Synthesis of Regional IOOS Build-out Plans for the Next Decade

Synthesis of Regional IOOS Build-out Plans for the Next Decade Prepared for the Integrated Ocean Observing System Association by Holly Price and Leslie Rosenfeld December 2012

Executive Summary The oceans, coasts and Great Lakes are critical features of the nation, affecting our economy by providing food and recreation, sustaining complex ecosystems and species, and influencing coastal communities and marine transportation. The need for more comprehensive and higher resolution data and information about these waters has never been greater, including information on severe storm events, coastal flooding, water quality, ecosystem health and the long-term impacts of climate change. The U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (U.S. IOOS ) provides the framework for such a network of observations, analyses and forecasting capabilities to preserve public safety, protect property and sustain ecosystem health. U.S. IOOS is a federal, regional, and private-sector partnership working to enhance our ability to collect, deliver and use ocean information. The coastal component of IOOS (coastal IOOS) is a partnership among 17 federal agencies and 11 Regional Associations (RAs) that operate coastal observing systems. The RAs have primary responsibility for nonfederal observations within their respective regions, for developing and integrating these assets with the federal system and for delivering timely and effective products to meet user needs. In 2011 the 11 RAs developed build-out plans based on the needs of stakeholders in their regions and their assessment of what is realistically achievable. This document synthesizes the 11 plans and presents the vision for full implementation, or build-out, of the IOOS regional observing systems for the oceans, coasts and Great Lakes over the next 10 years. It identifies the common elements to be included in the 11 regions, in concert with federal assets, by 2022. The build-out plan describes the organization of the system, identifies common products to address user needs, outlines key system assets that will be required, and recommends next steps to refine the vision. User needs Users of coastal IOOS include a broad spectrum of federal, state and local agencies, private industry, nonprofit organizations and the public. Five main themes of uses for coastal IOOS information are: Marine operations, which includes shipping, fishing and recreational vessels, search and rescue, spill planning and response and offshore energy Coastal, beach and nearshore hazards, including extreme weather events, storm surges, inundation and waves, as well as public safety for beach use Water quality, including point and nonpoint source pollution, HABs, hypoxia and eutrophication Ecosystems and fisheries, including linkages between physical, chemical and biological variables, health indices, and larval transport of fish Long-term change and decadal variability, including ocean acidification, shoreline and water level changes, and shifting ecosystem conditions Across these themes, the planning process identified key user goals or decisions that could benefit from ocean information, defined 27 key products or services that coastal IOOS could i

provide to meet that need, and described the related variables that must be included. System needs A multifaceted system of observations, models, analyses, visualizations and tactical decision aids is needed to create the 27 products outlined in the plan and meet priority user needs over the next decade. A host of different variables must be measured in the ocean, coasts, Great Lakes and atmosphere to serve as inputs to product development. There are a number of different ways to measure these variables, including in-situ sensors that make measurements within the water, and remote sensors that are deployed above the water surface and look down on it. The synthesis plan outlines needs for various platforms that can carry the equipment needed to measure, record and transmit data on these key variables and provides a typical range for the number of platforms needed per region in 10 years. In-situ fixed platforms such as shore stations and moorings are typically used to obtain a long time series of measurements at the same location. Ten to 30 ocean or Lake shore stations, 12-45 meteorological shore stations and 5-32 multipurpose moorings are needed per region. In-situ mobile platforms are used to determine how conditions vary over space. Needs include one to four Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), five to seven profiling gliders per region, as well as access to various ships. Needs for remote sensing platforms include 11-50 High Frequency (HF) radars per region, as well as access to various satellite sensors and airborne LiDAR. In addition to observing platforms, all the RAs identified a variety of numerical models that are needed to infer information for places, times, and/or variables that have not been directly measured, and to forecast how the environment will change over time. Model simulations and forecasts are needed for weather, circulation, waves, inundation, water quality and ecosystems in order to meet priority user needs. In addition to products, platforms, and models, a variety of other observing system components must also be fully implemented to carry out the vision of the 10-year build-out plan. The synthesis articulates needs and personnel requirements for user engagement, education, data management and communication, research and development and system management. These components are critical to integrating the observing system platforms and models into an effectively managed system to meet user needs. Next steps The synthesis of the regional build-out plans articulates the future needs for coastal IOOS and the component elements required nationally. Additional collaborations and analyses are needed to translate the synthesis into a more detailed implementable plan. This next phase of planning should define regionally applicable but nationally consistent technical and functional requirements for completing the build-out, and define roles for the many IOOS partners. To take coastal IOOS from a series of successful pilot projects to an operational system in the next decade, expert teams of representatives of federal agencies, RAs and subject matter experts need to be assembled to answer critical design issues for the build-out. Definition is needed on ii

technical and functional requirements such as spatial and temporal scales, data delivery rates, operation and maintenance requirements, estimated costs, along with definition of the roles and responsibilities across the federal/ra partnership. Teams should be developed to focus on: Modeling, including nesting of models of different scales and development of boundary conditions, validation/certification, use of ensembles of models, coupling of oceanic and atmospheric models and physical-biological models. Observations, including the best mix of in-situ fixed, in-situ mobile and remote platforms and sensors to meet user needs, more objective system design techniques, and appropriate spatial and temporal scales to meet user needs. Biology and ecosystems, including how coastal IOOS can best address user needs in this area, integration of biological, physical and chemical data, coupling of models, and expansion of new technologies into operational use. Products and services, including an integrated approach to developing and/or expanding use of the 27 products for the five themes outlined in the build-out plan, building on existing products, and coordinating efforts among regions and federal partners. Additional expert teams are also recommended to further refine and develop implementation plans for user engagement, data management and communication and research and development. The recommendations from the various expert teams for the topics above must also be assembled and assessed by an overarching group of experts tasked with incorporating these components into a comprehensive vision and plan for the next phase of coastal IOOS implementation. This process can be used to resolve issues for each component so the federal agencies and regional systems can be integrated into an overall national system for coastal IOOS. After 10 years, the build-out of coastal IOOS will provide the country with a dramatically improved system, with each region operating a suite of platforms, sensors, and models, while also taking advantage of a range of models and remote sensing systems operated by other entities. The regions and their federal partners will develop, produce and distribute a variety of critical products, with the spatial and temporal scales and accuracy needed to support health, safety and resource management. iii

Acknowledgements This synthesis is based on the regional build-out plans prepared by the 11 IOOS Regional Associations and their Boards of Directors, Principal Investigators, staff, advisors and partners. Their hard work and vision provides the basis for the information in this report. To see the regional build-out plans, please see usnfra.org. IOOS Association staff and Board of Directors dedicated their talents, time and effort to developing the build-out plans and providing guidance to this synthesis. Special thanks to the Steering Committee: Ann Jochens, Debra Hernandez, Josh Kohut, Molly McCammon, Ru Morrison, Josie Quintrell, Harvey Seim and Suzanne Skelley. The U.S. IOOS Program Office provided financial support for a detailed comparison of the 11 plans and the preparation of this synthesis document, and provided guidance throughout the process. iv

Table of Contents Executive Summary... i Acknowledgements... iv 1.0 Introduction... 1 1.1 Integrated Ocean Observing Systems and their applications... 1 2.0 Organization of existing observing systems... 3 2.1 A regional approach... 3 2.2 Partnerships... 4 2.3 Components of observing systems... 5 3.0 Synthesis of regional build- out plans for observing systems... 6 4.0 User needs over the next 10 years... 7 4.1 Products serving multiple user needs... 8 5.0 Marine operations... 9 5.1 Vessels... 9 5.2 Search and Rescue... 11 5.3 Spill response... 12 5.4 Offshore energy... 13 5.5 Regional differences in information needs... 13 5.6 Outcomes and success measures... 14 6.0 Coastal, beach and nearshore hazards... 14 6.1 Emergency Response and Preparedness... 15 6.2 Regional differences in information needs... 16 6.3 Outcomes and success measures... 16 7.0 Water quality... 16 7.1 Nonpoint and point source pollution... 17 7.2 Harmful algal blooms... 18 7.3 Hypoxia and eutrophication... 18 7.4 Regional differences in information needs... 18 7.5 Outcomes and success measures... 19 8.0 Ecosystems and fisheries... 19 8.1 Healthy and productive ecosystems and fisheries... 19 8.2 Regional differences in information needs... 21 8.3 Outcomes and success measures... 21 9.0 Long- term change and decadal variability... 21 9.1 Ocean Acidification... 22 9.2 Shoreline and water level changes... 22 9.3 Long term trends in ecosystem conditions... 23 9.4 Regional differences in information needs... 24 9.5 Outcomes and success measures... 25 10.0 Product development and engagement with users... 25 11.0 The observing / modeling system - platforms and measurements... 26 11.1 Measurements... 27 v

11.2 Platforms... 27 11.2.1 Fixed platforms... 29 11.2.2 Mobile platforms... 32 11.2.3 Remote sensing platforms / instruments... 35 11.2.4 Distribution of platforms... 36 11.2.5 Key partnerships and leveraging in the system of platforms... 36 12.0 The observing / modeling system - models... 37 12.1 Characteristics of RA modeling efforts... 38 12.2 Common types of models... 39 12.3 Model development... 41 13.0 The observing/modeling system linkages... 42 13.1 Relationship between platforms and variables... 42 13.2 Other factors influencing the makeup of the observing system... 43 14.0 Typical regional system of platforms and models in build- out plan... 43 15.0 Data management and communication... 46 16.0 Education... 47 17.0 Research and Development... 47 18.0 System management... 48 19.0 Next Steps... 49 19.1 Recommendation to Establish Expert Teams... 49 19.2 Modeling... 50 19.3 Observations... 51 19.4 Biology and Ecosystems... 52 19.5 Products and services... 53 19.6 User Engagement... 54 19.7 Data management... 54 19.8 Emerging Technology/ Research and Development... 54 19.9 Complete integration... 55 20.0 Conclusions... 55 References... 57 Acronyms and Abbreviations... 58 vi

1.0 Introduction The oceans, coasts and Great Lakes are critical features of the nation, affecting our economy by providing food and recreation, sustaining complex ecosystems and species, and influencing coastal communities and marine transportation. The need for more comprehensive and higher resolution data and information about these waters has never been greater, including information on severe storm events, coastal flooding, water quality, ecosystem health and the long-term impacts of climate change. All of these factors require an expanded network of observations, analyses and forecasting capabilities to preserve public safety, protect property and sustain ecosystem health. The U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (U.S. IOOS ) provides the framework for such a network. U.S. IOOS is a federal, regional, and private-sector partnership working to enhance our ability to collect, deliver and use ocean information. It delivers the data and information needed to increase understanding of our oceans, coasts and Great Lakes, so decision makers can take action to improve safety, enhance the economy, and protect the environment. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is the lead federal agency for IOOS, which includes both a global and coastal component. The coastal component of IOOS (coastal IOOS) is a partnership among federal agencies and 11 Regional Associations (RAs) that operate coastal observing systems (Figure 1.1). The Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System (ICOOS) Act authorizing the establishment of IOOS in 2009 required the development of an Independent Cost Estimate for the IOOS program and an annual process for assessing gaps in observing assets and needs for capital improvements. To support that effort, in 2011 the 11 RAs developed build-out plans for the next decade based on the needs of stakeholders in their regions and their assessment of what is realistically achievable given the wide variability currently in regional observing assets and capacity. This document synthesizes the 11 plans and presents the vision for full implementation, or buildout, of the IOOS regional observing systems for the oceans, coasts and Great Lakes over the next 10 years. It identifies the common elements to be included in the 11 regions, in concert with federal assets, by 2022. The build-out plan describes the organization of the system, identifies common products to address user needs, outlines key system assets that will be required, and recommends next steps to refine the vision. Ten years from now, the existing regional observing systems will be transformed into a sustained program of ocean observations and models that can reliably and rapidly supply the integrated information needed to plan, conserve and wisely manage our ocean, coast and Great Lakes ecosystems and resources. 1.1 Integrated Ocean Observing Systems and their applications Information developed by coastal IOOS has widespread applications to critical issues affecting the nation s economy, food supply, public health and safety, protection of coastal property, and the environment. Efficient and effective marine transportation, search and rescue operations, and oil spill response all rely on accurate information and predictions about ocean and weather conditions. Coastal communities need accurate predictions of storm events, erosion, and flooding patterns to protect life and property, while the safety of beach users depends on accurate 1

information on contamination levels, waves, and rip currents. Sustainable fisheries depend on an understanding of the changing currents and temperatures that affect fish populations. Expanding dead zones, climate change and acidification of oceans, coasts and Great Lakes require detailed understanding of conditions to minimize impacts and inform decisions. Figure 1.1. The 11 Regional Associations of IOOS The increasing and sometimes conflicting uses of our coastal waters for food, transportation, energy, mineral resources and recreation require careful planning to balance economic, social and environmental concerns. Effective ecosystem-based management depends on monitoring and prediction of the physical, chemical and biological components and their relation to spatial patterns of human uses of the ocean. These and many other applications are critical uses of the information developed by coastal IOOS. Many of these applications will become even more important in future years as the impacts of global climate change affect oceanic and meteorological conditions. Full implementation of coastal IOOS is critically important for economic development, public health and safety, and managing marine ecosystems. Initial observing projects have 2

demonstrated the value of integrating and using locally specific data and nationally relevant information to support policy decisions, maintain safe operations and foster the successful management of healthy coastal ecosystems throughout the country. This ability is only achievable through a coordinated network of regional systems linked with federal agencies, local stakeholders and regional partners. 2.0 Organization of existing observing systems Coastal ecosystems are complex. U.S. territorial waters encompass 11 Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs), as designated by NOAA, that range from the cold waters of the Chukchi Sea in the Arctic to the warm waters of the tropical Pacific Islands (Sherman and Hempel, 2008). The Great Lakes, with over 10,000 miles of coastline, are the world s largest system of freshwater lakes. Although there are many common scientific and economic factors and types of ocean information users across U.S. waters, regions are also characterized by unique geological, physical and chemical properties, biological productivity and human uses. The complexities of the coastal environment and the inherent variability in regional ecology call for partnerships that not only cut across federal agencies but also reach out to regional managers, academia, industry, non-governmental organizations and the general public. The RAs of U.S. IOOS serve that function, and are essential to building and supporting the system. 2.1 A regional approach The regional component of U.S. IOOS was created to enhance the ability of federal agencies to provide the depth or scale of information needed to solve national issues that manifest themselves at the regional and local levels, and to benefit from the knowledge and expertise at the local and regional level. The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, the Pew Ocean Commission and the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force have endorsed a regional approach to ocean observing systems as a complement to the national and global components. The RAs provide increased observation density at regional and local scales, expert knowledge, and technological competencies related to unique local environments, such as ice-filled seas, coral reefs, and the Great Lakes. They play a critical role in convening regional and local experts, agencies, industries and other users to understand mutual needs, evaluate priorities for ocean information, share knowledge and leverage resources to develop products addressing user needs. They also provide a forum for coordination on ocean observing among all interested parties at a regional level. The 11 regional associations and their associated Regional Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (RCOOS) provide the regional component of U.S. IOOS and serve in the capacity of Regional Information Coordination Entities (RICEs) as described in the ICOOS Act. For brevity, these may be referred to as regional associations or RAs in the remainder of this report. 3

