthemindlikecomposing.letameremanattemptno morethanheismeantfor. 20 AlthoughFrostisconfidentabouttheintrinsicvalueofthetonesofvoicethat comprisehisauditorymaterials,hedoesnotextendthesameconfidencetohis visualmaterials.thelanguagehedescribesthemwithisthatofimpermanence, disarray,andindefiniteness ofaruckwherefigurescan neverquitetake shape. Thepoet srelationshipwithhisvisualmaterials,then,ismuchmore strained,withthepoet screativewillplayingamorecomplexandtroubledrole inunitingmatterwithmeaning.inhiswritings,frosttendstopersonifythis straininthefigureofthelaborer.forhim,thefigureofthelaboreris commensuratewiththefigureofthepoet:bothsharethestruggleofimposing somemeaningfulformuponlarge,rough,andundifferentiatedmassesofmatter. Justasthescytheortheaxeisthetoolbywhichthelaborerharnesses nature,metaphoristhepoet smeansoforganizinghismaterialsaccordingtohis will.thatdoesnotmeanthepoetmaydisregardrealityorarrangeeverything arbitrarily.instead,hismetaphorsmustreflectaninhumannaturalrealitywhile simultaneouslyexpressingastubbornlyhumaninterpretationofthatreality. Thesetwoportraitsofrealitycoexistwhenthepoetunderstandsthelimitto whichhemaybendnaturetohiswill,andincorporatesthislimitintohis metaphors.asfrostremarks, 20RobertFrost, 4.25r, inthe'notebooks'of'robert'frost,ed.robertfaggen.(cambridge,ma: BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2006.),46.

Pan 9 Amanwhomakesreallygoodliteratureislikeafellowwhogoes intothefieldstopullcarrots.hekeepsonpullingthempatiently enoughuntilhefindsacarrotthatsuggestssomethingelsetohim. Itisnotshapedlikeothercarrots.Hetakesouthisknifeand notchesithereandthere,untilthetwoprongedrootsbecomelegs andthecarrottakesonsomethingofthesemblanceofaman.the realgeniustakesholdofthatbitoflifewhichissuggestivetohim andgivesitform.butthemanwhoismerelyarealist,andnota genius,willleavethecarrotjustashefindsit.themanwhois merelyanidealistandnotagenius,willtrytocarveadonkey wherenodonkeyissuggestedbythecarrothepulls. 21 Frost sallegoryofmetaphorcreationdepictstherelationshipbetweenpoetand matterasonehighlydependentonthepoet sperceptionofmatter.everypoetis presentedwiththesameworldofmatter,butthepoeticgeniusisonewho perceivessuggestionsofhumanityinnatureandwillstheformandsubstanceof humanityintoit.thepoet sabilitytoperceivethetrajectoryfrommeaningto matter notmattertomeaning iskeytohissuccesswithmetaphor.because poetic'meaningisimposed,ratherthandiscovered,itmustbeginsomewhere intrinsictothemind. Inthisway,Frost sattitudetowardshisauditorymaterialsdivergesfrom thatofhisvisualmaterials.hisconceptionofsoundofsenseasdefiniteand inherentlymeaningfulpointstoapositiveconceptionofaworldinwhich meaningandformareguaranteed.incontrast,hisunderstandingofmetaphoras limitedandamorphouspointstoaviewofuniversethatdoesnotyieldmeaning orformsoreadily.moreoftenthannot,hismetaphorsremindusofthe metaphysicalopacityofthenaturaluniverse: Once,whentryingwithchinagainstawellEcurb, Idiscerned,asIthought,beyondthepicture, Throughthepicture,asomethingwhite,uncertain, 21RobertFrost, RemarksonForminPoetry(1919), inthe'collected'prose'of'robert'frost,ed. MarkRichardson,(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2007),79.

Pan 10 Somethingmoreofthedepths andthenilostit. Watercametorebukethetooclearwater. Onedropfellfromafern,andlo,aripple Shookwhateveritwaslaythereatbottom, Blurredit,blotteditout.Whatwasthatwhiteness? Truth?Apebbleofquartz?Foronce,then,something. 22 In Foronce,then,something, whatthespeakerfindsinthedepthsofthewellis notaglimpseofsomeobscuredreality,butthe shiningsurfacepicture/[he himself]inthesummerheavengodlike/lookingoutofawreath.histruepower isnottodiscovermeaninginnature,buttoreadhiswillintoit.hence,whether naturemaysomedayyielddeepertruthisoflittlecreativeusetohim,though perhapsofgreatspeculativeconcern.'thepoem stitularremark,then,isaimed atthosewhodonotperceivetheessentialopacityofnature,andwhothereby seemtodiscernmoreinitthan asomethingwhite,uncertain,/somethingmore ofthedepths. Wheretheyclaimtoseeabsolutemeaning,thepoetseesatmost thesuggestionorimpositionofmeaning. Whilethisviewofmeaningseemstounderminethepoet screative imagination,frostparsesoutitsnuancesinpoemssuchas TheFreedomofthe Moon : I'vetriedthenewmoontiltedintheair AboveahazytreeEandEfarmhousecluster Asyoumighttryajewelinyourhair. I'vetrieditfinewithlittlebreadthofluster, Alone,orinoneornamentcombining WithonefirstEwaterstartalmostshining. IputitshininganywhereIplease. Bywalkingslowlyonsomeeveninglater, I'vepulleditfromacrateofcrookedtrees, Andbroughtitoverglossywater,greater, Anddroppeditin,andseentheimagewallow, 22RobertFrost, ForOnce,then,Something, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:library ofamerica,1995,208.

Pan 11 Thecolorrun,allsortsofwonderfollow. 23 Frostappearstograntcreativecontrolinfulltothespeaker.However,he actuallypaintsamorenuancedportraitofcreativeprowess onewhosenatural constraintsthepoetrecognizes,yetretainstheabilitytoexercise.thiscontrolis achievedthroughvisualratherthanphysicalmeans.ifonelookspastthe whimsicalfiguresthemooniscouchedin,itdoesnotrelocateintandemwiththe speaker swords,butremainsfixedinthetableauofthecountryside abovethe treeeandefarmhousecluster, betweena crateofcrookedtrees, andinthe reflectionofabodyofwater.nevertheless,thespeakerusesthemoontoassert anactiveandimperativeroleoverhisenvironment.hetakesadvantageofthe moon sappearanceofmovementtosuggestthatitishis walkingslowlyon someeveninglater thatchangesitsposition,andthatheinfacthasthepowerto putitshininganywhere[he][pleases]. Byaligningsubjectiveperspectivewith objectivereality,heisabletoinsinuatehiscreativewillovernaturewithout havingtoaffectimpossiblechangesinit.thepoet sabilitytomanipulatethe languageofperspectivethusgrantshimmorecreativecontroloverhismaterials thanwouldbepossibleifhesimplymimickedobjectivereality.itishiscareful masteryoverthetoolsofsubjectivityathisdisposal visualperspective, language,andmetaphor thatallowshimtosay asyougomorethanyouevenhopedyouweregoingtobeableto say,andcomingwithsurprisetoanendthatyouforeknewonly withsomesortofemotion. 24 23RobertFrost, TheFreedomoftheMoon, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:library ofamerica,1995,224. 24RobertFrost, EducationbyPoetry;AMeditativeMonologue, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays (NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1995,728.

Pan 12 The emotion mentionedhereis,infrost sview,theoriginatorofpoetic substance.whetherornotmatterispoeticbynature,itisuptothepoettoshape itintopoetryandhaveittakeonlifeandmeaningindependentofmatter. Metaphoristhusnotmerelyanefforttoorganizematter,butanattemptat combiningsubjectiveandobjectiveparadigmssoastorootpoeticemotionand humanvalueinmatter.thisaccountsfortheselfeconsciousnesspresentwhen Frostusesnatureasmetaphor:thefirstEpersonvoiceisfrequentlyfound hoveringovernature,hyperawareoftheirdisunion. SuchpersistentselfEconsciousnessmightrenderFrost sentirecreative processironicifhedidnotintenselyvaluetheveryattemptattransmuting poeticemotionintosubstance: Greatestofallattemptstosayonethingintermsofanotheristhe philosophicalattempttosaymatterintermsofspirit,orspiritin termsofmatter,tomakethefinalunity.thatisthegreatest attemptthateverfailed.westopjustshortthere.but'it'is'the' height'of'poetry,'the'height'of'all'thinking,'the'height'of'all'poetic' thinking,'that'attempt'to'say'matter'in'terms'of'spirit'and'spirit'in' terms'of'matter.itiswrongtoanybodyamaterialistsimply becausehetriestosayspiritintermsofmatter,asifthatwerea sin.materialismisnottheattempttosayallintermsofmatter.the onlymaterialist behepoet,teacher,scientist,politician,or statesman isthemanwhogetslostinhismaterialwithouta gatheringmetaphortothrowitintoshapeandorder.heisthelost soul. 25 [emphasisadded] Frost svisionpresentsmetaphorastheclosestpointofcontactbetweenmatter andspirit.wearrive,then,toimportanceofsubstantiationtofrost s understandingofpoeticlabor.ithasbeensaidthatthesubjectmatterandvocal matterofapoemmustberootedinmeaningfulhumanexperience.here, however,frostgoesfurther,andlikensthepoeticactofthinkinginmetaphorto 25Frost, EducationbyPoetry, 723E724.