2.2 Partnerships The regional associations are part of an integrated partnership with federal agencies. Federal partners of U.S. IOOS include 17 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration agencies (Table 2.1) none of which (NOAA) alone has the capacity to fully National Science Foundation (NSF) implement U.S. IOOS on a national scale, but all of whom contribute to National Aeronautics and Space Administration the mission. These federal agencies (NASA) are generally responsible for global Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and national scales of observation and analysis, and provide active support, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation funding, guidance, or advice to the and Enforcement (BOEM and BSEE) program. The first 11 federal partners Marine Mammal Commission (MMC) listed are also part of the Interagency Ocean Observation Committee Office of Naval Research (ONR) (IOOC), and they play a direct Oceanographer of the Navy, oversight role in the development of representing the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) U.S. IOOS. These federal agencies U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) also are part of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) that U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) provides a framework for U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) international cooperation on observations, modeling and analyses Department of Agriculture, Cooperative State of the interconnected nature of the Research, world s oceans. Education and Extension Service (CSREES) Department of Energy (DOE) The RAs have primary responsibility for nonfederal observations within Department of State (DOS) their respective regions, for Department of Transportation (DOT) developing and integrating these assets with the federal system and for Food and Drug Administration (FDA) delivering timely and effective U.S Arctic Research Commission (USARC) products to meet user needs. Nonfederal partners in U.S. IOOS Table 2.1. Federal partners of U.S. IOOS include state, local and tribal governmental agencies, academia, industry and nongovernmental organizations who play critical roles in providing strategic guidance to system development, identifying user needs, collecting, distributing and evaluating data, and developing models and products. These collaborations with partners allow the system to achieve objectives that are too large and complex for any component to achieve on its own. Regions and federal agencies use the IOOS investment to leverage additional resources and thus multiply the value of the original investment. They link existing assets into a connected system, and enhance that system by adding new assets. Since much of the information made available through the IOOS regions is based on observing assets and data not funded by U.S. IOOS, regions provide access to information that was previously difficult or impossible to find. 4

Effective and consistent collaboration among these various partner organizations is essential to support the planning and coordination of national IOOS development. 2.3 Components of observing systems A regional observing system is a comprehensive operation that includes all the components necessary to collect observations and turn them into useful and meaningful information products. The 11 RAs design, operate and manage 11 regional ocean observing systems. They include the following core components that are integrated into a unified system as summarized below. Observing platforms and sensors: Platforms fixed in place that collect and relay data from above and/or below the water and provide detailed information on particular locations. These include shore stations on piers as well as offshore moorings that collect data on an array of meteorological and oceanographic variables. Mobile platforms that transit broad swaths of ocean and Great Lakes, conducting monitoring along transit lines or responding to specific events such as upwelling or spills. These platforms, such as autonomous gliders and powered underwater vehicles, or more traditional ships, complement the point measurements collected by fixed platforms. Remote instruments and platforms, such as high frequency radars and satellites, that provide synoptic views of surface conditions. Models: Systems of mathematical equations solved on computers, used to infer information for places, times, and/or parameters that cannot be measured, and to forecast how the environment will change over time Observing systems use models to simulate a variety of atmospheric, ocean, or Great Lakes properties, including temperature, salinity, currents, waves, and water quality. Regional-scale models are nested within basin and global-scale models to provide users with higher resolution forecasts. Data management: Data management and integration that support seamless access to regional data Ensures that data is archived, recorded and transmitted in ways that are consistent in content and format with other providers of the same data Product development and engagement with users: Engagement with decision-makers and users to fully understand specific needs for IOOS information, the most appropriate formats and channels to receive the information, and to share knowledge to develop effective products Analysis that translates data into useful and meaningful information products Product development that integrates multiple types of measured and modeled data into higher level products 5

System management: System management to oversee operations, identify priorities and ensure routine and reliable delivery of information 3.0 Synthesis of regional build-out plans for observing systems Over the next 10 years, the RAs propose to build on the existing system and accomplishments to develop an integrated system to address priority needs. Planning for the ten-year build-out included several key steps. First, each individual RA developed a plan identifying user needs, products and required assets for their own region. These plans were compared and common elements reviewed and refined with the RAs and U.S. IOOS Program Office staff at a workshop in Portland, Maine in November 2011. The resultant information was then synthesized and expanded into the current document identifying priority common elements across the nation as well as unique regional circumstances. A separate component consisted of the independent cost estimate of funding requirements for the ten-year plan for the entire IOOS system, including the federal agencies. The synthesis of the build-out plans will provide important information for the National Ocean Policy Priority Objective, Strengthen and integrate Federal and non-federal ocean observing systems, sensors, data collection platforms, data management, and mapping capabilities into a national system and integrate that system into international observation efforts. (National Ocean Council, 2012). Moreover, the plans will provide the detailed information and rationale to support budget requests and to enumerate the impacts of budget decisions. The plans will also assist in the development of regional gaps analysis that is required by the ICOOS Act. A key step in this process was identification of priority user needs and the assets, services and products needed to meet those needs. Each RA conducted this evaluation separately, but coordinated their efforts to enhance comparability. The RAs, the IOOS Association (formerly National Federation of Regional Associations (NFRA)) and the U.S. IOOS Program Office developed templates that provided a consistent structure for the plans in advance. User needs, and products and services to meet those needs, were evaluated via a variety of mechanisms, including multiple years of interactions with regional users, stakeholder advisory panels, workshops targeted on specific issues and user surveys. Plans considered the variables, platforms, sensors, models, data management and product development required to meet user needs and to transform components into an effective integrated observing system. Federal assets are not enumerated in the regional plans, although data from them is, and will continue to be, incorporated into RA products. The 11 regional plans were then analyzed to identify priority categories of user needs and products, and to identify the assets needed to meet those needs. The approach identifies the 6

many priority elements that the RAs have in common, while recognizing that unique attributes of each region also require attention to additional custom products and services. In addition to laying out a vision for a fully operational system in 10 years, the comparison and synthesis can facilitate synergism among the RA efforts to develop products while preserving unique regional qualities. The sections below describe the basic components of the build-out plans developed by the regions, including user needs and products and the assets required to meet those needs. Regional systems depend on federal observations and strong partnerships with federal agencies, supplemented by assets from state and local governments, the private sector and academics, to deliver products and services. The synthesis of the regional build-out plans provides a basis for discussion with these partners to refine technical and functional requirements, identify appropriate leads and complementary roles for meeting user and system needs in the next phase of coastal IOOS. 4.0 User needs over the next 10 years Assumptions of the planning process Plan represents a joint vision of common needs among regions Many partners will be involved in the buildout over the next 10 years Additional discussions with partners and expert teams will be needed to refine technical and functional requirements, determine appropriate leads, etc. Existing federal observing assets will be sustained at current operating levels Individual regions will have additional unique product needs and asset requirements beyond the common elements identified here The build out plans represent what the RAs determine to be the needs in the next decade Users of coastal IOOS include a broad spectrum of federal, state and local agencies, private industry, nonprofit organizations and the public. Users include mariners who need access to the latest sea state conditions, fishermen who are planning their days at sea, resource managers who need definitive ecological trends and risk factors; federal agency personnel who need data for modeling and prediction; emergency managers who need forecasts and predictions to protect public health and safety; and the general public who want to plan for coastal activities, recreation and tourism. Five main themes of uses for coastal IOOS information are a) marine operations, b) coastal, beach and nearshore hazards, c) water quality, d) ecosystems and fisheries and e) long-term change and decadal variability. These broad themes and the specific user needs associated with them were defined through many years of interactions of the RAs with users in their regions and nationwide. User needs and required products and services were assessed over the years through a variety of means, including targeted user workshops, stakeholder advisory committees, surveys, and ongoing one-on-one interactions with users. For each of the key themes in the subsections below, the users' goals and/or decisions that could benefit from ocean information are identified, along with the type of information needed, and the product or service that U.S. IOOS and its partners could provide to meet that need. The user needs and common products and services that will be provided in all the regions after a 10-year implementation period are summarized in the tables below. 7

The RAs may not necessarily be the lead in developing and delivering all the products summarized in this document. This document defines the needs of the users and outlines the products and observing system assets that are required to meet those needs. An estimate of the associated costs is being developed concurrently in a separate document. A next step in the planning process will require discussions with federal and state agencies, academia, industry and other partners on how to best coordinate activities, leverage resources and develop implementation plans refining the technical and functional requirements for fulfilling these needs. 4.1 Products serving multiple user needs IOOS provides historical and real-time data and predictions for a variety of key variables, which can then be customized and packaged into the diverse set of products required by an array of users. The descriptions in Sections 5-8 below describe 27 common products organized by broad themes and targeted to specific user groups, such as the shipping industry, coastal emergency response managers, etc. However, the underlying data sources and model outputs for a number of these products are similar (Fig. 4.1). The ability to use core data sources and model outputs as a basis for multiple targeted products greatly improves the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the IOOS system. Figure 4.1. Examples of core IOOS products applicable to multiple user needs 8

For example, wind, wave and current nowcasts 1 and forecasts are critical products required by the shipping industry for safe navigation, federal and state agencies for oil spill response, the U. S. Coast Guard (USCG) for offshore search and rescue, coastal communities preparing for storm surges, and industry and agencies to evaluate offshore energy operations. Scientists and managers also use them to enhance ecosystem management through understanding of biological distributions and the connectivity between habitats. Other critical basic products such as longterm climatologies (historical average conditions), of wind, wave and currents, and real-time maps of surface currents also help meet the needs of a variety of users. However, various refinements are often necessary in spatial and temporal scale, timing of information delivery, formatting, packaging and distribution of the products to meet the targeted needs of specific types of users. 5.0 Marine operations Commercial and recreational boating safety, efficient shipping and cruising, informed and efficient offshore renewable energy production, effective rescue operations and spill responses are key aspects of maritime operations. These operations impact human health and the economic vitality of the country. For example, more than 95% of U.S. overseas trade occurs by ship, providing bulk transport of raw materials and import/export of affordable food and manufactured goods. Commercial and recreational mariners, as well as the USCG require information on sea, Great Lakes, and marine weather conditions. RAs have provided real-time conditions on websites and via NOAA weather radio and other information portals, as well as model solutions that interpolate conditions between observations and forecast changes over time, to provide users with information exactly where and when they need it. Observations and modeling from the RAs can be used to supplement the coverage and enhance the resolution of NOAA s Physical Oceanographic Real-time System (PORTS ). Over the coming 10 years, the RAs will expand and deliver a suite of targeted products and services for marine operations, in coordination with federal partners (Table 5.1). 5.1 Vessels Safe and efficient coast and ocean transit and operations is a key aspect for commercial shipping operations, fishing, recreational boaters, as well as for public transportation such as ferries and cruise ships. The safe and efficient operation of commercial shipping and fishing, and recreational boating and fishing requires that mariners have access to reliable, accurate real-time observations of weather and ocean conditions through a variety of communication technologies including the internet, cell phones, and radio. Accurate, real-time information on ocean and weather conditions across broad regions can help meet this goal by informing decisions such as scheduling of operations or choice of optimal routes to take advantage of preferred conditions or avoid dangerous ones. IOOS observations of present conditions and models are used to develop key products such as nowcasts and forecasts for the oceans, coasts and Great Lakes describing winds, waves, currents, 1 numerical simulations of actual conditions that fill gaps in existing data 9

USER NEED/GOAL PRODUCTS/SERVICES KEY VARIABLES/ DATA STREAM MARINE OPERATIONS Vessels Safe and efficient coast and ocean transit and operations-- shipping, fishing, recreation, ferries, etc.--includes scheduling and routes Safe passage into and inside ports, harbors, marinas, passages--scheduling, routes, keel clearance, pilot boarding decisions, port status Search and Rescue Improved search and rescue efforts, including efficiency and safety of operations Spill Planning and Response Rapid effective response to spills or floatable debris, including decisions re type and location of containment efforts, clean up and wildlife rescue. Determine origin. Nowcasts and forecasts with visualization tools for coast and open ocean, Great Lakes Nowcasts and forecasts with visualization tools near and in major ports, harbors, passages Hindcasts, nowcasts and forecasts for visualizations, modeling and delivery into tactical SAR decision tools Hindcasts, nowcasts and forecasts formatted and delivered to NOAA OR&R spill modelers and responders Spill trajectory tools as requested by users for spills not covered by OR&R, e.g. small spills, some contaminants, planning and drills Near real-time offshore wind, wave, currents, temperature (air and sea), atmospheric visibility, bathymetry, AIS vessel tracking, navigation charts Above variables but at higher resolution for nearshore and harbors, plus water level and water density Near real-time wind, wave, surface and subsurface currents, temperature (air and sea), atmospheric visibility and cloud cover Near real-time winds, waves, surface and subsurface currents and water density Same as above Offshore Energy Assess conditions for feasibility and costeffectiveness of energy generation; compare alternative locations Maximize efficiency and safety of energy operations Satellite imagery and contaminant maps to further define and track spills Climatologies historical conditions Nowcasts and forecasts Synthetic aperture radar; oil and contaminant distributions throughout water column Historical wind at various elevations, wave and/or currents Near real-time winds, waves, currents Evaluate potential impact of energy facility on coastal processes, wildlife, and other ocean users for permit review Predictions of impacts Table 5.1 Products to meet user needs for marine operations Acoustics, wave fields, sediment transport, nutrients, habitats, wildlife distribution, migratory pathways, etc. 10

temperature and visibility. These must be supplemented by visualization tools combining observations and forecasts with bathymetry, navigation charts and Automatic Identification System (AIS) tracking of vessels. Such information is also important for safe passage as vessels prepare to enter or transit constrained regions such as ports, harbors, marinas or narrow passages. Ocean and weather information at these small spatial scales is needed to inform decisions about optimal scheduling, keel clearance and loads, pilot boarding and port status designations. Information needed in and near these regions includes high-resolution bathymetry and real-time observations and models of waves, surface and subsurface currents, winds, visibility, water level, and water density. Information should be available through a variety of communication technologies including Internet, cell phone, and radio. Output and distribution of data and models should be packaged to take full advantage of existing information channels already utilized by mariners, to streamline access and promote broad use. Specific distribution channels may evolve over time, but currently include PORTS, e-navigation, AIS and Portable Pilot Units. Key regional partners in product evaluation, packaging and distribution include the USCG, NOAA, port safety forums, tug and pilot associations, port and harbor authorities, state marine trade associations, and commercial and recreational fishing organizations. 5.2 Search and Rescue The USCG conducts searches for lost, missing, or distressed vessels and persons in the coastal oceans and Great Lakes. Search and rescue and minimizing the loss of life, injury and property damage by rendering aid to the distressed in the maritime environment have always been a Coast Guard priority. For effective and timely search and rescue operations, the USCG requires specific information on winds, currents, and a host of other variables. The USCG uses a Decision Support Tool (DST) known as the Search and Rescue Optimal Planning System (SAROPS) for planning search and rescue operations. SAROPS uses a sophisticated animated grid model to project how floating persons or objects might move, and to determine the location and size of a search area. The IOOS RAs provide critical environmental data to SAROPS. The USCG estimates that search areas can be reduced by as much as two-thirds over a 96-hour period if the SAROPS system is linked to surface current data and forecasts of currents, thereby leading to greater number of lives saved and significantly reducing search costs (U.S. IOOS Program, 2011a). In addition to providing data directly to SAROPS, the RAs also support search and rescue via other modes and products when state and local groups mount efforts in situations where the USCG is not available. Key IOOS products needed for search and rescue are hindcasts, nowcasts and forecasts of winds, waves, surface and subsurface currents, temperature, visibility and cloud cover. Information on these variables should be packaged for direct visualizations, modeling and delivery into tactical DSTs such as SAROPS. Surface currents, as measured by high frequency (HF) radars are a key 11

component of IOOS information delivered into SAROPS. The 10-year plan envisions building on the successful use of this variable by providing more complex operational numerical ocean models that incorporate ocean circulation, waves, and winds into SAR decisions. 5.3 Spill response Spills of oil, hazardous materials and debris have the potential to cause widespread ecological damage and broad economic impacts, and threaten human health. Spill response personnel (including from federal, state, and local agencies) require up-to-date and reliable information and forecasts that will allow rapid response to minimize adverse effects and assist in monitoring spill impact. Effective response involves decisions regarding type and location of containment efforts, cleanup and wildlife rescue. Evaluations may also be needed to determine where the spill, tar balls, or debris originated, to assist with diagnosis and containment. Archived information that can describe historical background and ambient conditions is important for damage assessment to determine the extent of impacts. Key regional partners in spill response include NOAA s Office of Response and Restoration (OR&R), the USCG, the EPA and state environmental protection agencies. These managers need information on spill location, size and extent in three dimensions (surface and subsurface), direction and speed of oil or other spill movement, and predictions of drift and dispersion to limit the damage by a spill and facilitate cleanup efforts. IOOS products to assist in meeting these needs include hindcasts, nowcasts and forecasts of winds, waves, currents and water density. In the Gulf of Mexico Deepwater Horizon oil spill, IOOS and its partners were able to deploy underwater gliders to the Gulf to assist with subsurface monitoring and provided model and HF radar information to the response teams. IOOS will need to work with partners to ensure appropriate packaging and delivery mechanisms for these basic products dependent on the type and extent of the spill. During major oil spills, the USCG serves as the Federal On Scene Coordinator for spill response, NOAA is designated to provide the Scientific Support Coordinator (SSC) and NOAA s OR&R staffs the SSCs with oceanographers, modelers, chemists, and biologists available 24 hours a day. During an oil spill, the primary Decision Support Tool for evaluating potential trajectories is currently the General NOAA Oil Modeling Environment (GNOME), although other models are under development. GNOME forecasts spill trajectories based upon the best wind and ocean circulation forecasts available at the time of the response. For major spills, RA data should be formatted and delivered for use by OR&R modelers. However, not all spills are addressed by OR&R, and other users and distribution pathways are needed for some spills. For example, NOAA does not officially respond to oil spills until formally requested by the USCG. Therefore, the GNOME model as implemented by NOAA is generally not used in small oil spills, oil spill drills, or in pre-staging equipment in advance of an oil spill. Visualizations of currents, and spill trajectory models are needed for application to these types of cases, and for spills of contaminants other than oil. Additional imagery and maps are needed beyond this basic set of inputs and models. Satellite imagery can assist in further defining the location and extent of the spill, although operational 12

use during spill response may be limited by low spatial resolution, slow revisit times and delays in receiving processed images. Subsurface oil distributions and other water quality measurements are also needed to fully understand and track spills and their impacts. 5.4 Offshore energy Exploration for offshore energy has accelerated in recent years, and may be a primary source of energy for the nation for many decades. The term offshore energy is used here to describe all forms of energy derived from the sea including oil and gas, as well as marine renewable energy sources such waves, tides, currents, and winds. A wide range of information is needed to support wise ocean energy development, and the information must be available to diverse agencies and public and private groups involved in decision-making. These include various federal agencies such as the BOEM, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), USACE, NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFW), energy developers, and state energy, coastal zone and environmental managers. U.S. IOOS products on past patterns of wind, wave and current conditions are needed to evaluate the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of various forms of energy facilities and to compare alternative locations. Maps and monitoring of acoustics, wave fields, sediment transport, nutrients, habitats, wildlife distribution and migratory pathways are needed to evaluate the potential impact of proposed energy facilities on coastal processes, marine life, and other ocean users for planning and permit processes. Once facilities are approved, built, and operating, real-time information and forecasts of wind, wave and current conditions are needed to maximize efficiency and safety of energy operations. 5.5 Regional differences in information needs Although there are many common elements of ocean information needed to support marine operations, there are also additional elements unique to individual regions. Marine operations in regions may vary due to differences in climate, geography, population sizes and industrial uses. For example, a key issue for the Alaska Ocean Observing System (AOOS) is the need to provide vessels information on current conditions and forecasts for floating ice. As Arctic sea ice retreats, and northern oceanic passages stay open for longer periods, more vessels are passing through Alaska waters. These vessels take shipments to international destinations, as well as supporting increased economic development in western and northern Alaska and recreational tours of the Arctic. Highly mobile broken ice continues to be problematic especially for vessels in transit. AOOS will explore using ice radars, bottom mounted ice thickness sonars and numerical modeling to develop a sea ice trajectory nowcast/forecast as an aid to vessels working in the Arctic. An example of how geographic differences can lead to additional priorities is evident when examining marine operations in PacIOOS, a region of small islands separated from the continents by vast stretches of open ocean. A priority under such conditions is development of an optimal ship routing tool that can evaluate how current, wave and wind conditions affect vessel speed, fuel efficiency and safety over long open ocean transits. 13

Even within a category such as offshore energy, there are significant regional differences in the target audiences for needed products. Wind energy is the primary new offshore energy source under development on the east coast, while western states are primarily evaluating the potential of offshore wave energy, and oil and gas remains the predominant focus of development for the Gulf of Mexico and Alaska. These and many other examples mean that each RA will have individual priorities and necessary product refinements that will extend beyond the common set identified throughout the country. 5.6 Outcomes and success measures Full implementation of the build-out plan to routinely provide the above products across the 11 regions will result in a range of successful outcomes impacting the nation s economy, environment and public safety, as outlined below. Shipping incidents and time spent waiting to enter harbors will be reduced through improved decisions drawing on U.S. IOOS data. The cost for holding large cargo ships offshore in California is estimated to be between $100,000-$200,000/day/ship. The size of the Coast Guard s search area and the response time for rescues will be reduced, resulting in fewer lives lost at sea. The efficiency and accuracy of responding to oil spills will be increased by accessing real-time and forecast information on currents and other environmental factors. Recreational boaters and commercial fishermen will have information on local sea and weather conditions needed to plan safe trips. Energy siting and operations will be more efficient and environmentally sound due to incorporation of subsurface information from IOOS. 6.0 Coastal, beach and nearshore hazards Coastal communities face a variety of physical hazards that threaten lives and property, resulting from natural cycles on a monthly or seasonal basis and from episodic events such as tsunamis, tropical storms, hurricanes or other extreme weather events. Susceptibility to these hazards is further increased by changing climatic and geological conditions, such as sea level rise, more frequent storms, loss of sea ice and land subsidence or uplift. In addition, dangerous beach conditions such as high waves, rip currents and contamination can impact public safety and coastal tourism activities such as beach visits, surfing, and kayaking. Natural hazards can have devastating impacts on people and property, and may also have deleterious effects on the environment, particularly sensitive habitats. It is therefore critical to numerous groups (coastal residents, state, federal and local emergency managers and planners, scientists, etc.) in the regions to be able to predict, understand, and manage/mitigate coastal hazards. U.S. IOOS RAs and federal agencies provide information needed to develop products regarding hazards, such as the National Weather Service (NWS) 14

integrated meteorological observations, and the USACE wave and inundation models. The majority of regional plans include providing essential observations to decision-makers on environmental conditions for both systemic, long-term events such as sea level rise as well as episodic events such as seasonal storm events, flooding, and coastal erosion (Table 6.1). 6.1 Emergency Response and Preparedness When faced with imminent threats, communities need timely hazard and disaster information at high resolution to inform emergency planning and response to save lives and protect property. Information needs include near real-time conditions and improved forecasts of extreme weather, storm surge, flooding and erosion events, including water level and wave observations, and inundation and wave forecasts. High-resolution maps of the shoreline and nearshore topography are also needed as a base for overlaying forecasts and detailed planning responses. Over longer multi-year time scales, enhancing preparedness for future emergency response requires improved understanding of the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and their impacts on shorelines. This requires climatologies and multiyear simulations and forecasts for the variables identified above. For enhancement of public safety and improved planning of beach and coastal recreational activities, information on beach conditions such as rip currents, waves, presence of jellyfish or Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), pathogens and water quality including levels of fecal indicator USER NEED/GOAL PRODUCTS/SERVICES KEY VARIABLES/ DATA STREAM COASTAL, BEACH and NEARSHORE HAZARDS Emergency Response and Preparedness Timely and high resolution hazard and disaster information to coastal communities to protect public and infrastructure Nowcasts and forecasts of extreme weather, high water, storm surges and erosion events, inundation and waves Accurate shoreline maps, nearshore bathymetry, near real-time water level, waves, winds, barometric pressure, precipitation Long-term planning for future responses Enhance public safety and use of beaches Climatologies and long-term forecasts of frequency and intensity of extreme weather, high water, storm surges, erosion events, inundation and waves Beach conditions alerts Historical data on above variables Rip currents, waves, presence of jellyfish or HABs, water quality including fecal bacteria indicators Table 6.1 Products to meet user needs for coastal, beach and nearshore hazards 15

bacteria (FIB), is needed. This information can be provided directly to relevant agencies and via a web portal or an alert system that can inform coastal residents, tourists and businesses who are making decisions regarding the timing and location of beach visits and nearshore activities such as surfing, kayaking, and whale watching. Observing system information could be packaged for selected beaches as well as for advisories, alerts and warnings for specific conditions posted by state and local authorities, ranking of hazard levels, beach closures, etc. This information can enhance public safety and the tourist economy by guiding behavior at a site or directing the public to alternative safe locations and times. 6.2 Regional differences in information needs Types of hazards and needed products have many common elements throughout the country but also unique regional differences. For example, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and the southeastern U.S. experience more frequent and more intense hurricanes than other regions of the country. Substantial improvements in the NWS forecasts of storm intensity, track, and timing of passage are necessary for timely evacuations of communities and offshore facilities in the path of the storm, while avoiding evacuations that are unnecessary. Long-term plans for these regions include close coordination of data products with the needs of hurricane modelers, including providing information on ocean heat content via air-deployed sensors during hurricane approach and passage, and autonomous underwater vehicles to monitor the water column. With the rapid loss of sea ice, Arctic weather and ocean conditions are increasingly endangering Alaska Native coastal communities. In a statewide assessment, flooding and erosion affects 184 out of 213 Native villages (GAO, 2003). This presents unique challenges in forecasting and effectively communicating conditions for small communities in isolated locations. These and many other types of regional differences must be considered when tailoring and refining common information needs. 6.3 Outcomes and success measures Reduction in risks to lives and property from extreme coastal storms and long-term water level changes because of improved forecasts and predictions on the regional scale. Increased access to actual observations is key to increasing accuracy of forecast models. The accuracy and resolution of forecast models will be increased through the adoption of new technologies and techniques that have been first tested at the regional level. Ready access to beach conditions will result in improvements in public health and safety due to better planning of beach visits. Coastal residents/visitors and tourism operation businesses will benefit from improved information affecting preferred scheduling and location of beach and nearshore activities. 7.0 Water quality Pollutants, pathogens and harmful algal blooms threaten public beaches, shellfish stocks and public water supplies. IOOS can provide information to assist with prediction and tracking of pollution events and HABs and increase understanding and management of long-term water quality trends (Table 7.1). 16