Pan 13 anactofsubstantiation,abringingofaprivate,unnamedpoeticemotionintothe worldofformandmatter.intheabovepassagefromeducation'by'poetry,the finalsubstantiationnevertakesplace,andmatterandspiritremaindivorcedin reality,thoughunitedinvocabulary.nevertheless,theoptimistictoneofthe passagepointstofrost sviewthatpoetryissomethingthatis believedinto existence,that[begins]insomethingmorefeltthanknown. 26 Throughthe processof believingintoexistence, humanvalueandmeaningisbroughtinto directconfrontationwiththeamoralchaosofthematerialuniverse,whichat timesseemstowillfullyundermineitschallenger,andatothertimesdoesso withoutintentionoreffort. Thelattercaseemphasizesthematerialuniverse simperviousnessto humanattemptstofindformandpurposeinit.thefutilityandtrivialityofsuch attemptsishighlightedinpoemssuchas TheDemiurge slaugh : Itwasfarinthesamenessofthewood; IwasrunningwithjoyontheDemon strail, ThoughI!knewwhatIhuntedwasnotruegod. Itwasjustasthelightwasbeginningtofail ThatIsuddenlyheard allineededtohear: Ithaslastedmemanyandmanyayear. Thesoundwasbehindmeinsteadofbefore, Asleepysound,butmockinghalf, Asofonewhoutterlycouldn tcare. TheDemonarosefromhiswallowtolaugh, Brushingthedirtfromhiseyeashewent; AndwellIknewwhattheDemonmeant. Ishallnotforgethowhislaughrangout. Ifeltasafooltohavebeensocaught, Andcheckedmystepstomakepretence ItwassomethingamongtheleavesIsought (Thoughdoubtfulwhetherhestayedtosee). 26Frost, EducationbyPoetry, 726.

Pan 14 ThereafterIsatmeagainstatree. 27 Thespeakerin TheDemiurge slaugh runsonthedemon strailwithanease andfreedomsimilartothatexpressedin TheFreedomoftheMoon and For Once,then,Something. Hisisnotanignorant joy, butonethatrecognizesthe limitationsofthepursuititisderivedfrom.nevertheless,thespeakerpreserves asenseofagency thoughheisonthedemon strail,itishewhohunts,andso whoassertscontroloverhisenvironment.theawakeningofthedemon permanentlydisruptshisillusion.inrevealingthedemontobebehindhim insteadofbefore,itexposeshispresumptuousnessinassumingapositionof controloverhisenvironment.andwhilethespeaker ssensesarefullycaptivated bythedemon sactions,thedemonlaughsandgoes,utterlyunengagedwiththe speaker.thespeaker spsychicagencyistrivial;thedemon srealthrallover senseandmatterisnot.chagrinedbyhisimpotence,thespeakerabandonsall pretenseofsubjective,creativepower,andtakesonanevenlessconvincing pretenseofdiscoveringsomeindependentprincipleinnature.thecreative freedomsowhimsicallyandwillfullyexercisedinpoemssuchas TheFreedom ofthemoon dissipateshereundertheoppressiveindifferenceofthematerial world. TheDemon sawakeningoccurs justasthelightwasbeginningtofail, an eventthatcorrespondstowhatisdescribedinfrost sproseasthe evildays 28 duringwhichcreativitybecomesimpossible: 27RobertFrost, TheDemiurge slaugh, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,33. 28RobertFrost, MarionLeroyBurtonandEducation(1925), inthe'collected'prose'of'robert' Frost,ed.MarkRichardson,(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2007), 93.

Pan 15 Gettingsomethingtosayandgettingtechniquearethesamething. Thewholeofartisgettingsomethingtosay.Findoutwhatideas areandstartatoncetohavethembeforetheevildayscomewhen youcan tstartanything. 29 Frostattributesthepoet slossofcreativitytohispassageintoaneraof evil, implicitlyrecognizingpoeticprowessasaregularformofdefenseagainstthe chaoticmalevolenceofnature.however,thisdefenseistemporary.onewayit failsisthroughtheinevitableadvanceofoldageanditsattendantintellectual temptations,which dryup one screativity.themeansfrostofferstocounter thisissimplytogetthemostsubstantialofone spoeticideasoutintheworld beforeonerunsoutofyouth. 30 Anotherwayitfailsisthroughthenatural limitationsoffigurativelanguage.in EducationbyPoetry, Frostpointsoutthat unlessyouareathomeinthemetaphor,unlessyouhavehadyour properpoeticaleducationinthemetaphor,youarenotsafe anywhere.becauseyouarenotateasewithfigurativevalues:you don tknowthemetaphorinitsstrengthanditsweakness.you don tknowhowfaryoumayexpecttorideitandwhenitmay breakdownwithyou.youarenotsafewithscience;youarenot safeinhistory. 31 Frostdidnotconsiderlanguageafailsafemeansofgraspingtheuniverse.As demonstratedinthepassageabove,hebelievedthatthefigurativeand ambiguousnatureofwordsinevitablyledtotheinstabilityofhumanparadigms andtermsofvalue.nevertheless,hedeemedthepliabilityoffiguresits advantagetothepoet.forthisreason,hefoundthebirchtreeanaptfigurefor humancreativity: Thetideofevilrises.YourArkissailingandyoumakemealastE minuteallowanceofasingleplantonboardforseed.(itwould havetobetwoifanimals,ortherewouldbenoseed.well,letitbe 29Frost, MarionLeroyBurton, 93. 30RobertFrost, PoetryandSchool(1951), inthe'collected'prose'of'robert'frost,ed.mark Richardson,(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2007),167. 31Frost, EducationbyPoetry, 721E722.

Pan 16 atree Birches.Don taskmewhyatatimeofdoomandconfusion likethis.myreasonsmightbeforcedandunreal.butifimust defendmychoice,iwillsayitookitforitsvocalityandits ulteriority. 32 Inthepassageabove,Frostpicksoutthebirchtree s vocality and ulteriority astraitshewishestopreserveduringthetimeof evil, forthereasonthatthey willpreservehimagainsttheeffectsofthatevil.asdiscussedbefore,heuses phrasessuchas evil and timeofdoomandconfusion inhiswritingstosignify orportendsomelossofcreativeprowess.whenspeakingofcreativeimpotence, hedoesnotrefertoasterileandblankmentalspace,butsituateshimselfright withinthemorassofnature.hissenseofcreativity,inparticularthekindthat employsmetaphor,isthatitdoesnotoccurwithinamentalvacuum,butexistsin tensionwithnature.poeticprowess prowessinfindingaformforone s meaning mustalwaysbeconsideredinrelationtonature,ifnotnecessarilyin oppositiontoit.nature,then,isbothanecessarymediumandan insurmountableobstacleforpoeticlabor. Ifnaturecannotbeconqueredbymetaphor,stillallisnotlostforthe poet.inhisnotebooks,frostarguesthattheactofcomposingthemind not nature istheultimateoutcomeofcreativelabor. 33 Inlinewithhis understandingofpoetryasanextensionofhumanlabor,heappliesits compositionalnatureandeffecttoallacts notjusttheliterary thatfacilitate creativeeffortstousethe ruck asamediumforexpressinghumantermsof value.hiscreativelabor,liketheworkofthefarmelaborersheportrays, 32RobertFrost, Commenton Birches (1933), inthe'collected'prose'of'robert'frost,ed.mark Richardson,(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2007),113. 33Frost, 4.25r, 46.

Pan 17 preserveswhatvestigesofhumanvalueandmeaningitcanamidthechaosof thematerialworld. Thatcreativelaborpreserveshumanvaluebycomposingthemindis emphasizedin Birches. Inthepoem,Frostcontrastshistwostatesascreative laborer:thefirst,asaskillful swingerofbirchescontentwithswinging Towardheaven,tillthetreecouldbearnomore,/Butdippeditstopandset [him]downagain, andthesecond,asaman wearyofconsiderations, groping aboutthehostileruckofnature.thefirstisaportraitofayouthwhohas masteredthelimitsofhiscraft,sometimesevensurpassingthem: Healwayskepthispoise Tothetopbranches,climbingcarefully Withthesamepainsyouusetofillacup Uptothebrim,andevenabovethebrim. 34 Thesecond,ontheotherhand,isaportraitofamanwhohaslosthishopeof achieving anything through creative labor, implicitly because he has tried too hardtogetatsomethingbeyondthescopeofhiscreativepossibilities: SowasIoncemyselfaswingerofbirches. AndsoIdreamofgoingbacktobe. It'swhenI'mwearyofconsiderations, Andlifeistoomuchlikeapathlesswood Whereyourfaceburnsandtickleswiththecobwebs Brokenacrossit,andoneeyeisweeping Fromatwig'shavinglashedacrossitopen. I'dliketogetawayfromearthawhile Andthencomebacktoitandbeginover. 35 Details such as the pathlessness of the wood and the injury to the eye, the primary organ of perception, ensue from the speaker s unspoken attempt to engage with nature beyond what he is capable of. In this sense, the poem 34Frost, Birches, 118. 35Frost, Birches, 118.

Pan 18 illustrates the dangers of creative hubris. It is better to master what one can reasonably expect to master, and be pleasantly surprised when one surpasses those expectations, than to try to master things one can never hope to master, andhaveonlyone sfailuresandlimitationstolooktointheend. Inwritingofhisowncraft,Frostdiscussesthetensionbetweencreative capabilities and limitations in relation to issues of form. The poet, he argues, should achieve small forms needing nobody s cooperation; a basket, a letter, a garden, a room, an idea, a picture, a poem. 36 Otherwise, he will succumb to a selfedestructive dilation ofhismind: Butitisnotpossibletogetoutsidetheageyouareintojudgeit exactly.indeeditisasdangeroustotrytogetoutsideofanything aslargeasanageasitwouldbetoengorgeadonkey.witnessthe manywhointheattempthavesufferedadilationfromwhichthe tissuesandthemusclesofthemindhaveneverbeenableto recovernaturalshape.theycan tpickupanythingdelicateor smallanymore.theycan tuseapen.theyhavetousea typewriter.andtheygapeinagony.theycanwritehugeshapeless novels,hugegobsofrawsinceritybellowingwithpainandthat s allthattheycanwrite. 37 Inotherwords,whatpoetscanandshouldlabortoachieveamidthegreatruck ofnaturearesmall,clearformsthatcanbeconsidered forhowmuchmore[they are]thannothing, andnot howmuchless[theyare]thaneverything : Thebackgroundishugenessandconfusionshadingawayfrom wherewestandintoblackandutterchaos;andagainstthe backgroundanysmallmanemadefigureoforderand concentration.whatpleasanterthanthatthisshouldbeso?tome anylittleformiassertuponitisvelvet,asthesayingis,andtobe consideredforhowmuchmoreitisthannothing.ifiwerea PlatonistIshouldhavetoconsiderit,Isuppose,forhowmuchless itisthaneverything. 38 36RobertFrost, Letter tothe'amherst'student(1935) inthe'collected'prose'of'robert'frost, ed.markrichardson,(cambridge,ma:belknappressofharvarduniversitypress,2007),115. 37Frost, Letter tothe'amherst'student, 114. 38Frost, Letter tothe'amherst'student, 115.