7.1 Nonpoint and point source pollution For short-term management of water quality, decision-makers aim to predict and minimize impacts from discharges of pollutants. Coastal observing systems can provide early indicators of the presence of pollution events such as sewage discharges, increased sediment loads or high nitrate levels. Tracking plumes or particles and predicting which locations will be most impacted can allow advance warnings for such events. Over longer time periods, managers strive to improve management based on water quality conditions and trends by identifying and mitigating sources of pollution. This requires the ability to compile and compare water quality USER NEED/GOAL PRODUCTS/SERVICES KEY VARIABLES/ DATA STREAM WATER QUALITY Nonpoint and Point Source Pollution Predict and minimize impacts from discharges of pollutants Early warnings of the presence/prediction of pollution events, including plume / particle tracking Near real-time nutrients and fecal bacteria indicators, currents, water density, point source and stormwater inflows Improve management based on water quality conditions and trends, identifying and mitigating sources of pollution Harmful Algal Blooms Protect public health and aquaculture facilities from HAB impacts and preparing for wildlife rescue Hypoxia and Eutrophication Improve adaptation and mitigation of harmful impacts associated with low oxygen (hypoxia) and high nutrients (eutrophication) Portal for integration of regional water quality monitoring data, freshwater inputs, restoration efforts Maps showing spatial distribution of HABs and long-term patterns of occurrence Early warnings to coastal managers and businesses when conditions are conducive to HAB formation and when HABs present Maps showing spatial distributions and long-term patterns of occurrence Early warnings for when conditions are conducive to hypoxia and/or eutrophication Historical and current nutrient, pesticide, fecal bacteria concentrations, turbidity, salinity, temperature, currents, oxygen, point source and stormwater inflows, restoration program activities Historical HAB biotoxin concentrations, species distribution and abundance Near real-time temperature, currents, chlorophyll, nutrients, HAB biotoxin concentrations, species distribution and abundance Historical oxygen, nutrients, chlorophyll Near real-time temperature, salinity, water density, currents, oxygen, nutrients, chlorophyll Table 7.1 Products to meet user needs for water quality 17

and related information from a variety of sources. The RAs can host integrated portals for regional water quality monitoring data, freshwater inputs that affect the volume and distribution of contaminants, and restoration program efforts that strive to improve water quality. 7.2 Harmful algal blooms Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are concentrated, rapid growths of a variety of algal species that produce toxins or other negative human health, ecological and economic impacts. HAB events include paralytic shellfish poisoning from dinoflagellates and saxitoxins, amnesiac shellfish poisoning from diatoms and domoic acid, and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning from dinoflagellates and okadaic acid. During toxic HAB events, feeding shellfish accumulate the toxins, becoming a public health threat to consumers and disrupting the operation of aquaculture facilities. Toxic HAB events have also led to widespread mortality in marine mammals and seabirds. A variety of non-toxic HABs also occur which can discolor recreational waters, clog fish gills and deplete oxygen in the water column. Coastal managers and businesses face decisions about how to best protect public health, minimize impacts to aquaculture facilities and prepare for wildlife rescue. Timely information is needed from ocean observing systems regarding when HABs are present and when conditions are conducive to HAB formation. These early indicators will allow time to take action to minimize harm. Maps showing the spatial distribution of HABs and historical patterns of occurrence are also needed to enhance prediction and mitigation of impacts. 7.3 Hypoxia and eutrophication Hypoxia (low oxygen concentration) has been reported with increasing frequency in many coastal areas in recent years, including the appearance of dead zones that result in widespread die-offs of fish and shellfish and significant impacts to tourism and the economy. Hypoxia can be initiated by excess nutrient loading from fertilizers and sewage, followed by algal blooms and decomposition (eutrophication), and the subsequent depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, as in the Gulf of Mexico and the Chesapeake Bay dead zones. Hypoxia can also be driven by more complex factors including changing current patterns that move low oxygen waters into new regions, as occurs in dead zones off Oregon and Washington, or overall warming that reduces seawater s ability to absorb oxygen. In addition to increased nutrient loading from urban and agricultural inputs and atmospheric deposition, eutrophication can also be impacted by natural factors such as depositional environments and mineral weathering. Similar to the situation with HABs, timely indicators and early warnings of the presence of hypoxia and eutrophication are needed. These early warnings could be based on the development of forecasting capabilities that predict the formation, extent, duration and severity of the events. Maps showing the spatial distribution of nutrient and oxygen concentrations and historical patterns of events are also needed to enhance understanding and mitigate impacts. 7.4 Regional differences in information needs Water quality issues also exhibit a variety of regionally unique differences. For example, water quality contamination in the Great Lakes is not only an issue for wildlife, but also for 40 million consumers of public drinking water in the region. To address this concern, GLOS will provide a decision support tool to track the movement of drinking water contaminants, and will provide 18

model output that helps county officials manage drinking water intake systems to avoid contamination. Tracking of water quality plumes and impacts also has unique challenges in the Gulf of Mexico. Drainage from urban development, industries and farmland comes into the Gulf from the enormous Mississippi River watershed, covering 1,245,000 square miles and 41% of the 48 contiguous states of the U.S. This drainage leads to hypoxic conditions (low dissolved oxygen content) in summertime over the Texas-Louisiana shelf waters, and delivers large loads of sediment and associated pollutants to nearshore environments such as recreational waters and shellfish beds. Informed management decisions require a broad distribution of platforms, sensors and derived products to track this plume and its impacts through estuaries, nearshore and offshore habitats. 7.5 Outcomes and success measures Fewer illnesses from exposure to contaminants in coastal waters and the Great Lakes Reduction in financial loss to the shellfish and aquaculture industries from HAB outbreaks because early warnings allow the industry to take precautionary measures, and managers to narrow the window of harvest closures Improved understanding and management of pollution sources 8.0 Ecosystems and fisheries The nation's coastal waters support a rich and diverse ecosystem and are home to numerous fisheries, as well as abundant populations of seabirds and marine mammals. Many economically important fisheries are now declining due to loss of spawning grounds and other habitats, fishing pressure and changes in water temperature and chemistry. Conflicts exist between threatened and endangered species, and development and extractive industries over critical marine habitats. The health of ecosystems has direct social and economic implications that are likely to be more profound as the effects of climate change are manifested by large-scale ecosystem adjustments. In addition, as human activities increase, management challenges increase and will require new sources of information and decision support tools. 8.1 Healthy and productive ecosystems and fisheries The complex nature of coastal ecosystems and the wide array of natural and anthropogenic stressors emphasize the need for critical information. Federal, state and local managers strive for improved understanding, use, management and conservation of coastal, marine and Great Lakes ecosystems. Their efforts aim to restore and protect healthy ecosystems and sustainable fisheries, and the cultures and economies that depend on them. Information needs to support ecosystem-based approaches to management are beyond the capabilities of any one organization, yet such approaches are necessary to maintain the region s ecosystem services. The ecosystem approach requires coordination and cooperation among multiple regional institutions. An organized research-observing-modeling framework is 19

necessary to assess and forecast the state of the ecosystem and its constituent habitats and living marine resources. The RAs can play an important coordinating role and fill observational and modeling gaps in the scientific support framework for the ecosystem-based approaches to management by providing subsurface information over time. IOOS can provide the driving physical information for marine ecosystems such as changes in temperature, salinity, currents and nutrients so that managers can understand the affects on living marine resources. Many RAs are already collaborating with fisheries and other marine managers to provide this critical information. A variety of coastal IOOS products are needed to help decision-makers and scientists achieve these goals (Table 8.1). IOOS information can support regional ecosystem and health indices that are needed to integrate biological, chemical, physical and geological conditions and provide tools for managers to evaluate and refine management strategies. It can also provide input to NOAA s Integrated Ecosystem Assessment. Integrated maps and displays are also needed linking habitats, wildlife distributions/migrations and invasive species with physical oceanographic properties. Spatial analyses of existing and proposed ocean uses must be included to support regional planning. USER NEED/GOAL PRODUCTS/SERVICES KEY VARIABLES/ DATA STREAM ECOSYSTEMS AND FISHERIES Healthy and Productive Ecosystems and Fisheries Improved understanding, use, management and conservation of coastal, marine and Great Lakes ecosystems. Restore and protect healthy ecosystems and sustainable fisheries, and the cultures and economies that depend on them. Integrated maps and displays linking ecosystem variables and fisheries data Seasonal and annual climatologies Ecosystem and health indices integrating physical, chemical, geological and biological variables Habitats, fish and wildlife distributions/migrations, invasive species, dynamic physical/chemical variables (currents, temperature, nutrients), bathymetry, etc. Historical physical and chemical variables (currents, temperature, nutrients, etc.) and biological responses (chlorophyll, zooplankton, fish, wildlife) Same as above two rows Current modeling and virtual particle tracking for larval fish transport Table 8.1 Products to meet user needs for ecosystems and fisheries Surface and subsurface currents In addition, seasonal and annual climatologies are needed displaying patterns over time of key ocean conditions and biological responses. For example, this information can be used to determine important physical factors that influence biomass of fisheries stocks. Mapping and 20

modeling of surface and subsurface currents is needed to evaluate larval fish transport and conduct virtual tracking of other types of particles in a dynamic ocean. 8.2 Regional differences in information needs Regional habitats create differences in ocean information needs. For example, shallow coral reefs in the waters of the Pacific islands, the Caribbean and coastal Florida are unique high diversity ecosystems, providing valuable economic and environmental benefits such as food, tourism and buffering from coastal storms. They are increasingly threatened by an array of local and global pressures: overfishing, pollution, sedimentation, ocean acidification, and warming trends that cause reef degradation and loss. Regional observing systems in these regions need to provide detailed information on physical, chemical and biological variables that can help managers evaluate reef health, understand what and why changes are occurring over time and better manage the wide array of impacts on these fragile habitats. 8.3 Outcomes and success measures Ecosystem indices and measures of ocean health that accurately track changes and progress over time in achieving management goals Reduced bycatch of off-limits fish species and improved efficiency in commercial catch of fishable species due to information on oceanographic conditions affecting fish distribution and migration Informed decisions by individuals, agencies and organizations that result in healthy sustainable ecosystems and fisheries with diverse biota and a wide range of economic and societal benefits 9.0 Long-term change and decadal variability The ocean is a dynamic environment that changes over a variety of time scales. Fluctuations such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, the North Atlantic Oscillation, and the Arctic oscillation occur over time scales of years to a few decades, and represent climate variability rather than climate change. Operating over longer time scales, climate change impacts ocean processes such as meridional overturning circulation, also known as the global ocean conveyor belt, which plays a key role in redistributing heat globally. According to the U.S. Global Change Research Program (2009), the ocean, coasts and Great Lakes will experience significant impacts due to climate variability and change. In many cases, these will not be new impacts, but rather, an increase in intensity or occurrence of change and events already experienced by the nation s coast and oceans. Specifically, U.S. coasts and waters are expected to see: Increased sea level rise and storm surge More spring runoff plus warmer waters resulting in decreased oxygen Higher temperature and increased acidification, and Changing ocean current patterns 21

Increased scientific understanding of changing conditions is needed to inform mitigation and adaptation strategies under consideration by resource managers, policy makers, coastal communities, fishermen and other industries. Over the next 10 years, the regional associations will focus on sustained observations and models needed to develop the three key categories of products outlined below (Table 9.1). Long-term changes will also be linked into ongoing efforts on virtually all of the issues and products outlined above. 9.1 Ocean Acidification Ocean acidification describes the increasing acidity, or decreasing ph, in the oceans and coasts due to rising levels of carbon dioxide in seawater. Scientists estimate that the ocean is 25 percent more acidic today than it was 300 years ago. Projections of rising CO 2 levels during this century could result in an additional decrease in surface water ph of approximately 0.3 ph units by 2100. As a result, acidity in the ocean would increase by about 150% relative to the beginning of the industrial era (NOAA Ocean Acidification Steering Committee, 2010). As the ph in the ocean decreases, it reduces the availability of calcium carbonate minerals, which play an important role in skeleton and shell formation for marine organisms such as corals, plankton, and shellfish. Decreased calcification in these species could have negative impacts on marine ecosystems, with consequent effects on local marine fisheries and coastal protection from storms. The abundance of commercially important shellfish species (e.g., clams, oysters, sea urchins) could also decline, which could have serious consequences for marine food resources. Reduced ph also alters the acoustic properties of water, increasing transmission of low-frequency sounds, which may affect species such as marine mammals that rely on acoustic information. Users need information on acidification and impacts on ocean life and fisheries to assist in longterm planning for mitigation and adaptation. Over the shorter term, aquaculture facilities can take advantage of ph data to move or alter operations to protect product, minimize losses, and maximize returns. Coastal IOOS products that will help meet these goals include status and trends of acidification and related biogeochemical and ecological impacts. This will include mapping of habitats that are particularly sensitive to acidification impacts. In addition, a system will be developed for distributing warnings to businesses and other interested parties when conditions become unfavorable due to acidification. 9.2 Shoreline and water level changes There is a widespread consensus that substantial long-term sea level rise across the globe will continue for centuries to come. This rise is due to thermal expansion in the volume of ocean water as it warms and to freshwater input from increased melting of land-based ice. For this century, one meter of sea level rise is well within the range of recent projections. Rising sea levels have a variety of impacts, including increased frequency and intensity of coastal flooding and erosion, damage from storms, and seawater intrusion into ground water. 22

USER NEED/GOAL PRODUCTS/SERVICES KEY VARIABLES/ DATA STREAM LONG TERM CHANGE AND DECADAL VARIABILITY Acidification Long-term planning for mitigation and adaptation to respond to acidification and impacts on ocean life and fisheries Status and trends of acidification, including mapping of particularly sensitive habitats ph, pco 2, dissolved inorganic carbon, alkalinity, oxygen, temperature, salinity habitat distribution Effective and safe operation of facilities, e.g. shellfish aquaculture, planning / responses such as suspending, moving operations, changing timing of releases or harvest Shoreline and Water Level Changes Long-term planning to ensure safety and protection of coastal community and natural resources, evaluate proposed development or coastal protections (also see emergency response above) Ecosystem Conditions Increased understanding of long-term changes in ocean/lake conditions and planning for mitigation and adaptation strategies Warnings sent to interested parties when conditions unfavorable due to acidification Long-term trends and forecasts of beach and shore erosion, sea level rise, land subsidence, and coastal flooding and inundation Climatologies and long-term forecasts Regional climate indices, e.g. primary productivity, ENSO, shelf-slope exchange, pco2, freshwater inputs, biological responses ph, pco 2, dissolved inorganic carbon, alkalinity, oxygen, temperature, salinity, turbidity, chlorophyll, river discharges Water level, waves and winds, precipitation and runoff, nearshore LiDAR/bathymetry, shoreline position Historical physical, chemical, biological and geological variables (e.g. currents, temperature, oxygen, nutrients, chlorophyll, zooplankton, fish, wildlife, shoreline position) Above variables, near-real time and historical Table 9.1 Products to meet user needs related to long-term change and decadal variability Long term planning is needed to ensure the safety and protection of the coastal community, including appropriate types and locations of developments in the face of changing levels. U.S. IOOS will provide forecasts on sea level rise and coastal inundation models to assist planners in these evaluations. IOOS observations will also evaluate impacts of sea level rise on habitat alteration and loss, estuarine salinity changes and ecosystem shifts in coastal regions. 9.3 Long term trends in ecosystem conditions Variability and change in the oceans, coasts and Great Lakes involves a broad and complex array of related processes, parameters, driving forces and impacts. Understanding and predicting these changes requires sustained observations and indices at regional scales and over long time periods throughout the coastal and nearshore zone, out through the 200-mile exclusive economic zone 23