Pan 19 Whilethepoetisnotabletoorganizetheentirebackgroundofhugenessand confusion,thepersistenceoftheruckisnecessaryforcontrast,andenableshim toseeandappreciatethesmallerformsthatheisabletocreate.forthepoet, thesesmallerformsarehismetaphors.limitedthoughtheyareintheirsuccess asforms,theyneverthelessrepresentthebestofthepoet slabor,fortheyallow thepoettoreachoutwithhiseyeintoallofnaturebeforeseizingsomelittle suggestionofformtoimaginehisown. Frost svariousexcursionsintopoeticlanguage scapacitiesand limitationsgiveusamorenuancedunderstandingofhispoeticlabor.his conceptionof soundofsense andmetaphormayseematoddswitheachother, butonemusttakeintoaccounttheemphasisfrostplacedontheroleofthe imaginationintheuseofboth.thepoeticimaginationiscomprisedofthe audile imagination andthevisualone andboth,ultimately,mustdrawfromlife.and whilehedoesnotresolveambiguitiesoverthelongevityofcreativelabororthe instabilityoffigures,hispoetryisproofthattheseshortcomingsdonotinhibita truepoet simagination.poems,afterall,werewritteninspiteofthem.asthe sayinggoes: onecoulddoworsethanbeaswingerofbirches.

Pan 20 II.!Imagining!Human!Value.! Frostdeemedmetaphorthe wholeofthinking. 39 Thatmeantthe trajectoryofwesternintellectualthoughtwasnotbestdescribedbyalinearpath ofimprovement,butbyasuccessionof metaphorsofthehour. Thegreat metaphorsofhisage,inhisopinion,werethoseofscientificadvancementand mechanicalimprovement.thesehetracedtodarwinianandmarxistthinking. Aboveall,hewasalarmedbytheoutcomeofapplyingthescientificnotionof progresstoliterarythinking.inhisopinion,theethosofinevitableadvance mechanicaladvance wasanathematoliterarycreation.itpromisedan expansionoftechnicalpossibilitiesattheexpenseofwhathedeemedthetrue provinceofpoetry:individuality,creativity,and,aboveall,life. InFrost sopinion,poetswhoattempttorenewpoetryinthescientific spiritmakenoprofoundimprovementtotheircraft.instead,theirexperimental, amputativemethodsleadprimarilytoreductiveoutcomes: Itmaycometothenoticeofposterity(andthenagainitmaynot) thatthis,ourage,ranwildinthequestofnewwaystobenew.the oneoldwaytobenewnolongerserved.scienceputitintoour headsthattheremustbenewwaystobenew.thosetriedwere largelybysubtractioneeelimination.poetry,forexample,wastried withoutpunctuation.itwastriedwithoutcapitalletters.itwas triedwithoutmetricframeonwhichtomeasuretherhythm.itwas triedwithoutanyimagesbutthosetotheeye;andaloudgeneral intoninghadtobekeptuptocoverthetotallossofspecificimages totheear,thosedramatictonesofvoicewhichhadhitherto constitutedthebetterhalfofpoetry.itwastriedwithoutcontent underthetradenameofpoesiepure.itwastriedwithoutphrase, epigram,coherence,logicandconsistency.itwastriedwithout ability...itwastriedprematurelikethedelicacyofunborncalfin Asia.Itwastriedwithoutfeelingorsentimentlikemurderfor 39Frost, EducationbyPoetry, 720.

Pan 21 smallpayintheunderworld.thesemanythingswasittried without,andwhathadweleft?stillsomething.thelimitsofpoetry hadbeensorelystrained,butthehopewasthattheideahadbeen somewhatbroughtout. 40 Theabovepassage,fromFrost s IntroductiontoE.A.Robinson s KingJasper, ' reflectsfrost sviewonwhathetermedthe PoundEEliotERichardsEReedschool ofart. 41 Hefoundthemoderneagernesstoreduceeverythingtoamatterof inevitable,monolithicadvance whetherbiological,industrial,orpolitical reflectedinthemodernistpoets obsessionwithencompassingthegeist'oftheir time.t.s.eliotcapturedthisobsessionwithhisargumentinthe'metaphysical' Poetsthatthe greatvarietyandcomplexity ofhiscivilizationnecessitated variousandcomplexresults inpoetry that thepoetmustbecomemoreand morecomprehensive,moreallusive,moreindirect,inordertoforce,todislocate ifnecessary,languageintohismeaning. 42 FrostfoundthemodernistaspirationforpoetstobecomewhatPound calledthe steamegaugesof[their]nation sintellectuallife 43 counterproductive tothepoet staskofmakingpoetry.thougheliotandpoundarguedforthe necessityofadaptingthepoetictasktothetimes,especiallytimessovisibly' estrangedfromthepast,frostfeltthattheirviewentailedsubordinatingthe poet screativeimaginationtothe metaphorofthehour, whichthepoethimself hadnopartinforming.the mindofeurope 44 soprominentineliot s 40RobertFrost, IntroductiontoE.A.Robinson s KingJasper, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays (NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1995,741. 41RobertFrost, ToLesleyFrostFrancis, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,735. 42 T.S.Elioton"TheMetaphysicalPoets", accessedmarch2016, http://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/eliot_metaphysical_poets.htm. 43EzraPound,1934, TheTeacher'sMission.The'English'Journal23(8).NationalCouncilof TeachersofEnglish:630 35.doi:10.2307/804596. 44"TraditionandtheIndividualTalent.T.S.Eliot.1921.TheSacredWood;EssaysonPoetryand Criticism,"accessedMarch2016,http://www.bartleby.com/200/sw4.html.

Pan 22 considerationsofpoetictraditionandcontemporaneitywas,infrost sopinion, butanothermetaphorinthesuccessionofmetaphorsthatcomprisewestern intellectualhistory.tobelievetherewassomethingnewtouncoverinthat greater,impersonalmind,andtosubordinateone spoetictasktothatbelief,was ironicallytoloseoneselfintherhetoricandmoodoftheage,thoughone sgoal hadbeentogaugeitwithobjectiveprecision. Frost sconvictionthatthereisonly oneoldwaytobenew opposesthe modernistviewthatthepoetshouldbeaninstrumentforthesynthesisofnew, impersonal,andcontemporarymodesofexperience.thedangerfrostsawin thisaspirationwasthatitstrippedpoetryofitsauthenticity.eliot sobjective correlative,forinstance,seemstograntthepoetgreaterexpressiveagencyand accuracy,butmakestheproblemofexpressionmerelyamatteroffindingthe correctformulatoelicitaspecificeffectinthereader smind.itremovesfrom considerationwhatfrostdeemedanessentialfunctionofpoetry:thesincere correspondenceofemotionandmeaningbetweenthepoetandhisreader.eliot s poetwouldhavenoneedtoexperiencethepoeticemotionforhimself,forthe emotionservesonlyastaticandstructuralpurposeinthepoem sconstruction. Frostrecoiledfromthisreductionofpoeticemotiontoimpersonalformulae,and wrotefurtherintheking'jasper'introductionthat [m]indmustconvincemindthatitcanuncurlandwavethesame filamentsofsubtlety,soulconvincesoulthatitcangiveoffthe sameshimmersofeternity.atnopointwouldanyonebutabrute foolwanttobreakoffthiscorrespondence.itisallthereisto satisfaction;anditissalutarytoliveinthefearofitsbeingbroken off. 45 45Frost, Introductionto KingJasper, 742.

Pan 23 Themodernists subordinationofthepoet sindividualitytotheimpersonal mindofeurope, alongwiththeirintenseinterestinformalexperimentsthat aimedto dislocate languageintothecomplexmorassofmeaningsarisingfrom thatmind,wereall,infrost sopinion,symptomsoftheirbeinglosttothe greaterexcruciations oftheirdayandage.frost sbeliefintheunchanging natureoftheuniverse,suchasitsdualism,meanthewasskepticalthatwestern historywasprogressingalonganinevitablemarchtowardimprovement, whetherthatmarchwastobeconsideredinbiological,political,orliterary terms.hemockedthisbeliefinhisproseandexploreditsmoreterrifying implicationsinhispoetry.intheunpublishedversionof TheFutureofMan, for instance,hereferstomarxas themystickarlmarx, andredefinesmarx sterm historicalnecessity as passionatepreference. 46 ItisnoteworthythatEmerson makesarelevantdistinctionbetweenmysticsandpoets,characterizingmystics asthosewho mistakeofanaccidentalandindividualsymbolforanuniversal one. 47 WemayinferfromFrost srephrasingofmarxthathedeemedtheterm historicalnecessity ameremetaphorfor passionatepreference, whichin itselflackstherhetoricalflavornecessarytobeapersuasiveassertionof inevitability. WemayfurtherinferfromFrost sassessmentofeliot s TheWasteland ' inalettertohisdaughterlesley WasteLands yourgreatgrandmotheron thegrandmotheronyourmothersside!idoubtifanythingwaslaidwasteby warthatwasnotlaidwastebypeacebefore 48 thathedidnotthinkhighlyof 46RobertFrost, TheFutureofMan(unpublishedversion) incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays (NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1995,870. 47Emerson, ThePoet, 302. 48Frost, ToLesleyFrostFrancis, 736.