(EEZ). Key IOOS products that will meet this need are long-term records of physical, chemical, geological and biological variables, comparing historical data with ongoing observations. These records of local-scale forcing and responses within each region will be used together with records of large-scale forcing across entire ocean basins, obtainable in part from the Global Ocean Observing System, of which U.S. IOOS is a part. External forcing includes freshwater input, atmospheric factors, and advection across the oceanic boundaries of each region. Key internal climate-system parameters include temperature, salinity, density, nutrients, currents and sea level. Sustained observations of boundary forcing and internal parameters are necessary to provide the requisite time-series needed to track and forecast both variability and longer-term climate change. These products will be essential to understanding changes in the distribution, abundance, and productivity of species and habitats. In addition, regional climate indices will be produced that allow tracking of change over time, including indices for temperature, primary productivity, El Nino, exchange of nutrients and materials between the continental shelf and the deeper slope, ocean CO 2 and freshwater inputs. These oceanic long-term trends and indices should also be integrated or summarized across the 11 RAs, and coordinated with indices developed by other scientists for atmospheric and terrestrial systems. The indices will reduce complex spatial and temporal variations into simpler measures that are understandable by a wide range of users. 9.4 Regional differences in information needs Although there are many common elements in patterns of climate change and monitoring needs across the 11 regions, the specific patterns, rapidity of change and impacts on resources can vary greatly. For example, the U.S. territorial islands of the Pacific and the Caribbean are particularly susceptible to the warming trends of climate change. Since the 1990s, coral bleaching associated with long-term warming of surface waters has become widespread in both regions. At the other end of the temperature spectrum, because cold water can absorb more carbon dioxide than warm water, the polar regions are rapidly showing signs of acidification. Increasing acidification can now be measured throughout these regions, and biological responses are detectable. The coastal seas around Alaska are more susceptible to ocean acidification because of unique circulation patterns and colder temperatures. Acidification rates and impacts will potentially also be accelerated in the Great Lakes due to their lower alkalinity and resultant smaller buffer to ph changes, and due to an array of other factors such as destratification and vertical mixing patterns. Impacts of changing sea levels also vary across the regions. Low elevation atolls in the U.S. territorial islands of the Pacific are particularly endangered by rising sea levels and have more limited options for mitigation and adaptation. The Great Lakes face a different challenge regarding sea level. Although most coastal communities expect to see a rise in sea level, water levels in the Great Lakes may decrease due to increased evaporation from the lake surfaces and evapotranspiration from surrounding watersheds, leading to a reduction in freshwater entering the lakes. These differences in how climate change is manifested mean that ocean observing in each region 24

needs to take into account unique characteristics, rates and impacts in designing monitoring systems and developing and packaging products targeted to specific user needs. 9.5 Outcomes and success measures Regional climate forecasts will be improved by accessing information on changes in environmental conditions at the regional scale. The accuracy and resolution of the effects of climate variability on regional and local resources will be increased by the inclusion of regional observations into climate indices and models. Improved understanding of the links between freshwater inputs, coastal circulation and ecosystems will improve the ability to effectively manage fragile ecosystems. 10.0 Product development and engagement with users Effective utilization of the observing system requires translation of the data and model outputs into targeted products and decision support tools for a variety of users. The process of product development ultimately links management decisions to desired products, to the information needed to produce the products, to data and models required to create that information and finally to the essential observing system requirements. Successful engagement with users and the resultant product development is at the heart of ultimate success of the 10-year build-out plan. The 27 key products identified as part of the build-out plans include products that have already been successfully developed and utilized by one or more RAs as well as many cases where development is either not underway or is in the early stages. Successful completion of development for these 27 products for all the regions, and completion of additional unique regional products will involve multiple components, as outlined below. Sufficient funding needs to be identified to carry the process for a given product need through to completion, to ensure effective management and meeting of user expectations. Iterative two-way engagement with users is required for effective product development, often based on small group discussions with key decision makers and technical staff in the user community. It may also include surveys, user advisory panels, targeted workshops, and discussions at existing forums of the targeted users. This provides an understanding of the user s objectives, the scope of the issue and the decision processes they use. Those user decisions or management needs that could most benefit from IOOS products can then be identified and prioritized, including products involving data, processed information, visualizations, models and decision support tools. Product development teams focused on specific priority needs should be created, including RA staff, key partners and users. The RAs should act as intermediaries that can translate between researchers and users, and should stay engaged throughout the process. After fully understanding user needs, the teams evaluate the variables, temporal and spatial scale and resolution, and data quality required to meet those needs. They evaluate current coastal IOOS, or other, products that could be used or modified, or new products that could be developed to meet needs. This should include evaluation across all 11 RAs and federal agencies to identify useful 25

building blocks and approaches for products. Identification of any gaps between the user s information requirements and current coastal IOOS capabilities can then be identified, and, where possible, technical means to fill them can be developed. This should include engaging partners who may provide critical data or fulfill specific modeling needs, and pursuit of funding sources to fill gaps, if not already obtained. In addition to addressing technical issues, the team should identify any institutional issues among users that must be overcome to fully utilize IOOS products, and where possible work with them to develop approaches to overcome these barriers. Institutional issues include agency and industry policies and practices, regulations and permit procedures, perspectives and communication patterns, staff expertise, training and workload, and/or governance structures that could impede full use of IOOS information in decision-making. Addressing these issues will likely require engagement with management representatives of the user agency or organization. Development of the initial product includes software development to access and integrate data, and any necessary documentation and instructions, including description of the metadata. Testing and evaluation of the product must be conducted with a subset of the user group, followed by training for a larger user group, along with refinement of the product as needed. Product development also includes evaluation of the most effective means to package and distribute the information, e.g. through websites, e-mail notifications, use of existing channels already favored by the user, reports, etc. Product release should be prefaced by an evaluation to ensure that the product is ready to move from the developmental stage to full operational use and broad implementation, and a notification system for the targeted user group. Operational implementation of the product should include ongoing engagement with the users to adapt and modify products as needed as experience builds with product use, conditions or requirements change, or new data becomes available. As is evident from the above list, development of effective user products is a critical but costly and time-consuming endeavor, and often includes work that is different from what is involved in the modeling and data management subsystems. Staff needs for product development and user engagement typically range from five to six full-time equivalents (FTE)s for each RA, and involve multiple types of staff including technical, outreach and management needed at various times during the activities outlined above. Meeting the need for adequate product development funding and staff time, and achieving coordination and synergism among the RAs in creating the common products will be an essential component of success in implementing the build-out plan over the next 10 years. 11.0 The observing / modeling system - platforms and measurements A multifaceted system of observations, models, analyses, visualizations and tactical decision aids is needed to create the products used to meet the needs outlined in the above sections. While observations and models are closely linked in ocean observing systems, the observations are described first, with a discussion of models following in Section 12. The observing system discussion is organized around the platforms from which measurements are made, since there is general agreement among the RAs as to which platforms will likely constitute the basis of the 26

observing systems in 10 years, while the specific sensors and instruments used to make these measurements varies across the regions and is likely to undergo significant evolution over the next decade. 11.1 Measurements A host of different variables (Table 11.1) must be measured in the ocean, coasts, Great Lakes, and atmosphere to address the variety of needs outlined here and in previous reports (U.S. IOOS Program Office, 2010). There are a number of different ways to measure many of these variables, including in-situ sensors that make measurements within the water, and remote sensors that are deployed above the water surface and look down on it. The instruments and other components, such as positioning systems, data loggers, power sources and communications equipment, used to measure, record, and transmit data can be mounted on a variety of kinds of physical structures, known as platforms. As with the sensors that make up the instruments on them, these platforms may be characterized as either in situ or remote. Many of the variables listed in Table 11.1 can be measured from multiple kinds of in situ and, in some cases, remote platforms. For any given purpose, a number of different factors must be taken into consideration when deciding which type of platform to employ. In the case of the RAs, platform choices must be optimized to try to serve many purposes, with the least cost and greatest efficiency. The following are some of the factors that enter into these decisions: What variables need to be measured? Over how large an area are measurements needed? (spatial extent) How close together do the measurements need to be? (spatial resolution) Over how long a time period will the measurements need to be made? (duration) How often are measurements needed? (frequency, or temporal resolution) How accurate do the measurements need to be? How quickly do the measurements need to be conveyed to processing and distribution centers, or even directly to users? What sort of environment will the measurements be made in? For instance, the presence of lots of ship traffic, strong currents, big waves, or high biofouling rates could all influence the choice of platform. What are the costs associated with the platform, including initial purchase, deployment and recovery, and maintenance? 11.2 Platforms In this section, the platforms that are most commonly used by the RAs, and a few more unusual types that are particularly suited to one region or another, are described. Historically, most ocean measurements were made from ships, but increasingly they are being made from unmanned platforms such as moorings, drifters, and autonomous underwater vehicles. Time on a dedicated research vessel is very expensive, typically it costs tens of thousands of dollar per day. 27

Variable May be measured from manned in situ platforms May be measured from unmanned in situ platforms May be measured remotely Acidity (ph) x x Air temperature + x x Barometric pressure + x x Bathymetry x x x Bottom character x x x Colored dissolved organic matter x Contaminants x x Dissolved nutrients x x Dissolved organic matter + x Dissolved oxygen x x Extent and condition of benthic x x habitats + Fish abundance x x Fish species x x Heat flux x x Humidity + x x Ice distribution x x Ocean color x x x Optical properties x x x Partial pressure of carbon dioxide x x (pco2) Pathogens x x Phytoplankton abundance + x x x Phytoplankton species + x x x Precipitation + x x x Salinity x x x Sea turtles and marine mammals + x x Sound + x x Stream flow/freshwater flow x Subsurface currents + x x Surface currents x x Surface waves x x x Temperature x x x Total suspended matter x x Turbidity + x x x Visibility + x x Water level/sea surface height x x Wind speed and direction x x x Zooplankton abundance x x Zooplankton species x x Table 11.1. The types of platforms from which oceanographic variables are measured are shown. The 26 U.S. IOOS core variables are listed plus additional variables, denoted by + symbols, measured by some of the regional ocean observing systems. Bold x's indicate the types of platforms that are most commonly used to measure a given variable. Note that in the future, it may be possible to measure more variables from unmanned in situ or remote platforms. 28

Autonomous, or unmanned ocean samplers, are a more cost-effective way to make many types of measurements in the ocean but the technology is not yet available to measure all variables this way. Satellites can allow observations to be made over very large spatial areas in a short amount of time, and the number of variables that can be measured from space is increasing. However, only the surface of the ocean can be measured this way, and the accuracy may not be as great as with in situ instruments. In Table 11.1, variables are categorized as being measurable from manned (e.g. ships, boats, jet skis) and/or unmanned (e.g. moorings, gliders, drifters) in situ platforms and/or remotely (e.g. from land stations, aircraft, satellites). The land and satellite-based remote sensing systems discussed in this report operate in an autonomous mode. In situ ocean observing platforms can be further categorized as being "fixed", meaning that they stay in essentially the same place after deployment, and "mobile", meaning they are designed to move with or through the water. Note however, that some types of "fixed" assets, such as moorings, do have some limited motion associated with them, and some "mobile" assets such as gliders can be programmed in a station-keeping mode that maintains position as closely as some fixed platforms. Also, as technology improves and costs of different components change, the optimum mix of platforms will evolve. Table 11.2 briefly summarizes the commonalities among the RAs in how fixed, mobile, and remote platforms will be used 10 years from now. A fuller description of these platforms follows. 11.2.1 Fixed platforms Fixed platforms are commonly used to obtain long time series of measurements at the same location. The locations for these platforms are generally chosen based on a combination of their representativeness of a given area or set of conditions, and their accessibility. Many fixed platforms support a number of different types of instruments, and they may have deployment durations of more than a year, particularly if instruments are serviced or swapped out without recovering the whole platform. Shore stations: oceanographic and meteorological All of the observing systems make measurements with instruments that are affixed to infrastructure at the shoreline, such as piers, docks, and wharves. Coastal sea, or Lake, level as measured by tide gauges is an example of a variable measured by this type of platform. Other commonly measured variables include meteorological parameters such as wind speed and direction, and water temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. Ports and harbors with significant maritime commerce and water quality issues are key locations for shore stations. River and stream flow gauges, while not necessarily deployed at the shoreline, are also included in this category. Shore stations also provide inexpensive access for collection of water samples that can then be analyzed for properties that are not yet routinely measured autonomously, such as phytoplankton toxins. In addition, shore stations are good places to mount instruments that need frequent cleaning or maintenance, and to test new instruments. 29

Table 11.2. Platforms employed by the regional observing systems are shown with their common uses, and the typical numbers of platforms, or instruments in the case of HF radars, per region in the 10-year build-out plan. 30

Multi-purpose Moorings Moorings, to be deployed by all the regions, consist of an anchor, mooring line, flotation, sensors, and additional equipment to provide power, store data, and in some cases to communicate data and instructions. The additional equipment may be integrated with the sensors in an instrument package, or may reside separately and be connected to the sensors on the mooring. Moorings also often include a mechanism to release the anchor from the mooring line to enable recovery. With proper design and construction, moorings can operate for months at a time in settings from shallow protected estuaries and embayments to exposed deepwater sites. Moorings may not be the best choice as platforms in the surf zone, where there is ice, or in highly trafficked areas - although subsurface moorings (i.e. with no surface flotation) could be used in the latter two types of regions. Sensors to measure many different types of meteorological and oceanographic or freshwater variables may be deployed on the same mooring in the air, at the water's surface, within the water column, and on the ocean bottom. Presently, it is more common for moored instruments to be secured at fixed depth(s); but vertically profiling moorings which have an instrument package that moves up and down along the mooring line thus allowing a single set of sensors to make measurements at many depths, are also used and may become more popular in the future. Some chemical and biological parameters can be measured from moorings, but physical variables, such as temperature, salinity, and currents, have the longest history of moored measurements. Unattended biological and chemical sensors have been developed more recently. Measurements of fluorescence, used as a proxy for phytoplankton concentration, dissolved oxygen, and nitrate concentration for example are now becoming common on moorings and other unmanned platforms. Seafloor or bottom-mounted platforms Many of the same types of instruments that can be mounted on moorings can also be mounted on platforms that sit on the ocean, or Lake, bottom but do not have flotation that suspends a line up into the water column. This type of platform used by some, but not all, the regions, may be preferable in situations where i) only near-bottom measurements are needed; ii) ice may interfere with a mooring; iii) a mooring may interfere with vessel traffic or fishing activity; or iv) sensors rendered ineffective by mooring motion are to be deployed (e.g. seismometers, cameras). Cabled observatories, which are bottom-mounted platforms connected to shore by a cable that can carry power and data, are capable of supporting instruments that may have power requirements and data transmission rates that cannot be handled on moorings. Some RAs include cabled observatories, an example being PacIOOS's Kilo Nalu Oahu Reef Observatory, and others can take advantage of a National Science Foundation (NSF) supported Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) cabled node such as the Endurance Array in the NANOOS region. Specialty observing platforms A single mooring or bottom-mounted platform can be used to host a variety of sensors and measure many variables at once; or they can be specialized to serve a more limited purpose. Additionally, some types of platforms are only available in a subset of the 31

regions. One widely used, but variable-specific, fixed platform is the waverider buoy (IWGOO, 2009a). These are a type of surface mooring in which the motion of the surface float, or buoy, itself is measured and analyzed to produce wave height, period and direction. While a few select additional sensors, such as one to measure water temperature, is integral to the wave buoy, their payload is very limited due to the need for the buoy to maintain its surface-following characteristics. An example of a region-specific, but multi-purpose platform, would be offshore oil rigs. In the Gulf of Mexico, these are heavily instrumented to measure meteorological and oceanographic variables. In the Gulf of Maine, lobster traps outfitted with low-cost sensors are a very different example of a region-specific platform. The data are not delivered in real-time, but over a decade's worth of hourly time series of bottom temperature at dozens of fixed locations throughout the region are available via a computer server. Salinity sensors, current meters, acoustic receivers, and cameras have also been secured to the traps. 11.2.2 Mobile platforms Mobile platforms have the advantage over fixed platforms that the same set of instruments can be moved from place to place, without picking up and redeploying the platform, to gain a better picture of how conditions vary over space. However, this information is often gained at the expense of the high temporal resolution at a limited set of locations that is offered by fixed platforms. While the sampling rate on moored instruments can sometimes be changed mid-deployment, the vertical and horizontal path of a mobile platform, as well as instrument sampling rates, can be changed throughout the mission. In fact, it is now becoming possible for autonomous mobile assets to coordinate as fleets targeting specific events and ocean processes. Another advantage of ships and other mobile platforms over fixed platforms is that they are more easily redirected to respond to emergency situations. Due to weight, size, and power restrictions, different kinds of mobile platforms have different capacities in terms of what kinds of instruments they can carry and how long, and over what distances, they can operate (Table 11.3). As payload, power and duration increase for gliders and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), ship time for some uses may be reduced. Ships Ships and boats have long been the staple platform for making oceanographic measurements. Instruments can be attached directly to them, towed behind them, lowered and recovered from them, and dropped from them. Dedicated research vessels such as those operated by the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS) offer a tremendously diverse set of capabilities, but are commensurately expensive to operate, and have to be scheduled well in advance. Smaller vessels operated by individual institutions, and commercial vessels, may also offer the requisite capabilities and may be available on shorter notice. Commercial vessels, including ferries that operate over fixed routes on fixed schedules, are also employed as platforms on which to mount instruments and from which to deploy expendable sensors. 32

Platform Ship or boat Profiling Glider Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Mode of Propulsion Powered with a propeller, typical speeds of 10-12 knots Buoyancy driven, typical speeds of about 0.5 knots Powered with a propeller, typical speeds of 2-4 knots Typical Duration Days to months Weeks to months Hours to days Typical Regions Covered Estuary, coastal, and open ocean Coastal to open ocean Estuary, coastal, and open ocean Sensor Payload Heavy, depends on particular vessel Light, power and size limited Moderate, power and size limited Table 11.3. Comparison of ships, profiling gliders, and AUVs. All ships or boats however, with the exception of autonomous surface vehicles that are still in the development stage, require human beings to operate them. This means they either can operate for only limited duration, or they must have facilities to house and support people. They are not well suited for making measurements continuously over long periods of time. Also, while most measurements that can be made from fixed platforms can also be made from ships, there are exceptions. For instance, ship motion may not allow for measurements to be made very close to the bottom, and ship noise may interfere with some types of acoustic measurements. On the other hand, some activities such as net tows, measurements such as trace metals or incubations that require large amounts of water to be collected and filtered, or those that require on site laboratory analyses such as productivity estimates or rate experiments, can really only be done from ships. In addition to deployment and recovery of other types of platforms such as moorings and gliders, RAs tend to use ships and boats as platforms for three types of activities. One is to carry out repeated sampling (e.g. every week, month, or quarter) at a particular station or series of stations (if arranged in a line these may be referred to as a transect) over a long period of time. The others are to respond to events as they arise, such as was seen in the case of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and to do focused shorter-term process studies. Personal watercraft, often known as jet skis, are manned mobile platforms used by some of the RAs to make measurements in the nearshore zone where other platforms cannot operate safely due to the shallow depths and breaking surf. 33

AUVs Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are small propeller-driven vehicles that, once programmed and deployed, operate independently. Unlike remotely operated vehicles, they are not attached by cable to a ship. Various versions have different capabilities, but speeds are generally a few knots and the ones most commonly in use today have operational durations of about a day. Long-range AUVs are currently under development. AUVs are commonly used over the continental shelf and slope, but some can go to depths as great as 6000 m. They are used for both water column measurements and benthic survey work, for which they might carry sonar equipment and cameras. For measurements that can be made from both ships and AUVs, the cost of deploying an AUV may be much less. It may also be possible to use AUVs in conditions that humans on a ship could not tolerate very well. Obviously the payload that can be carried on an AUV is much less than on a ship or boat however, so the number and type of instruments that can deployed on an AUV is more limited, but it is increasing. As with ships, AUVs are used for both time series operations, and for event-response and process studies. Gliders Vertically profiling gliders are now used by all the RAs to help characterize the vertical and horizontal structure of the water column providing important observations for assimilation into numerical models, and to support many theme areas. Like AUVs, gliders are autonomous, but they have a very different propulsion system that allows them to operate unattended for very long periods of time and to cover very large distances. In fact, a Slocum glider operated by Rutgers University traveled from New Jersey to Spain over a 221-day period in 2009. The long duration capability of these platforms is gained through buoyancy driven motion. These vehicles essentially fly through the water in a sawtooth trajectory- but unlike AUVs, they have no propeller. Profiling gliders move up and down in the water column by moving either seawater or oil between wet and dry sections of the glider, which changes the glider's volume and hence its buoyancy. Coastal gliders typically go up and down over a 200 m range, while ocean gliders cover a 1000 m vertical range. Forward propulsion is accomplished by control surfaces that transfer the vertical motion into forward motion, and a rudder or shifting internal weight is used to change direction. Animal Telemetry Technological advances now allow animals to carry remote sensing devices. This allows tracking of marine life while simultaneously collecting ecosystem data. For example, some RAs and various IOOS partners use tags attached to fish and marine mammals to record and communicate the animal s location and physical variables over the animal s route. This can improve understanding of the animal s habitat use and response to temperature, tides, and currents. Although these techniques are not yet routinely used in all regions, technological advances will likely allow expanded use in the future. 34

As with ships and AUVs, gliders are used for both time series operations, and for eventresponse and process studies. Gliders are smaller and lighter than AUVs, and are designed for longer duration, so the type and number of instruments that gliders can support is more limited. Typically, gliders measure at least temperature and salinity, but the number and type of sensors they can support is growing, and it is not unusual now for gliders to measure currents, fluorescence and other variables. Another type of glider, which has only recently come into use and can also be outfitted with a variety of sensors, is the surface wave glider. This type of glider stays at the ocean surface and uses a solar panel on the surface float to power sensors and communications systems. A submerged "wing" hangs below the surface float and converts the up and down motion of waves to forward thrust. These platforms, while limited to making only surface and near-surface measurements, hold the promise of very long duration deployments due to their use of renewable energy sources and may come into wider use over the next decade. 11.2.3 Remote sensing platforms / instruments Unlike fixed and mobile in situ platforms, which carry instruments whose sensors are in contact with the water, remote platforms carry instruments which can sense various properties about the ocean by measuring energy at various wavelengths, or frequencies, emanating from, or scattered off, the ocean surface. Depending on the type of instrument, they may make use of the frequency spectrum of the radiation, the strength or sharpness of the emitted or reflected signal, and/or the travel time of a reflected pulse of energy. Compared to in situ observations, remote sensing, in general, offers the ability to measure a given property over a large spatial area within a short period of time. The trade-offs however, are that often only the surface of the ocean can be measured, the accuracy of the measurement is usually not as good, and the measurements may not be made as often as with an instrument in the water. High frequency (HF) radar HF radars, operating in the 5 to 48 MHz bands, are used by the regional ocean observing systems to measure surface currents. The platform for the antennae in this case is the shore, and in fact securing permission to install these devices is one of the most challenging aspects of this method of current measurement. Since the radio waves propagate over the horizon along the conductive ocean surface, freshwater applications are limited and this technology is not used in the Great Lakes. The frequency shift in the electromagnetic energy scattered by ocean waves is observed by the HF radar receivers, and interpreted as surface current speeds and directions at different ranges and bearings from the antennae. Radars operating in the lower frequency bands provide more horizontal range with less spatial resolution, and those operating in the higher frequency bands provide more resolution at shorter ranges. HF radars are well established as a means to measure surface currents, and they provide data of sufficient quality for operational uses such as supporting search and rescue and oil spill response (IWGOO, 2009b). The ability to deploy antennae on ships or buoys is undergoing testing, and may provide enhanced spatial coverage in the future. Other 35

applications of HF radar under development include the detection of surface vessels and the measurement of surface waves. Satellites Instruments deployed on satellites are used to measure a host of properties about the atmosphere and the land, sea, ice, and freshwater surfaces of the earth. Of course the RAs are not buying and launching their own satellites, but rather are downloading or otherwise accessing data from satellites that are part of the federal backbone or are operated by other countries. Remote sensing centers of expertise within some of the regions are an excellent resource for tailored products. Ocean surface variables measured from space include, but are not limited to, temperature, color, and very recently, salinity. Spatial resolution, repeat cycle, accuracy, and interference from clouds, may limit the applicability of some oceanic and marine atmospheric measurements in some regions. The digital satellite images most widely used by the coastal observing systems are those for sea surface temperature and ocean color. Ocean color is useful both for looking at the amount and distribution of sediment in the water (turbidity) and as a proxy for phytoplankton abundance. With newer hyperspectral radiometers, it may also be possible to determine the type of phytoplankton present. Airborne LiDAR Aircraft of various types, including helicopters and manned and remotely operated planes, are also used to make remote measurements of the coastal ocean and Great Lakes. Many of the RAs systems rent airplanes on an as-needed basis to map the nearshore bathymetry using a technology known as LiDAR, for Light Detection and Ranging. 11.2.4 Distribution of platforms It is not possible to measure everywhere within the domains of the RAs so decisions have to be made regarding the number and distribution of observing assets. Measurements need to be spaced more closely where conditions vary over shorter distances. In some cases this may mean that more platforms are needed close to shore than further offshore, or may mean closer spacing is needed in the cross-shore direction than in the alongshore direction. Geological and biological measurements may be distributed to ensure coverage across a variety of habitat types. Areas of special concern such as marine protected areas, densely populated embayments, and places of concern due to industrial activities, may also warrant more densely spaced sampling. The spacing of platforms and observations is also tied in to needs associated with optimization of numerical models, which will be discussed in Section 12. 11.2.5 Key partnerships and leveraging in the system of platforms A high degree of technical knowledge and experience is needed to successfully operate the platforms and associated instruments that make up a regional observing system. This expertise is not necessarily evenly distributed among all the regions, or between the regional and federal parts of IOOS. HF radars for instance are operated exclusively by the RAs, there is no federal capability in this technology. The radar systems are operated primarily by research groups well versed in maintaining long-term observational systems 36

and are housed within academic institutions. There is a high degree of collaboration among these groups and they share software, QA/QC algorithms, training, and lessons learned. Cooperative arrangements have evolved such that redundant data centers, one on the West Coast at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and one at the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC), part of NOAA, collect, archive, and display data from all the regional systems which feed into the national network. A backup data repository is sited on the East Coast at Rutgers University to provide seamless data access should there be a storage failure at one of the other data centers, as well as to serve as a site for providing data directly into East Coast regional forecast models. Gliders are another capability that resides primarily within the regional systems, and again there are centers with extensive experience that help to spread the informed use of these platforms to the other regions. Many of the regions have local mooring expertise, but those who do not, such as CariCOOS, have been able to rely on the services of others that do, in this case NERACOOS. Other types of measurements, such as the water level observing network (primarily tide gauges), are operated primarily by federal agencies, yet the data from this is a key part of the regional systems. Still other capabilities, such as wave measurements, are spread across the regional and national levels. During the development of the build-out plans, regions assumed that any existing federal platforms would be maintained, but they also identified situations where new platforms were needed. Further funding and planning will be needed to determine the best organizational leads for deploying and operating the various new platforms and sensors needed to reach full build-out in 10 years, including evaluation of regional, academic and federal partners. 12.0 The observing / modeling system - models Even with all the previously described kinds of observing platforms in use, it is not possible to instrument the ocean at a high enough spatial density, and to sample continuously quickly enough, to capture all the structure and variability that is needed to support the products envisioned. Even if it were somehow possible to gather all the measurements needed for current views and past analyses of conditions, observations alone cannot tell us what conditions will be like in the future - whether the next hour, the next day, or the next year. However by using observations of the past and present state of the oceans, coasts and Great Lakes, together with knowledge of how these systems work, we can fill in some of the gaps in space and time, and predict future conditions. Numerical models, i.e. a system of mathematical equations solved on computers, allow us to infer information for places, times, and/or variables that we are unable to measure, and to forecast how the environment will change over time. Observationally constrained models provide a cost-effective approach to obtaining high spatial and temporal resolution depictions and predictions of coastal and open ocean and Great Lakes conditions. Such models are very similar to the present-day weather forecasting system. 37