Pan 24 poetswholingeredontheparticularevilsofanagewithoutperceivingforemost thepermanentconditionofevilintheworld.inhisfamouslettertothe'amherst' Student,hestatesthat allagesoftheworldarebadeeagreatdealworseanyway thanheaven. Hearguesthatitisnotthepoet splaceto getoutsidetheage[he is]intojudgeitexactly, for itisasdangerousastotrytogetoutsideofanythingaslargeasan ageasitwouldbetoengorgeadonkey.witnessthemanywhoin theattempthavesufferedadilationfromwhichthetissuesandthe musclesofthemindhaveneverbeenabletorecovernatural shape.theycan tpickupanythingdelicateorsmallanymore. Theycan tuseapen.theyhavetouseatypewriter.andtheygape inagony.theycanwritehugeshapelessnovels,hugegobsofraw sinceritybellowingwithpainandthat salltheycanwrite. 49 Frost schiefproblemwiththemodernisteagernesstosubordinatepoetrytothe intellectualandculturalforcesoftheageistheresultingprevalenceofabreedof poetwhonolongerknowshowtothinkandcreateinform.thoselosttothe metaphoroftheirhourlosetheirabilitytocreatetheirownmetaphors to dislocatematterintotheir'meaning.thoughtheiragefailstoprovidetrulynew materialforpoetry,theypreoccupythemselveswiththeproblemofcapturingits spiritviareductiveexperimentsintextandlanguage.indoingsotheylosewhat Frostdeemstheonetruewayforapoettobenew: Emotionemovesawordfromitsbaseforthemomentby metaphor,butofteninthelongrunevenontoanewbase.the institution,theform,theword,haveregularlyorirregularlytobe renewedfromtherootofthespirit.thatisthecreedofthetrue radical. 50 Suchanunderstandingofpoeticrenewalisnotreductive,butfruitful.Itdoesnot subordinatethepoet screativewillandimaginationtothedomineering 49Frost, Letterto TheAmherstStudent, 740. 50Frost, PoetryandSchool, 166.

Pan 25 metaphorsofhisage,ofwhichhehadnopartinforming.instead,itcallsupon thepoet sabilitytotransmutehisownemotionintohisownformeehisabilityto conjoinhisownmeaningwithhisownmetaphor.noalienationofthepoetfrom hislaborisrequired nodepersonalizationofpoetryisrequired.thepoet s abilitytofindandmoldformforhisownmeaning notaprivatemeaning,buta recognizable,humanone isallthatmatters. ToFrost,thepoet saffinitywithformwasofutmostimportancein dealingwiththeamorphousandamoralworldofmatter.hesawthepoetas standingagainsta background[of]hugenessandconfusionshadingawayfrom where[hestands]intoblackandutterchaos. 51 Thepoetisalaborerwhoproves hiswillandworth andconfirmsthoseofhumanity whenhethrusts against thebackgroundanysmallmanemadefigureoforderandconcentration. 52 This doesnotguaranteethepermanenceorstabilityofthepoet sworkoflabor.but permanenceorstabilityisnotthemainoutcomeofhislabor,thoughitmaybe oneofitsmoretroubledandcomplexaspirations.instead,thevalueofapoet s laborliesinhisassertionofanindividualhumanperspectiveoveranintractable morassofmatter.thisistheprocessbywhich,toquoteemerson, thought makeseverythingfitforuse. 53 WhatFrostseeksisacleardifferentiationbetweenwhattheworldof matteractuallypresentsandhow'thepoetchoosestopresentit.toachievethis differentiation,thepoetmustbesobertowhatheisdealingwith.hecannot pretendtheruckisnotaruck.hemusthavethediscernmenttopickouttheraw shardofmatterthatconformsmostcloselytohismeaning.andhemusthavethe 51Frost, Letterto TheAmherstStudent, 740. 52Frost, Letterto TheAmherstStudent, 740. 53Emerson, ThePoet, 294.

Pan 26 skilltobringthetwointoharmonywithoutmakinglightoftheiressential tension.thetensionbetweenthegreatruckandthesmallformcannoteverbe lost,fortheformderivessomuchofitsvocalityandvalueasmetaphorfromits relativesmallness.takefrost spoem SpringPools: Thesepoolsthat,thoughinforests,stillreflect Thetotalskyalmostwithoutdefect, Andliketheflowersbesidethem,chillandshiver, Willliketheflowersbesidethemsoonbegone, Andyetnotoutbyanybrookorriver, Butupbyrootstobringdarkfoliageon. ThetreesthathaveitintheirpentEupbuds TodarkennatureandbesummerwoodsE Letthemthinktwicebeforetheyusetheirpowers Toblotoutanddrinkupandsweepaway Theseflowerywatersandthesewateryflowers Fromsnowthatmeltedonlyyesterday. 54 Thatthepoolscanreflecttheskywithoutdefectisofnoworthtonature.Their onlyrealpurposewithinthatgreaternetworkistonourishthetreesintheir monolithicprocessofgrowth.tothepoet,however,thepoolsevokehuman value.thereinliestheirusetohim.whatdistinguisheshisusefromnature suse ishisthought.itisthoughtthatallowsfortheassertionandrecoveryofhuman value.throughthought,thepoethasanopportunitytoexercisehiscreative imaginationandperceptionovernature.hebeginswithanunderstandingofhis ownrelationtonatureintermsofscale:natureasmonolithic,andheassmall, weak,andunconditionallysubjecttoitsdemands.turningtonaturenonetheless, heperceivessuggestionsofsimilarrelationswithinit.inthecaseofthispoem,it istheonebetweenthespringpoolsandthetrees.employinghiscreative perspective,heredefinesthatrelation,withoutdenyingthefundamental 54RobertFrost, SpringPools, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryofamerica, 1995,224.

Pan 27 mismatchinsizeandpower.hedoessobyurgingthetreesto think to employauniqueactofhumanconsciousnessthatpascalonceclaimedwasman s onlyadvantageovertheuniverse.withasingleword,hebringsthedominionof thetreesintoquestion.ratherthantryingtoportraythetreesasless overwhelmingthantheyactuallyare,hejuxtaposeshumanthoughtandvalue withthetrees unquestionablephysicaldominion.it sthusheassertsthe primaryroleofhumanthoughtandimaginationindetermininghumanvalue whereitseemsimpossibleforittopersist. Whatmakesthispoemsoemotionallyresonantistheaptness'ofthe metaphor.theimageofthepoolsbeingconsumedbythegreatermechanismsof natureevokesthehelplessnessandmeaninglessnessofhumanlife.inbothcases, evolutionarymechanismsseemtobetheultimateendofexistence,leavingno roomforotherkindsofvaluetotakeroot.yetthepools abilityto reflect/the totalskywithoutdefect despiteitspositionmirrorshighermetaphysical inclinationsinhumanbeingsthatpersistdespitetheinsurmountable temporalityandmaterialityofexistence.themortalconditionofthepoolsis furtheremphasizedwhenfrostcomparesthemtotheflowers.indoingso,he addsanimportantlayertothemetaphoroffrailexistence.whynotsimplyspeak oftheflowersinrelationtotheforest,ashedoesinotherpoems?theaptnessof thespring'poolsashiscentralimageliesinthesuggestivenessofthelastline: Fromsnowthatonlymeltedyesterday. Thecyclicalchangeofseasonsbrings thepoolsintoexistence.thebuddingtrees,inturn,consumethepools,sothat theymay darkennatureandbesummerwoods. ButFrostperceivesinthis naturalmomentumtheimpossibilityofpreservingvaluesthatarenot

Pan 28 evolutionary,instinctive,or natural. Thiscorrespondstohisrejectionofthe modernisttendencytodiminishtheindividualandhumaninfavorofthe impersonalgeistoftheirage.becauseoftheirdiminutivepositionwithinthe greatermechanismoftheforest,thespringpoolsareofgreatmetaphoricvalue tofrost.thetensionhecreatesbetweenthebarefactsofnatureandthe authenticityofthepoeticemotionevokesapowerfulfeelinginthemindofthe reader aninstantaneousrecognitionofhishumanity.frost sportrayalofthe springpoolsisthusaskillfulexerciseintheunionofmeaningandmatterin poeticform.hissuccessliesinhisabilitytoteaseoutallthesubtlerelations withininhumanmattertoevokeanessentialportraitofhumanity.andmuchof hissuccesshastodowithhisaptchoiceandhandlingofthecentralimageofhis metaphor. TheOvenBird isanotherexampleoffrost sabilitytoexploitthe nuancesofmattertocreateamediumwherehumanmeaningandvaluecantake holdinanunexpectedway: Thereisasingereveryonehasheard, Loud,amidEsummerandamidEwoodbird, Whomakesthesolidtreetrunkssoundagain. Hesaysthatleavesareoldandthatforflowers MidEsummeristospringasonetoten. HesaystheearlypetalEfallispast Whenpearandcherrybloomwentdowninshowers Onsunnydaysamomentovercast; Andcomesthatotherfallwenamethefall. Hesaysthehighwaydustisoverall. Thebirdwouldceaseandbeasotherbirds Butthatheknowsinsingingnottosing. Thequestionthatheframesinallbutwords Iswhattomakeofadiminishedthing. 55 55 RobertFrost, TheOvenBird, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,116.