Different types of models are used by the RAs, including statistical, or empirical, prediction models that make use of relationships among variables based on historical time-series of measurements, and dynamical models based on equations thought to describe the interactions among various parts of a natural system and their response to different types of forcing. Dynamical models also make use of observations - to help initialize the models, to constrain the models along their boundaries, and to drive model solutions toward measured values through data assimilation. It is also important to have independent observations to compare with model results so that the skill of data assimilating models can be assessed. Through Observing System Simulation Experiments (OSSEs), models can also help to optimize observing systems by revealing which types of measurements at which locations are most important in producing a forecast of sufficient accuracy over a given area. For a specific question, and for a given budget, the observing array can then be developed based on dynamics and known assumptions, a more rigorous and quantifiable method than just relying on experience and intuition. This should increase the accountability of observing systems, as well as expected performance. 12.1 Characteristics of RA modeling efforts Different RAs have different levels of involvement in numerical modeling. Some RAs confine their role to making products using the results from models run by other organizations. Other RAs configure and run models for their region, in addition to providing model-derived products. Still others also undertake research to develop model capabilities that do not yet exist, or are not of sufficient quality for their needs. Of those RAs running numerical models, some are doing hindcasts and process studies, while others are running some models in a real-time "operational" data-assimilating mode - meaning that the model runs, incorporates observations, and produces nowcasts and forecasts on a continuing basis. This latter activity is challenging to maintain and requires considerable infrastructure to ensure computers and people are available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and that backup systems are in place. Even then, it is open to interpretation exactly what an operational forecast system should consist of. While different RAs may take different approaches to getting there, all RAs have as a goal to have ocean models appropriate for their regions running 10 years from now - if not sooner. In fact, many of these are already running. Regional models have much finer spatial resolution than the global or basin scale ocean models that they use for boundary conditions at the edges of their more limited domains. A member of the regional observing system may run these large-scale models, within which the regional models are nested, or an operational model run by the Navy or NOAA may be used. The regional models should assimilate observations made within their domains. The frequency with which the models should run, and the temporal resolution of their output, depends on the type of model and its intended use. For instance, forecasts of salmon abundance might only be needed every few weeks or months, while forecasts of coastal sea level might be needed at intervals of hours or minutes. As in atmospheric prediction, more reliable 38

forecasts may be produced by taking advantage of ensembles - i.e. by analyzing together the results from several similar, though not identical, models. Model results must be formulated into products that meet stakeholder needs. In order to be most useful, all regional models should be objectively assessed and results should be communicated with a measure of uncertainty. 12.2 Common types of models Numerical models may be used to predict all sorts of things relevant to RAs, including sea level, surface waves, sediment transport, phytoplankton abundance, and nutrient concentrations, albeit with varying degrees of accuracy. The need to have model simulations and forecasts, on appropriate time and space scales, for six processes, or sets of properties (Figure 12.1), has been identified as a core requirement that should be available in all 11 regions 10 years from now. A brief description of the needed model capabilities for these processes is included below. Presently, different types of models may be run independently to simulate these different properties, but some of these model types are now coupled together, and it is expected that more will be in the future. Figure 12.1. Examples of the six types of model outputs needed by all regions and the interconnectivity between each type. 39

Waves Regional wave models provide estimates of surface wave height and propagation direction, as a function of period, or frequency, throughout a geographic domain by using a set of mathematical equations to extrapolate from measurements at a few points, and in some models local wind forcing is also applied. For nearshore applications, highly accurate fine-scale bathymetry is essential. Circulation Circulation models, which generally do not include the nearshore region with depths less than a few meters, provide maps and forecasts of surface and subsurface currents, temperature, salinity, and water density, as well as sea level height. These properties are specified at the outside boundaries of the regional model domain from larger-scale models, climatology, observations, or some combination of these. Atmospheric forcing, as well as freshwater input and/or tidal forcing in some cases, drives these models. Inundation Coastal inundation models are used to predict water levels both over land and water due to extreme events. The water height and extent of flooding depends on many processes including long term sea level rise, annual climate variability, astronomical tidal cycles, and short term meteorological events that influence winds and atmospheric pressure, and thus wave height and storm surge. Atmospheric (Weather) Fine spatial resolution atmospheric models, known as mesoscale models, are needed to force the aforementioned wave, circulation, and inundation models. These models forecast air temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure and other atmospheric variables, in addition to wind speed and direction. Accurate marine weather forecasts are also needed for a host of maritime operations, including fishing, shipping, recreation, and offshore oil and gas and renewable energy activities. Ecosystem Ecosystem models use mathematical equations to describe the relationships among various parts of the ocean, or Lake, ecosystem such as nutrients, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and detritus. Some also include lower (e.g. bacteria) and/or higher (e.g. fish) trophic levels. Observations of these different ecosystem elements are essential to initialize, guide, and validate these models. Since the ecosystem is so strongly tied to the environment it's in, ecosystem forecast models are often coupled to circulation models (described above) and/or water quality models (described below). Water quality Water quality models simulate the fate of pollutants and the state of selected water quality variables, such as dissolved oxygen and nutrient concentrations. They incorporate a variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes that control the transport and transformation of these variables. Water quality models are driven by the hydrodynamics of the water body, atmospheric forcing functions such as air temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed, as well as input from freshwater point and nonpoint 40

sources. Some water quality models focus on a particular problem, such as dissolved oxygen depletion (hypoxia), reduced ph (acidification), or increased nutrient levels (eutrophication), whereas others are more general, and can be used to simulate a range of water quality problems. Region specific In addition to modeling the properties above, some regions have other specific modeling needs. AOOS for instance, has a need for a model to track and forecast the trajectory of sea ice, as well as its extent, thickness, and concentration of broken ice. GCOOS is heavily involved in hurricane forecasting, upper ocean heat content being a very important variable in determining storm intensity. Several regions, including GLOS, NERACOOS and AOOS, plan to take advantage of hydrological models to forecast freshwater input including precipitation, river discharge, and in Alaska's case also glacial meltwater. It should also be noted that model skill, and the metrics to assess it, will not only differ for different environmental issues, but may also be regionally dependent. 12.3 Model development Ocean modeling, for all the kinds of properties discussed above - and more - is an area of active research. Exactly how the algorithms, or equations, should be formulated and linked, and how the software should be written to solve them on computers, is constantly undergoing development and improvement. Efforts such as the U.S. IOOS superregional model test bed, strive to test and intercompare models, on a controlled basis. However, it should emphasized that there is no one "right" answer, even for a given type of model or application, and as stated previously there are advantages to running several similar models in order to do an ensemble forecast. Fortunately, lessons learned in one region, or through collaborative inter-regional efforts, can be applied in many regions. Even though the geography, bathymetry, and water properties of each region are unique, the basic principles of how the ocean works remain the same, so model equations do not have to be rewritten for each region. However model setup, including boundary conditions, forcing, and some parameterizations of sub-grid scale processes, must be adapted for each implementation of the same model. Unlike for the atmosphere, there is no national modeling plan for the ocean. NOAA and other federal agencies run a variety of ocean models on different scales and for different purposes, and these are incorporated into regional observing system products in a variety of ways. Academic, and other, partners within many of the regions also run various types of models, but most of these are on an experimental, not operational, basis. Some of the regional models take advantage of Navy or NOAA global ocean and atmospheric models to provide boundary conditions. The playbook for transitioning ocean models from research and development, to continuous operation, with all that entails, is still being written. Some RAs are working on transferring models to NOAA's Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services (CO-OPS) to run operationally. 41

13.0 The observing/modeling system linkages In the previous section, we have described many of the most common elements of the regional observing systems - platforms and models. The objective of the platforms is to carry instruments whose sensors measure aspects of the ocean, coast and Great Lakes environment. Numerical models use those data together with mathematical equations to fill in the gaps in space, and extend the measurements in time. But in order to provide useful information, i.e. information that can be acted upon, the data need to be analyzed, visualized, and interpreted in ways that are meaningful to decision makers. This activity, referred to as product development, was discussed in detail in Section 10 above. For some applications, the information needed may be based on just one kind of measurement or model. For example, let's say you want to know if it's worth the drive to the coast to go surfing at your favorite spot. Wave observations and models, and maybe a webcam, will probably get you the information you need. But realize that other types of information, such as wind and bathymetry, may be incorporated into the wave model. Other applications or decisions will require more varied kinds of information. For instance, in deciding whether and where to site wave energy facilities, not only is it necessary to know about the wave climatology in the region of interest, but regulators would also want to know about the biology of the area and how it might be affected. 13.1 Relationship between platforms and variables Key variables needed as inputs for products to meet user needs were listed above in Sections 5 to 9. Table 11.1 summarized various platform types that can be used to obtain data on a wide array of variables. However, there is not a one-to-one mapping from variables to platforms. In fact, for many variables there are multiple platforms, and sometimes sensor types, that can be employed with similar results. Some of the criteria used to make these choices are discussed in Section 11.1. Expert panels, over the course of several years, developed designs for national systems of measurement for two ocean variables, surface currents and surface waves, taking into account a wide range of uses for those data (Interagency Working Group on Ocean Observations, 2009a,b). The exercise becomes even more complex when the problem to be solved is not the measurement of one or two variables, but the simultaneous measurement of many variables for many purposes. Some RAs for instance, are employing repeated glider transects to obtain long-term time series measurements of variables such as temperature and fluorescence. Gliders provide measurements over many locations over the course of one deployment. Other RAs may choose to use moorings to obtain the same type of measurements, even though measurements will only be obtained from a limited number of locations, because other types of instruments, such as nutrient samplers, may be deployable on moorings, but are not yet available on many gliders. These differing strategies may be essentially equivalent for some large-scale applications, such as monitoring for climate change, but may not be equally appropriate for defining smaller scale features such as hypoxic zones. 42

13.2 Other factors influencing the makeup of the observing system In addition to the technical and scientific rationale that goes into designing an observing system, there are also historical, logistical, and economic factors that influence decisions. In some regions, ship time may be readily available through cooperative agreements with other programs and arrangements with ships of opportunity such as ferries, whereas another region might have to rely more heavily on remote sensing for measurements in areas that are not heavily trafficked. One region may rely on a certain type of sensor or platform because they have a lot of experience with that system, whereas another region may opt for a different methodology for the same reason. Also, certain equipment may be available for free or at a discount because a manufacturer is a member of one or more RAs, or equipment is available to be repurposed from another project. All of these reasons, and more, will lead to different mixes of platforms and instruments in different regions, and to an evolving mix over time. 14.0 Typical regional system of platforms and models in buildout plan During the latter half of 2011, each of the 11 RAs produced a vision of what they thought a basic observing / modeling system in their region should look like in 10 years. Although they used different processes for arriving at that vision, the end results have many common elements. Sections 11 and 12 describe observing platforms and models common to all the regions' plans, as well as pointing out some of the regional differences. This section quantifies some aspects of the 10-year build-out plans, including the typical range of numbers of platforms (Table 11.2) and people commonly needed to operate the observing and modeling systems. Personnel needs for deploying, maintaining and collecting data from these platforms typically range from 27 to 63 FTE employees for each RA. Personnel requirements to meet modeling needs typically range from 4 to 10 FTE per region. Differences among the regions in terms of the numbers and types of assets and people included in their plans can be attributed to a number of factors. These include: region-specific conditions and geography regional interests and industry the history of ocean observing in the region the availability of different types of expertise in the region the amount of federal ocean observing assets in the region All of the RAs intend to be making measurements from shore stations to provide data on water quality, water level, temperature, salinity, and other variables. These stations may include instruments affixed to piers or the like, as well as samples collected by people, including citizen scientists, from the beach. Both single purpose (e.g. tide gauges) and multi-purpose instrumented shore stations are included in this category. Most of the regions envision having between 10 and 30 such stations. Several of the RAs also 43

included river or stream flow gauges, and one (PacIOOS) saw these as a critical need since freshwater resources in the Pacific are so limited and existing monitoring networks are sparse or non-existent. Typically, RAs will also operate between 12 and 45 of their own meteorological stations, some co-located with ocean shore stations. In almost all regions, data from additional meteorological stations, not included in these counts, will also be incorporated into products. All the regions plan to incorporate multi-purpose moorings to some degree. Various combinations of sensors in fixed-depth or vertically profiling instruments will be used to measure currents, temperature, salinity, ph, dissolved oxygen, and a host of other variables to address one or more issues, such as hypoxia, HABs, or acidification. Some RAs will use moorings at just a few sentinel sites, whereas others plan to deploy them throughout their regional waters, including in estuaries. For the most part, the number of planned multi-purpose moorings falls between five and thirty-two. As one might imagine, the range in numbers and purpose of specialty moorings and bottom-mounted platforms is large. Some RAs had large numbers (40-150) of very lowcost specialty platforms such as crab pots and acoustic receivers for fish tags, a few needed 10-30 single-purpose moorings, others included a handful of specialty platforms to be deployed in ports or other special locations, while two RAs' plans did not include any assets in these categories. All the RAs intend to be maintaining a continuous presence in the water with profiling gliders 10 years from now. Most of the RAs plan to do this with seven or fewer gliders. Some of the RAs, particularly those with extensive experience in using gliders, plan to employ more extensive glider networks. Experience has shown that, on average, one full-time person (or the equivalent) is needed for the operation of two profiling gliders. The intended use of AUVs is not as ubiquitous as for profiling gliders, yet most RAs did include some of these platforms in their plans, typically between one and four. Two RAs took a different approach, and included three AUVs for use in each of five semi-enclosed sub-regions within their geographic domains. Although not typical, four RAs included two to three surface wave gliders, a newer technology which has not yet achieved widespread use. Other less common mobile platforms mentioned include jet-skis (1-3 for each of three RAs) and surface drifters (three other RAs). Four RAs plan to take advantage of ferries and/or other ships of opportunity to make repeat measurements over regularly scheduled routes. While the vessels themselves are obviously manned, the environmental measurement systems on them operate largely unattended. 44