Pan 29 Frostisolatesthetraitsthatmaketheovenbirdsuggestiveofhisintended meaning:thatitisloud,thatitisa singereveryonehasheard, andthatitisa midesummerandamidwoodbird. Heintroducesthebirdas singer rather thanasbirdtocallthereader sattentiontoitsvocality,whichisthetraitthat guideshowhismetaphordevelops.hespecifiesthebird srelationtothewoods andtheseasonstosetupwhathewillmakethebird say intermsofthat relation.thefirstthingheputsinthebird smouthisthattheleavesandflowers areinalateperiodoftheir lives, andaremoreoverparticipatinginan irreversibleprogressiontowardsageanddeath(i.e. onetoten ).Indoingso,he putsthehumanpreoccupationwithmortalityintensionwiththeendless cyclicalityofnature.theprogressionfromsummertofallisnotofparticular metaphysicalimportancetothebird,who,likethephoebesin TheNeedof BeingVersedinCountryThings, participatesintherenewalofnaturewithout pausingtoweepoverthenecessityofitsdecay.nevertheless,frostusesitstrait asa midesummerbird tovocalizeahumanperspectiveontheirreversible naturalprocessofdecay.throughthebird,heobservesthatthetimeofbloom haspassed,andthatthe otherfallwenamethefall willarriveinturn.whether thebirdincludesitselfinthecollectivehumanactofnamingismadeambiguous duetothesemicolonthatprecedestheline.buttheambiguityemphasizesthe extenttowhichfrosthasmadethebirdspeakforhumanvaluesnotitsown.in itsfinalobservationabouthighways,thebirdmakesaleapfromthenatural worldtothehuman,industrialone.thisisfrost sboldestactofmetaphor.but hehasbuiltuptoitwithsomuchcareandcraftthatwedonotraiseour eyebrowssomuchaswesighinrecognition.themetaphorsucceedsbecausewe

Pan 30 arecomplicitinitsexistence weacceptthatitspeakssomethingfundamentally truetous,andstretchourimaginationstoaccommodatewhatthebirdhastosay ofourlivesthroughthemindofthepoet. Withthat,Frostbringshisplaywithmeaningandmattertoaclose.He drawsourattentiontothenatureofhisplay:ofusingthevocalityofthebirdas anaptframeforhumanmatters.thatheattributestothebirdthehumantraitof knowledge specifically,knowing insingingnottosing emphasizesthe importanceofhavingsomeframeofknowledgebeyondthenaturalinorderto differentiateoneselffrommerematter.itisonlyindoingsothatonemaynot ceaseandbeasotherbirds. Butahumanframedoesnotalwaysguaranteeameaningful differentiationbetweenhumanityandnature.in AfterAppleEPicking, Frost describesapersistent strangenessfrom[his]sight Igotfromlookingthroughapaneofglass Iskimmedthismorningfromthedrinkingtrough Andheldagainsttheworldofhoarygrass. Itmelted,andIletitfallandbreak. 56 Inthiscase,thehumanframehasdisintegratedduetoitsfragilityandtothe speakerlettingit fallandbreak. Thequestioniswhyhedoesnotseemto protestitsdisintegration.theanswerliesinthemoodofthepoem:fatigue.signs ofhisearlierstruggleappearintheoutsetofthepoem,buttheyareonly remnantsofanembatteredwill: MylongtwoEpointedladder'sstickingthroughatree Towardheavenstill, Andthere'sabarrelthatIdidn'tfill 56RobertFrost, AfterAppleEPicking, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,70.

Pan 31 Besideit,andtheremaybetwoorthree ApplesIdidn'tpickuponsomebough. ButIamdonewithappleEpickingnow. 57 Thepoemopenswithatemporarysuspensionofaction.Theladderisstuckina tree,abarrelremainsunfilled,andafewspareapplesarescatteredthroughthe wreckage,suggestingaceasefirebetweenthelaborerandhismaterials.butthe cessationisnotmutual;onlythelaborerhasweariedofhistask.hisweariness findsformintheclosecorrespondencebetweenthemoodandverbalstructure ofthepoem.theutterance maybetwoorthree blursthephysicaldetailsofthe scene,asifthelaborercannolongermusterthedesireorwilltoclarifyandact uponthetaskathand. Thescenethenabruptlyshiftstoawinternight,asifallthatcamebefore wereonlyamemoryordream.butthetensedoesnotchange;thelaborer integratesthetimingofthefirstscenewiththenext,asifthevariousshardsof hisimpressionswereoccurringatonceinthepresent.hedrowsesofftothe the scentofapples, evokingthepowerandinvasivenessofsensorymemory.its invasivenessisofparticularpsychologicalinterest,foritunderminesthefinality ofhispreviousdeclaration:thatheis donewithappleepickingnow. Itsuggests thathisdecisiontobedonewithapplepickingwastosomedegreeinvoluntary, wastosomedegreeprovokedbylossofagencyovertheprocess. Anothershiftoccurs.Thelaborernowconsidersthegeneraltaskof perception,carefultopreservethemoodofweariness.here,frostmakesthe metaphoricleapandunitesproblemsoflaborwiththoseofcreativeexpression. Heshowsthelaborer stroubleswithapplepickingtobeessentiallyequivalentto 57Frost, AfterAppleEPicking,70.

Pan 32 problemsofhumanperception.it sthusthepoemmovesawayfromspecific doubtsoverapplepickingtothegeneraldoubtoverwhetherhumanscan successfullyusenature soddsandendsfortheirownpurposes.thespeaker refers,forinstance,toashardoficeasa paneofglass, whichheholdsupand peersthroughtoexaminethe worldofhoarygrass. Perhapshehadintendedto seeifhecouldturnitintoamakeshiftmagnifyingglass.theactof skimming it fromadrinkingtrough theeaseandswiftnessoftheword skim certainly emphasizesitsmakeshiftcharacter.buttheicemelts,andheletsit falland break withthesameresignationwithwhichheleavesoffthetaskofapple picking. Thepersistent strangeness inhissightistwofold:itisthepersistent strangenessoftheworld,despitehisattempttolookatitthroughadifferent lens,andthepersistentimpressionofitsstrangenessinhismemory.itisnot somestrangenessinherentinhissight;itistheintractablestrangenessofthe world.andsofrostsubvertsemerson sclaimthat thoughtmakeseverythingfit foruse. Noconcentrationofthoughtcanrendertheshardoficeaninstrument throughwhichitsusermayyieldfromtheworldsomethingfamiliar,verifiable, andunderstandable.itisashardofice;itmelts.thespeakerunderstandsthis. Thatiswhyheletsitfall. Thesceneshiftstoadream,inwhich Magnifiedapplesappearanddisappear, Stemendandblossomend, Andeveryfleckofrussetshowingclear. 58 58Frost, AfterAppleEPicking, 70.

Pan 33 Thattheshiftoccursbeforethe paneofglass fallsblursthedistinctionbetween memoryanddream,fortheforlornmoodandsubjectmatteroftheformeris preservedinthelatter.thedreamhintsatgeneralproblemsofhuman perceptioninitsfocusonhowtheapplesappear'tothelaborer,'asifundera magnifyingglass.thattheapplesappearclarifiedandmagnifiedinthedream seemstocontradictwiththepersistentstrangenessthelaborerremembersof theworld.theimplicationisthattheclarityanddefinitionthelaborerfailsto yieldfromnaturecanonlybeachievedinthestrangenessofahumandream. Thelaborerthenattributesproblemswithachievingclaritytodifficulties intrinsictotheprocess.thememoryofhisfrustratedlaborcontinuestoplague him,eventhoughharvestseasonhaslongpassed: Myinsteparchnotonlykeepstheache, ItkeepsthepressureofaladderEround. Ifeeltheladderswayastheboughsbend. AndIkeephearingfromthecellarbin Therumblingsound Ofloadonloadofapplescomingin. 59 Here,Frostusesthepowerandinvasivenessofsensorymemorytoevokethe tormentedfutilityofwishfullabor.indescribingspecificphysicalachesand pressures,heconveysthegreateremotionalonesathand.forinstance,the laborer sfeelingoftheladder [swaying]astheboughsbend createsand reinforcesamoodofuncertaintyandinstability.hispersistentawarenessofthe rumblingsoundof loadonloadofapplescomingin contrastsinmoodandform withhisearlierstatementthat theremaybetwoorthree/apples[he]didn t pickuponsomebough. Butitisconsistentwiththesenseofimpotenceandloss 59Frost, AfterAppleEPicking, 70.

Pan 34 ofagencythathasbeendevelopingthroughthecourseofthepoem,and continuestodevelop: ForIhavehadtoomuch OfappleEpicking:Iamovertired OfthegreatharvestImyselfdesired. Thereweretenthousandthousandfruittotouch, Cherishinhand,liftdown,andnotletfall. Forall Thatstrucktheearth, Nomatterifnotbruisedorspikedwithstubble, WentsurelytotheciderEappleheap Asofnoworth. Onecanseewhatwilltrouble Thissleepofmine,whateversleepitis. 60 Thelaboreratlastconfessesthetrueoriginofhisweariness:the greatharvest [hehimself]desired. He notnature.natureremainsstrangeandintractableas therawmaterialofhisvision;ithasneverbeenmoreorlessso.butasif mockingthefutilityofhumanlabor,itcontinuestoprovidethelaborerwith ten thousandthousandfruittotouch,/cherishinhand,liftdown,andnotletfall. Thathecannotdosoforeachindividualfruitpointstothefundamentalissue withcreatinghumanpurposeandvalueinnature.theproblemmaysimplybe thedifficultyofimposingalasting,objectivetermofhumanvalue evenwitha scienceasimpersonalastaxonomy.inlargepart,however,thepossibilityfor humanvaluedependsonourabilitytoknow,cherish,and notletfall the millionindividualshardsofmatterthatcomprisenature.itisonlythenthatwe havetheopportunitytoassertandrecognizethevalueoftheindividualin'itself. Absentthisopportunity,humanityhasnochancetoprovetoitself'thatmeaning canresideinindividualhumanexistence,andthatallofhumanitytakentogether isnotmerelyaheapofevolutionarywaste.onecanseewhythiswilltroublethe 60Frost, AfterAppleEPicking, 70E71.

Pan 35 laborer s human sleep.hisfailuretodifferentiatethehumanfromthemerely naturalseemstoreflectthegreaterfailureofhumanvaluetotakerootinmatter: Werehenotgone, Thewoodchuckcouldsaywhetherit'slikehis Longsleep,asIdescribeitscomingon, Orjustsomehumansleep. 61 Thisfinalquestionismoreforegoneconclusionthangenuineinquiry.Onesenses apersistentundercurrentofhumandespairthatfindsnoreleaseorresolution outsideofitself.inthefinalanalysis,thelaborer sfailureisthefailureof humanity,andthefailureofmetaphor thefailuretocreatealastingframeto setoffhumanvalueagainsttheinhumanruckofnature.foramoment,the woodchuckandhishibernatingpatternsseemtoofferachanceforsomereal' andnonearbitrarypurposetotakehold.buthis longsleep isinvariablyapart ofnature,answeringtonature sownstrange,interminableends.andthoseends arepreciselywhyheisnotpresenttoanswerthehumanquestion.thefailureof thelaborer seffortsmeansthatthefundamentalestrangementbetweenmatter andspiritremainsunresolved. Frostelaboratesonthetroubledrelationshipbetweenhumanlaborand valuein TheWoodEPile. Thoughthespeakerseemstomakeanactive,assertive choiceto goonfarther inthefrozenswamp,hedoesnothaveaparticular destinationinmind,leavingwhathefindsuptonature.hisjourneyintothe woodsthusbeginswithasenseofcompromisedagency.thetreesdonot suggestanythingtohisimagination,looking toomuchaliketomarkornamea placeby. Whenheencountersthebird,hetriestomakesthebirdthinkand speakasifitwerequitenaturallyaformforhismind.asiftomockthe 61Frost, AfterAppleEPicking, 71.

Pan 36 flimsinessofhiseffort,however,hesabotageshismetaphor,andpointsoutthat itisnotatrueactofcreativelabor,butmerelyahabitoftaking everythingsaid aspersonaltohimself. Hisuseofthebirdasmetaphoremploys'noprocessof critical,conscious,andcreativeselection;itdoesnotdiscriminatebetweenmere rawmaterialandsuitablerawmaterialthatcanbeshapedandtwistedto conformtohismeaning.theforcedvocalityofthebirdisthusmoreanactof selfedeceptionofthantruecreativelabor: Asmallbirdflewbeforeme.Hewascareful Toputatreebetweenuswhenhelighted, Andsaynowordtotellmewhohewas Whowassofoolishastothinkwhathethought. HethoughtthatIwasafterhimforafeather Thewhiteoneinhistail;likeonewhotakes Everythingsaidaspersonaltohimself. 62 NotethatFrostdoesnothavethebird say anythingoutright.thereisno profoundcorrespondencebetweenhiscreativeimaginationandthefigureofthe bird.hemakesnoearnestattempttorepurposethebirdasmetaphor,fortheir encounterwasincidentalratherthanintentional.instead,he undeceives himself,letsthebird s littlefear/carryhimofftheway[he]mighthavegone, andturnstothenextobjectthathasenteredhisfieldofvision: Itwasacordofmaple,cutandsplit Andpiled andmeasured,fourbyfourbyeight. AndnotanotherlikeitcouldIsee. Norunnertracksinthisyear'ssnowloopednearit. Anditwasoldersurethanthisyear'scutting, Orevenlastyear'sortheyear'sbefore. Thewoodwasgrayandthebarkwarpingoffit Andthepilesomewhatsunken.Clematis Hadwoundstringsroundandrounditlikeabundle. 63 62 RobertFrost, TheWoodEPile, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,100E101. 63Frost, TheWoodEPile, 101.

Pan 37 Thecordofwoodintroducesunnaturalclaritytothescene.Thoughthewoods thespeakerwalksthroughseemtohimanunremarkableandindistinctmassof trees,thewoodpileheencountersissopreciselyconceivedandconstructedthat hecannothelpbuttakenoteofitsappearance.itsplaceinthewintrywasteland isjarring,foritsdesignpointsexplicitlytothepurposiveworkofanorganizing mind.incontrast,mostotherfiguresthatappearinnature,includingbirdhe encounteredbeforehand,donotspeaksodirectlytohispurposeeseekingmind. Atonepoint,thewoodpilewasmeanttoserveasfirewood.ButFrost notesthatitcannolongerfulfillitsintendedpurpose;itisalreadydisintegrating frombeingleftoutfortoolonginnature.henotesalsothatitisbeingheldupon onesideby atree/stillgrowing,andononeastakeandprop,/theselatterabout tofall. Thisjuxtapositionillustratesthefundamentaldifferencebetween productsofnatureandthoseofhumanlabor:theimportanceofuse.naturedoes notserveanyclearusebeyonditsownselfeperpetuation.yetitoutgrows, outmakes,andoutlastsanyproductofhumanlabor,andseemsallthemore superiorforit.thestillegrowingtreesupportingthewoodpilewillkeepgrowing, eventhoughitservesnogreaterpurposethantheperpetuationofthe ecosystem.theabandonedwoodpile,incontrast,isamonumenttotheshorte livednatureofhumanpurpose.thoughitwascreatedwithacarefulexertionof labor,itcannotlastforever:naturehasalreadybeguninittheprocessofdecay. it: Frosttriestosavethewoodpilefromitsfatebyimagininganewusefor Ithoughtthatonly Someonewholivedinturningtofreshtasks Couldsoforgethishandiworkonwhich Hespenthimself,thelaborofhisax,

Pan 38 Andleaveittherefarfromausefulfireplace Towarmthefrozenswampasbestitcould Withtheslowsmokelessburningofdecay. 64 Intheliteralsense,thenewuseheimaginescannottrulyreplacetheold, abandonedone.partofithastodowiththe burning hespeaksof.in envisioningthewoodpilewarmingthefrozenswamp,heremainsattachedtoits unfulfilledhumanuseofburningandwarmingthings.essentially,heremains attachedtoitsunefulfillment toitsstateasdead,decayingmatterinthe absenceofhumanuse.unlikethebirdsin TheNeedofBeingVersedinCountry Things thatareabletorepurposetheruinsofthehouseassimplyanother componentoftheirnaturalhabitat,hecannotrecyclethedecayingwoodpileas'it' is'fornewhumanends.themosthecandowithitinitscurrentstateisto imagineforitatangentialpurposeofwarmingtheswampwiththe slow smokelessburningofdecay. Indeed,thismetaphoricburningiswherethereal human'acheofthepoemlies.butitcallsattentiontoanimportantaspectof Frost sconceptionofcreativelabor:thatitissubjecttoanirreversiblestateof decay,andsomustconstantlybereplacedbynewactsoflabor. ThatFrostcannotanddoesnotdosointhepoempointstothenatureof creativeparalysis.hesetsaparttwokindsoflaborer;thefirsttakes everything aspersonaltohimself, andthesecondlivesin turningtofreshtasks. Notably, theindividualfrostattributesthesecondtohaslongabandonedtheproductof hislabor,butnotinthesamewayheabandonedthebirdasaflimsyattemptat metaphor.asthefirsttypeoflaborer,heistooconsciousoftheentropyofhis labor,andismoreovertooconsciousthatthefactofhisconsciousnessmakes 64Frost, TheWoodEPile, 101.

Pan 39 himaninferiorlaborertotheonewhocould soforgethishandiworkon which/hespenthimself,thelaborofhisax,/andleaveittherefarfromauseful fireplace. Byfixatingsomuchontheimpermanenceoflabor,hebecomestoo disheartenedtocreatetruenewexpressionsofhishumanity.allhecandois prolonghismourningoftheslow,drawnoutprocessofdecay. Inthatsense, TheWoodEPile seemstohintatthe MatthewArnoldism thatfrostrailsagainstin NewHampshire : Iknowamanwhotookadoubleax Andwentaloneagainstagroveoftrees; Buthisheartfailinghim,hedroppedtheax AndranforshelterquotingMatthewArnold: "'Natureiscruel,manissickofblood': There sbeenenoughshedwithoutsheddingmine. RememberBirnamWood!Thewood'sinflux!" Hehadaspecialterroroftheflux Thatshoweditselfindendrophobia. Theonlydecenttreehadbeentomill Andeducatedintoboards,besaid. Heknewtoowellforanyearthlyuse Thelinewheremanleavesoffandnaturestarts. Andneveroversteppeditsaveindreams. 65 Unlikethemanwhorunsfromthetrees,theselfthatFrostpresentsin The WoodEPile decidestocontinueintothewoods.however,heisnotarmedwith anaxe,andcanonlymarvelatandmournawoodpiletamedinthepastby another saxe.withoutanaxeofhisown,hecannotenactforhimselftheeternal confrontationbetweenmanandnature.hecannotdo'anythingwiththeraw materialofnatureexceptweaklygraspontosomesmallbirdasafleetingsymbol ofhismood.hehasalienatedhimselffromhislabor. 65RobertFrost, NewHampshire, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryof America,1995,161.

Pan 40 Laborallowsonetoassertone sindividualityandhumanityinatangible form,nomatterhowtemporaryandamorphousitmaybe.theproofofone sself insometangibleoutlineofmatterprovidesapsychological stay against existentialwoes: Wepeoplearethrustforwardoutofthesuggestionsofforminthe rollingcloudsofnature.inusnaturereachesitsheightofformand throughusexceedsitself.whenindoubtthereisalwaysformfor ustogoonwith.anyonewhohasachievedtheleastformtobe sureofit,islosttothelargerexcruciations.ithinkitmuststroke faiththerightway.theartist,thepoetmightbeexpectedtobethe mostawareofsuchassurance.butitisreallyeverybody ssanityto feelitandlivebyit.fortunately,too,noformsaremore engrossing,gratifying,comforting,stayingthanthoselesserones wethrowoff,likevortexringsofsmoke,all'our'individual' enterprise'and'needing'nobody s'cooperation;abasket,aletter,a garden,aroom,anidea,apicture,apoem. 66 [emphasisadded] Thelaborerin WoodEPile cannotfeelandlivebytheassurancefrostspeaksof abovebecausehehasnotachievedaformforhisown,onhisown.thebirdistoo fleetingaformforhismeaning;itrequiresnoexertiononhispart,notrue concentrationtoshapeittohisindividualwillandmind.thewoodpileisnothis workoflaboratall hecanonlymarvelatitsdisintegratingoutline.withouta meansofexertinghismindagainstthegreatruckofnature,heislefttomourn thecreativehumanspiritthatonceanimateddeadmatter. Ifallproductsofhumanlaboraredoomedtodecay,howcanonefindand rootlastinghumanvalueinmatter?howcanlaborbetheultimateassertionof humanity?itmustbethatthehumanvaluecomesfromtheactoflaboritself,not fromtheproductsoflabor.therenewaloflaboristhusessentialtothe preservationofhumanity.thisiswhatfrostmeansbythe oneoldwaytobe new :thecontinualreassertionofone sindividualityandhumanityintheforms 66Frost, Letterto TheAmherstStudent, 740.

Pan 41 thatonecreates.contrastthisviewwiththecontinualextinctionofpersonality encouragedbythemodernistpoets.tofrost,thecreativeprocessisthesource andendofhumanmeaningbecauseitisanindividualeffort.onlytheconscious confrontationbetweentheindividualandhisrawmaterialscanbringhumanuse andvalueininhumanthings. Theimportanceofindividuallabortothepreservationofhumanvalue informsfrost sviewofpoeticlanguage: WhatIhavechieflyinmindisafigurativefetchingoffreshwords toyouruse.thewordliesinoureverydayspeech,practical,hard, andunliterary;andthat sthewayilikethewordeethere swhere myfunwithitbegins.idon tcareforthewordalreadymade figurative.ihaven tdoneanythingtoit. 67 Truerenewalinpoetrytakesplacewhentheone fetches freshwordsfromthe colloquialasone srawmaterialsandlaborsoverthemuntiltheyaretransmuted intopoeticlanguage.the fun onehaswithitiskey.itisnotenoughtocopythe wayotherpoetshavefetchedtheirwords,forthosewordshavealreadybeen madefigurative. Tofindformforone sownmeaning,onemustfetchfresh wordsandmakethemone sown,suchthatotherswhotrytoreusethosewords inthesamewaycannotduplicatethesamefirstastonishmentofrecognition. FrostgivestheexampleoftheeffectKeatsachievedinhis Odetothe Nightingale byfetchingandplacingtwocommonwords, alien and corn, next toeachother. Allpoetsarenowusing alien, remarksfrostwryly; I veheard of alienbean. 68 Infetchingfresh unliterary wordsfornewfigurativeends,thepoet shapesanidiomdistinctfromthecolloquial.likewise,thepoetsetsoffhisvalues 67RobertFrost, TheUnmadeWord,orFetchingandFarEFetching, incollected'poems,'prose'&' Plays(NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1995,696. 68Frost, TheUnmadeWord, 697.

Pan 42 againstnaturewhenheshapesnaturetoimplythehuman.thedifficultyof shapingtheserawmaterialsintometaphormakesthelaboreranaptfigurefor thepoet.butthisdifficultyislessaproblemthananecessaryconditionforthe existenceofhumanvalue.frosttendstoportraynatureassomethingeternal andremote,abundantandwasteful,reusingitswastewithease,butwithout consciousnessofitsdoingso.thereisnosenseoftargetedpurpose;noreal progressionisguaranteed.nature sconditionis,inthissense,permanent.the humanconditionseemsfarmoreprovisional.moreover,itcannotescapethe naturalprocessofdecay.yethumanityisabletorecoveritselfinthesmall, temporaryactsofdefiance,chieflywhentheselfsetsoffitsvoiceandvalue againstthesilentbackgroundofeternalwaste.inabsenceofthesevocal gestures,apositiveconceptionofhumanityisnolongerpossible,asillustratedin thesilenceof DesertPlaces : Andlonelyasitis,thatloneliness WillbemorelonelyereitwillbelessE Ablankerwhitenessofbenightedsnow withnoexpression,nothingtoexpress. Theycannotscaremewiththeiremptyspaces BetweenstarsEonstarswherenohumanraceis. Ihaveitinmesomuchnearerhome Toscaremyselfwithmyowndesertplaces. 69 WhatfrightensFrostisnotthesilenceofthenaturalworldbutthesilencingof theself.whentheselfhasbeenawedorcowedintospeechlessness,itcanno longeradvocateforitshumanity.itisreducedtomerematter.thepossibility thathumanvaluemightbenegatedoremptiedentirelyisfarmoredisturbingto Frostthanthephysicalknowledgeof emptyspaces/betweenstarseonstars 69RobertFrost, DesertPlaces, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryofamerica, 1995,269.

Pan 43 wherenohumanraceis. Tohim,thevalueoftheselfdoesnotresideinbiology, butinthelaborofindividualexpression.thepoet slaborishisidiomandhis metaphor,bothofwhichmustderivefromalifenotmerelybiological.thelabor ofpoetryisthusinextricablylinkedtotwoaspectsofhumanvalue:the preservationofhumanvalueassomethingdistinctfrombiologicalfact,andthe preservationoftheindividualassomethingdistinctfromhisspecies. In Birches, Frostillustratespoetry scomplexrelationshipwithfact.in hisview,thepoetmustnotsubjugatehisimaginationtofact,butusefactto harnessit.thefactsthatcomprisethesubjectmatterofapoemlimittheliberties apoetmaytakewithhismaterials.butthepoetshouldnotcowerunderthese limitations.heshouldnotseefactsasstatic,rigidboundariesthatprotecthim fromdangerousandunstablefantasies.hemightfindhimselfpressuredtocopy themwithexactitude,whichwouldseverelycurtailhiscreativeimagination.his manifoldmeaningswouldyieldtotherigidityoffact;hismetaphorswouldlimit hiscreativity,andnotexerciseit.thisishowpoetrylosesitspowerandhuman value. Toavoidthisoutcome,thepoetmustunderstandthefacttobedynamic. Hemustunderstandthecurveandmotionofthefacttoexpressthecurveand motionofhismind.asfrostputsit,heshould adjust[himself] tothemotion'of thethingitself : Whenonelooksbackoverhisownpoetry,hisonlycriticismis whetherhehadformornot.didheworryitoutorpouritout?you can tgobacktoatennisgameandplayitover exceptwithalibis. Youcangobackoverapoemandtouchitup butneverunless youareinthesameformagain.yetthegreatpleasureinwriting poetryisinhavingbeencarriedoff.itisasifyoustoodastrideof thesubjectthatlayontheground,andtheycutthecord,andthe

Pan 44 subjectgetsupunderyouandyourideit.youadjustyourselfto themotionofthethingitself.thatisthepoem. 70 Thelaborofmetaphorispleasurabletothepoetbecauseitcarrieshimoffwhere astrictadherencetomatterwouldneverhavebornehim.shouldthepoet strictlyadheretothefactofthematter,hewouldbelessenthusedaboutthe prospectofconfrontingandshapinghisrawmaterials,andmoreapttorunaway fromthemonolithicdifficultyofthetask.forhimtobecarriedawayandnot flungawaybyhissubjectmatter,however,hemustexertcontrolandform.the pleasureofbeingcarriedawayisnottheundisciplinedlicenseoffancy,butthe freedomofridingthecurveandmotionoffactfurtherthanonethoughtpossible. Onlywhenoneallowsfortheinterplayofinternalimaginationandexternal realitycanfactbecome thesweetestdreamthatlaborknows. 71 Birches dramatizesthedifferencesbetweenthestaticanddynamic waysofdealingwithfact.thefirsthalfofthepoemseemstobearecreationofa startlingimagefromtheworldofmatter.uponcloserexamination,however,itis acriticismofpoetrythatemphasizesclearimagesoverallelse.contrasthow Frostintroduces heaven inthefirstandsecondhalvesofthepoem.inthefirst half,heavenishintedatintheicecrystalsweighingdownthebirches: Soonthesun'swarmthmakesthemshedcrystalshells ShatteringandavalanchingonthesnowEcrust Suchheapsofbrokenglasstosweepaway You'dthinktheinnerdomeofheavenhadfallen. 72 70RobertFrost, ThePoet snextofkinincollege, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork: LibraryofAmerica,1995,771. 71RobertFrost, Mowing, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:libraryofamerica,1995, 26. 72Frost, Birches, 117.

Pan 45 Frostbuildsuptothe innerdomeofheaven byweavingtogetherimagesof glassandiceinthepreviouslines.withthephrase you dthink, hemakesthe finalleap,andfetchesafresh,unexpectedsuggestionofheaventocompletehis startlingimage.butthehesitancyofthephrase you dthink weakensthepoetic leapfrommattertometaphor.thewholelinebecomesinsteadaconcessionof thepoet smanifoldmeaningstothestateofmatter.qualifyingtheimageof heavenwith you dthink allowsthepoettoavoidadmittingtoheavenoutright. Thusqualified,theline ssyntacticalstructureputsthesincerityofthepoet s metaphoricreachinquestion.themodalverb would, submergedunderthe colloquialshrugofthephrase you dthink, dismissesthenotionofheavenas soonasitisintroduced.thepoetnolongerneedstodothehardworkofshaping mattertohismeaning;heonlyneedfetchandcarveimagestoproducethe astonishmentofimplication.theastonishmentofrecognition,letaloneof correspondence,isnolongerpertinenttopoeticinquiry.anysincereexpression ofhumanvalueissubmergedunderthestartlingclarityoftheimage. ThetechniqueofpureimplicationisuncharacteristicofFrost swork.he employsitinthefirsthalfof Birches tocriticizeandunderminewhatseemed tohimanalarmingaspectofeliotandpound spoeticvision.inalettertohis daughterlesley,frostwrotethatthemodernist aspirationtowardbrevityandundersayingratherthanoversaying hasledtothepoetryofintimationimplicationinsinuationand innuendoasanobjectinitself.allpoetryhasalwayssaid somethingandimpliedtherest.wellthenwhyhaveitsay anything?whynothaveitimplyeverything? 73 73Frost, ToLesleyFrostFrancis, 735.

Pan 46 Frostemployedwhathedeemedthereductivetechniqueofimplicationto demonstratetheweaknessesofthemodernistapproachthatprioritizedstatic, materialimagesoverthedynamicinterplayofmeaningandmatter.inthefirst halfof Birches, hecreatesanimagesostartlingandprecisethatthehuman voicemustbesuppressedtoavoidmuddyingit.thepossibilityofhuman meaningcomesinatmostasashrugorhintatsomethingbeyondinquiry.inthe secondhalfof Birches, however,frostreintroducesthepossibilityofhuman beliefintheworldofmatter.considerhowfrostbringsinheaventhesecond time: I'dliketogobyclimbingabirchtree, AndclimbblackbranchesupasnowEwhitetrunk Towardheaven,tillthetreecouldbearnomore, Butdippeditstopandsetmedownagain. Thatwouldbegoodbothgoingandcomingback. 74 Heavenisnotmerelyaninsinuation,butasincerebeliefinsomethinggreater thanmatterthepoetcanforeverreachtowards.itisthiscontinualprocessof reachingthatconstitutestherenewalofcreativelabor.thepoetisonewhodoes notstopatthefacts,butusesthemtomakefreshmetaphorsofhisown.only thencanheceaseperceivingthefactasinsurmountable;onlythenwillheseethe distinctionbetweenfactandmetaphoraspresumptive.themoderniststookthe metaphoroftheirageforfact,andreducedtheirimaginationtoit;frostsawit forthemetaphoritwas,andreclaimeditforpoetry.intheunpublishedversion of TheFutureofMan, hewritesofthepervasivespiritofscienceanditstrue nature: Iamindangerofmakingallthissoundasifsciencewereall.Itis notall.butitismuch.itcomesintoourlivesasdomesticscience 74Frost, Birches, 118.

Pan 47 forourholdontheplanet,intoourdeathswithitsdeadly weapons,bombsandairplanes,forwar,andintooursoulsaspure sciencefornothingbutglory;inwhichlastrespectitmaybe likeneduntopurepoetryandmysticism.itisman sgreatest enterprise.itisthechargeoftheetherealintothematerial.itis oursubstantiationofourmeaning.itcan tgotoofarordeepfor me.stillitisnotalawuntoitself Scienceisaproperty The passingscienceofthemomentmaycontributeitspsychologicalbit tothebooklikeoneofthefleetingelementsrecentlyaddedtothe chemicallist. 75 ToFrost,scienceisnotanendinitself,butameansofexertinghumancuriosity andimaginationonthematerialworld.inthefinalanalysis,itderivesitsvalue fromthe substantiationofourmeaning, andresemblespoetrymorethanto anyformofscientificdogmatism.purescience,beingclosestto purepoetry, doesnottrytoreducehumanvaluetoamatterofevolution,instinct,orother suchtheoriesofmechanicaldevelopment.itknowsthatalltheoriesaresubject torevision,andthathumanvalueispreservednotbyanyonetheory,butthe continualrevisionoftheories.science,correctlyimagined,doesnotmakethe downwardcomparisons thatfrostwarnsagainstin TheWhiteETailed Hornet : Aslongonearth Asourcomparisonswerestoutlyupward Withgodsandangels,weweremenatleast, Butlittlelowerthanthegodsandangels. Butoncecomparisonswereyieldeddownward, Oncewebegantoseeourimages Reflectedinthemudandevendust, Twasdisillusionupondisillusion. Wewerelostpiecemealtotheanimals, Likepeoplethrownouttodelaythewolves. Nothingbutfallibilitywasleftus, Andthisday sworkmadeeventhatseemdoubtful. 76 75Frost, TheFutureofMan, 870E871. 76RobertFrost, TheWhiteETailedHornet, incollected'poems,'prose'&'plays(newyork:library ofamerica,1995,254.

Pan 48 Likethefirsthalfof Birches, TheWhiteETailedHornet demonstratesthe reductiveeffectofmaking downwardcomparisons betweenhumanityand nature.thehornetseemsatfirsttobeapowerfulcreatureofpurpose,whose instinctallowshimsurpasstheaccuracyofabulletand penetrate[the speaker s]bestdefense. Butits insectcertainty isrevealedtobean execrable judgeofmotives ;itsbestattemptsareunabletoreproducehumantermsand associationsofvalue: Butfortheflyhemighthavemademethink Hehadbeenathispoetry,comparing Nailheadwithflyandflywithhuckleberry: Howlikeafly,howverylikeafly. Buttherealflyhemissedwouldneverdo; Themissedflymademedangerouslyskeptic. 77 Thespeakerfindsthathisattempttovalidatehumanvalueinthehornet s behaviormakeshim dangerouslyskeptic ofhishumanityaltogether.hewarns againsttheenthusiasmofconflatingthehumanwiththemerelyinstinctive:one whofallspreytothisenthusiasmispersuadedthat stoutlyupward comparisons arenolongerpossible,andsoistrappedinadownwardspiralof disillusionupondisillusion. Noformofcreativelaborcanredeemthemanwho believeshimselfamereconstellationofinstincts. Likewise,thefirsthalfof Birches demonstratesthediminishmentof humanagencythatoccurswhenthepoetgivesupthefullrangeofhis imaginationforstartlingandpreciserecreationsofmatter: Butswingingdoesn'tbendthemdowntostay AsiceEstormsdo.Oftenyoumusthaveseenthem Loadedwithiceasunnywintermorning Afterarain.Theyclickuponthemselves Asthebreezerises,andturnmanyEcolored 77Frost, TheWhiteETailedHornet, 254.

Pan 49 Asthestircracksandcrazestheirenamel. Soonthesun'swarmthmakesthemshedcrystalshells ShatteringandavalanchingonthesnowEcrust Suchheapsofbrokenglasstosweepaway You'dthinktheinnerdomeofheavenhadfallen. 78 Asdiscussedearlier,FrostdifferedfromthemodernistpoetsinthinkingearE imagesfarmoreimportantthaneyeeimages.inthelinesabove,heweavesa complextapestryofalliterationsandconsonancestocreateaclearauralimage ofbirchesswingingandclickinginthebreezewhiletheicebearingdownon themshatters.heroundsoffhiseareimagewithaneyeeimage,whichlikensthe bentbirchestogirlsdryingtheirhairinthesun: Theyaredraggedtothewitheredbrackenbytheload, Andtheyseemnottobreak;thoughoncetheyarebowed Solowforlong,theyneverrightthemselves: Youmayseetheirtrunksarchinginthewoods Yearsafterwards,trailingtheirleavesontheground Likegirlsonhandsandkneesthatthrowtheirhair Beforethemovertheirheadstodryinthesun. 79 Theimageofthegirlsevokesthesamebriefastonishmentasthefirstreference tothe innerdomeofheaven did.likewise,itstopsjustshortofredeemingthe poet ssubjectmatterwithmeaning.thetreesseemhumanlikeinthedejected archoftheirtrunks,butthatsenseofhumanityisnotthelifeaffirmingone earnedandvalidatedbyhumanlabor.itisadiminishedonethatprevailswhen one screativeimaginationislimitedtotherecreationofimagesfromtheworld ofmatter.one shumanityiscompromisedwhenonedoesnotpermitoneselfthe audacityandpleasureofreadingone smeaning'andvalue'intothematerialsof one slabor.ingoingnofurtherinassertinghumanvaluethancomparingthe shapeofthetreestothesilhouettesofhumanbodies,frostshowstheweakness 78Frost, Birches, 117. 79Frost, Birches, 117.

Pan 50 ofthepoeticapproachthatunderminesmeaninginfavorofclearimagesof matter.thoughthesoundeimagehecarvesisstartlingandbeautiful,itrecovers nothingofhumanity.thepoeticwillisunabletoperformtoitsfullestpotential, forithasconcededitsimaginativepowertothemerestateofmatter.ithas silenceditself,andwehearonlyitsfaintestechointhecracksandcrazesofthe birchtrees. Thefirsthalfof Birches takesnatureforfact,exercisingonlyalimited rangeofpoeticimagination;thesecondhalftakesnatureforplay,allowingroom forhumanvalueandbelieftotakerootinthesuggestivegapsthepoetteasesout betweenwhatheseesandwhatheimagines'hesees.thusthebirchesarebent notbyicestorms,butbyaboywhohastamedthemwithhiscarefulplay;thus thehopeforheavenissincerelyadmittedto,andnotmerelyanimagefetched withcunning.andsois Birches Frost stestamenttotheinseparabilityoflife andart.artmustnotonlymirrorlife;itmustreaffirmit.thosewhorejectthe essentialinterplayofmeaningandmatterinpursuitofsomedogmatictheoryof artwillonedayfindthemselveslostina pathlesswood, unabletoaccesstheir individuality,humanity,andcreativity.

Pan 51! III.!Concluding!Remarks! Wehumansrecoverourselvesintheimaginativegapswheremeaning andmattermeet.therewecreateandrenewourformstopreserveoursenseof selfandvalue.wecomposeourselvesintheactofcomposition. 80 Andsopoetry gainsitsurgencyandnecessity.itcannotbedivorcedfromitsessentialhuman function.allapoemcanbejudgedoniswhetherithasclarifiedlife whetherit hasmadeanirrefutablecaseforhumanity.saynothingoftheprecisionof images,orthedislocationoflanguageintoourmeaning;atitscore,poetryisan affirmationoflife. SoweacceptifwefullyandsincerelyenterintoFrost simagination.itis perhapsuntruethatallpoetryteachesushowtolive;thepoeticlandscapeistoo variousandcontentioustopermitsuch dogmatism. Frost spoetrywillsurvive solongaswedeemhumanlifenecessary. 80Frost, 4.25r, 46.

Pan 52 Bibliography Eliot,ThomasStearns."T.S.Elioton"TheMetaphysicalPoets". AccessedMarch 2016.http://www.uwyo.edu/numimage/eliot_metaphysical_poets.htm. Eliot,ThomasStearns."TraditionandtheIndividualTalent.T.S.Eliot.1921.The SacredWood;EssaysonPoetryandCriticism."AccessedMarch2016. http://www.bartleby.com/200/sw4.html. Emerson,RalphWaldo,BrooksAtkinson,andMaryOliver.The'Essential'Writings' of'ralph'waldo'emerson.newyork:modernlibrary,2000. Frost,Robert.Collected'Poems,'Prose'&'Plays.NewYork:LibraryofAmerica, 1995. Frost,Robert,andRobertFaggen.The'Notebooks'of'Robert'Frost.Cambridge,MA: BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2006. Frost,Robert,andMarkRichardson.The'Collected'Prose'of'Robert'Frost. Cambridge,MA:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2007. Frost,Robert,DonaldSheehy,MarkRichardson,andRobertFaggen.The'Letters' of'robert'frost.'1886g1920.cambridge,ma:belknappressofharvard UniversityPress,2014. Newdick,RobertS..1937. RobertFrostandtheSoundofSense.American' Literature9(3).DukeUniversityPress:289 300.doi:10.2307/2919660. Pound,Ezra.1934. TheTeacher'sMission.The'English'Journal23(8).National CouncilofTeachersofEnglish:630 35.doi:10.2307/804596.