Even with all the technological advances in autonomous platforms (one RA even envisions future use of an autonomous surface craft) and instrument systems, there is general acknowledgment that trained people on boats and ships will still be needed for some ocean observing activities, including bathymetric and habitat surveying, repeated occupation of single stations or transects to do tow nets and collect water and benthic samples, and to deploy and recover other platforms and equipment. All RAs routinely use satellite-based measurements of sea surface temperature, ocean color, and other oceanographic and atmospheric variables. Many RAs contract airplanes on an as-needed basis for LiDAR surveys of nearshore bathymetry and coastline geography, marine mammal surveys, and other uses. Four of the RAs will use webcams (cameras linked to the internet) to monitor surf and other conditions. One of the observing system technologies most widely used, and most highly coordinated across the regions, is HF radar, which provides maps of surface currents. The goal is to maintain continuous coverage over space and time along nearly the entire U.S. coast out to a distance of 200 km with at least 6 km spatial, and hourly temporal, resolution. The number of radars needed to accomplish this is therefore strongly dependent on the length of open coastline contained within each region. Since higher spatial resolution, shorter range, systems are desirable in ecologically sensitive semi-enclosed bodies of water, the number and size of bays in each region also comes into play. Most of the regions intend to have between 11 and 50 HF radars deployed at the end of the 10-year build-out period 2. Typically, one person can operate between two and five radars, depending on distance between them and the type of HF radar system used (two different types are in common use today). All of the RAs will use numerical models to augment their observing systems, regardless of whether the models are developed and run within RA partner organizations or by federal or other agencies. Model simulations of winds, waves, and currents to fill in gaps in space and time not covered by observations, and to provide forecasts and in some cases hindcasts, are critical elements to all of the RAs' product development plans. Most RAs also intend to make use of inundation, ecosystem and water quality models. A lesser number mention modeling other processes, including sediment transport and hydrology. The number and mix of assets is unique to each regional observing system. For instance, regions with extensive estuaries, in which gliders cannot operate, may depend heavily on moorings; while other regions may utilize gliders more extensively. Regions with comprehensive federal networks of water level stations or wave buoys, for example, would have less need to include those assets in their regional plans, than areas that do not have those assets in place. Some regions have significant numerical modeling expertise among their partner institutions, and may place more emphasis on this activity than other regions which plan to leverage experts outside their regions to meet this need. Each regional observing system's 10-year build-out plan is meant to address that region's needs and be within their capacity to execute. 2 GLOS cannot use HF radars for surface current mapping because the measurement depends on the conductivity of saltwater. 45

Subsequent sections of this report will describe other aspects of the regional observing systems, but the bulk of the effort is devoted to actually making the measurements. Every RA projected that over half of the personnel needed to run the whole observing system will be directly involved in making measurements. When modeling activities are also included, the typical number of personnel is in the range of 30-70, and on average represents two-thirds of the total personnel, expressed as FTEs. 15.0 Data management and communication Another central component of regional observing systems is Data Management and Communication (DMAC). DMAC ensures that data is archived, recorded and transmitted in ways that are consistent in content and format with other providers of the same data. At a minimum, the DMAC subsystem must make data and products discoverable and accessible, and must provide essential metadata regarding information sources, methods and quality. DMAC includes the technical infrastructure, and defined standards and guidelines for delivery of data from federal sources, the 11 RAs and other IOOS partners. These standards for interoperability have been established by U.S. IOOS for seven core variables--water temperature, water level, ocean color, currents, salinity, wind, and waves, and will be applied to additional variables over the next 10 years. Compliance with DMAC standards includes consideration of the availability of metadata, quality control measures, data refresh rates, types of observations available, data services in use and maturity of data management processes (U.S. IOOS Program Office, 2011b). Establishing and implementing these protocols and systems has been a major focus and accomplishment of the early years of U.S. IOOS. Each regional association will maintain its own DMAC system over the coming years, either with in-house staff or by contract. Once the RAs are certified as formal integrated agents of the U.S. IOOS system, they will also ensure the DMAC compliance of any participating independent data providers who serve their data through them. RAs will work with regional agencies to increase capacity to serve institutional data via interoperable systems. Building upon the DMAC foundation will be necessary in order to manage the increased volume and complexity of data streams as the number and variety of platforms, sensors and products expands over the next 10 years. Additional planning will be needed to further define necessary improvements in capacity. Additional work is also needed to assess user needs and requirements and focus technical implementation efforts on regionally voiced needs. Growing the technological infrastructure and the team of expert personnel in the regions is needed to promote interoperability between data providers, aggregation and archiving of data from diverse sources, and access, dissemination, visualization and use of required coastal ocean data and information products in a timely manner. Typically 6-7 FTEs will be needed to address these DMAC activities in each region. 46

16.0 Education As noted above, IOOS has extensive engagement with a variety of user groups during the course of developing and packaging issue-specific products for agencies, industries and the public. In addition, regional IOOS also supplies broader types of information on coastal and ocean resources to formal and informal education programs. This includes development of educational websites and fact sheets for teachers, students and the public, teacher training workshops, and curricula and educational products for use in the classroom. For informal educational programs, such as those at coastal parks, visitor centers or museums, regional IOOS provides displays and kiosks and may give presentations at professional development workshops for staff and volunteer docents. IOOS also keeps the general public informed about its activities through various media such as radio broadcasts, press releases, newsletters and brochures. Typically an RA needs one to two FTE to cover these types of general educational activities. As noted above for unique regional product needs and platforms, individual regions may also have unique education programs beyond the common programs outlined above. For example, MARACOOS plans an additional program focused on training the next generation of ocean observing staff through the development of certification programs at community and four-year colleges. It is intended to build skills in observing platforms and sensors, data management, modeling and analysis and outreach. 17.0 Research and Development Development, operation and maintenance of a fully integrated observing system will require continued investment in research and development (R&D). R&D includes activities to advance our knowledge of how the coastal, oceanic, and Great Lakes waters and their ecosystems function, to develop the sensors and platforms necessary to rapidly detect changes in the ecosystem and its capacity to provide goods and services, and to develop the tools necessary to predict such changes. Although U.S. IOOS is aimed at operational observing systems rather than R&D, the RAs have a unique role in identifying and prioritizing the regional requirements for R&D, as well as facilitating the necessary transitions from research project to pilot project to pre-operational activities to operational systems. Key partners in R&D such as academia and private industry would be more involved as leads in conducting the research and the physical development required and the Alliance for Coastal Technologies (ACT) acts as a lead in testing and evaluation of instruments. The RAs build-out plans identified a wide variety of R&D needs, many of which are outlined below. Additional discussions, workshops and planning will be needed to further identify user needs requiring R&D, to revise and prioritize the list of projects, and to identify potential partners interested in implementation. Platforms and sensors platform developments such as profiling moorings, platform of opportunity systems, autonomous surface craft 47

sensor developments, including for nutrients, ocean acidification, rapid assessments for fecal contamination improved biological sensors for phytoplankton, zooplankton, marine mammals, invasive species, etc. maintenance-free sensors, and reduced platform biofouling HF radar operational settings for wave and vessel detection System operation: improved power systems, including cabled systems, resistance to and backups for power outages, energy harvesting technology to power gliders improved communication systems, including telemetry, aircraft to ground data feeds DMAC upgrades Models and indices: modeling of ocean and weather conditions, including extreme events modeling and interactive mapping of inundation, erosion and sea level change coupling of atmospheric and circulation models downsizing of large scale predictions for application to smaller regions ecosystem models, including coupling of physical, nutrient, phytoplankton, zooplankton, detritus (NPZD) and fisheries models water quality modeling and plume tracking HABs and hypoxia tracking and predictions indices to monitor ecosystem health indices to track climate change and related impacts 18.0 System management Regional associations conduct a complex array of activities involving equipment on land and in the water, intricate databases and websites, numerous partnerships, advisory bodies, employees and contractors. Skilled management and administrative personnel are needed to ensure efficient and effective development and operation of the system. In the 10-year vision, each RA has a full-time Executive Director to oversee the program as a whole. The Executive Director provides strategic vision, interacts with key partners and user groups, seeks out funding sources, oversees development of plans and budgets, provides fiscal oversight and supervises personnel. The Executive Director reports to a Board of Directors composed of scientists and agency representatives that guide development of the regional observing program. A technical director, with strong ocean science and/or engineering background, will provide guidance to the development of sampling and DMAC protocols for the observing/modeling system, and oversee the technical operations of the system. A program manager, or coordinator, oversees the day-to-day operations and interfaces on a regular basis with data providers and users to ensure smooth operations. They may also supervise some staff such as the education specialist or web manager. Other system 48

management functions conducted by various staff or contractors include office management, budget preparations, administration of grants and contracts, personnel management, and project reporting and tracking. According to the build-out plans, a typical range of 50 to 100 FTEs will be needed by each RA to carry out all of the proposed activities. This includes approximately 6-8 FTEs to conduct system management activities outlined above and oversee all personnel and contracts. 19.0 Next Steps Over the next 10 years these strong initial programs will mature into fully developed operational programs. This new phase represents an excellent opportunity to develop a stronger and more strategic national integration among the various regional efforts and with the federal component of IOOS in order to become a fully operational coastal IOOS. A focused effort is needed to transform the successful beginnings and numerous pilot projects that IOOS has developed during the first phase of implementation into a robust and reliable national system on which all stakeholders can rely. A system based on multiple sponsoring agencies and nonfederal partnerships presents numerous opportunities to combine resources and talents, achieve synergism between disparate efforts and integrate broad-based national needs with needs of regional users. However this broad distributed system also presents a variety of challenges. These include defining and implementing clear roles for federal agencies, regional associations and partners, joint evaluations to prioritize common objectives and refine detailed plans, and coordinating and communicating to leverage and obtain resources to carry out plans. The synthesis of the regional build-out plans articulates the future needs for coastal IOOS and the component elements required nationally. Additional collaborations and analyses are needed to translate the synthesis into a more detailed implementable plan. This next phase of the planning should define regionally applicable but nationally consistent technical and functional requirements for completing the build-out, and define roles for the many IOOS partners. Various recommendations included below are also addressed in documents prepared for the IOOS Summit (Regional Build-out Plan Steering Team, 2012, Interagency Ocean Observation Committee, 2012). 19.1 Recommendation to Establish Expert Teams Representatives of federal agencies, RAs and subject matter experts on each of the topics below should be assembled to develop the functional and technical components of the build-out design for coastal IOOS. Definition is needed for each topic on the technical and functional requirements such as spatial and temporal scales, data delivery rates, operation and maintenance requirements, estimated costs, along with definition of the roles and responsibilities across the federal/ra partnership. A similar process was used successfully in developing the National Surface Current Mapping Plan and the National 49

Waves Plan. These teams should focus on each of the components described below to provide an enhanced level of detail and then integrate these into a comprehensive plan. Further refinement and implementation of a build-out plan will depend on many federal partners who are critical to its success. This includes agencies that contribute leadership, funding, and equipment, collect observations, manage data, conduct modeling and develop products. Development of the expert teams outlined below should include discussions with the management of U.S. IOOS federal partners to identify common needs, evaluate appropriate lead and partner organizations and integrate efforts with the RAs. This process can be used to resolve issues so the federal agencies and regional systems can be integrated into an overall national system for coastal IOOS, as envisioned by the ICOOS Act. 19.2 Modeling There is much commonality among the regions in desired applications of models to user needs and in the goal of having fully operational, data-assimilating models for each region. As noted in Section 12 however, the RAs have a wide range of approaches to modeling, each having independently made strategic decisions regarding the role and level of involvement of their region in modeling, the specific partners to be utilized, types of models to be used, etc. All the RAs have made progress in incorporating models into their observing systems, but increased collaboration among the regions, and a more clearly defined federal role in ocean modeling, would likely lead to benefits for all. A more integrated, strategic approach to modeling is needed that creates synergism among modeling efforts in all the regions, evaluating and building on successful approaches. This effort should create an integrated national system of models while retaining the unique characteristics needed for each region. Several initial steps have been taken towards such an effort. In 2009, the U.S. IOOS program, in partnership with USGS, developed a distributed system with a common data model that allows the many regional and national providers of oceanographic model data to compare model results and observational data. In 2010, the U.S. IOOS super-regional model test bed project was initiated for the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts to test and compare various models and improve marine forecasts. Ongoing efforts will be needed to integrate the results of this pilot project and expand it to the West Coast and all RAs. This could include consideration of the need to develop a national ocean modeling plan, analogous to what has been developed for atmospheric models. Among the issues that need to be addressed by expert modeling teams in developing a more integrated approach are: a. Boundary conditions. What is the best approach to efficiently provide boundary conditions from basin-scale models for the finer-resolution regional and local scale models needed for many of the products outlined in this report? b. Data assimilation. How can regional forecast models implement the latest advances in data assimilation? 50

c. Freshwater input. Improvements are needed in both measured and modeled freshwater input to the coastal ocean. d. Validation. Model skill needs to be assessed and model uncertainty communicated. What processes are needed to ensure that IOOS models satisfy a minimum level of accuracy, timeliness, and dependability appropriate for their intended uses? e. Ensembles. Ensembles may be constructed from a single model run with varied initial conditions or forcing, or from multiple models that have different physics and parameterizations. Ensemble forecasts provide an estimate of uncertainty, which is vital for decision-makers. An ensemble approach could spur increased collaboration and coordination across government and non-government organizations, and would provide valuable products for use in both model enhancement and forecast skill improvement. How can the use of ensemble forecasts should be encouraged and expanded? f. Coupled oceanic-atmospheric models. Several IOOS RAs have demonstrated the importance of ocean surface boundary conditions to improved atmospheric forecasts. Improved atmospheric forecasts can in turn dramatically improve the skill of coastal ocean models. How can coordinated model development activities be developed to support expanded coupling of ocean and atmosphere models? g. Coupled physical-biological models. Improved ecosystem modeling is a critical need for understanding ecosystem health and the economic health of the communities that rely on marine resources. These models show promise for providing resource and environmental managers at all levels of government and private industries the information they need to make better decisions to balance ecosystem and economic health for the present and the future. How can coupling of these models be effectively expanded? h. OSSEs. Observing System Simulation Experiments should be used to assess and improve the design of the observing system. i. Regional test beds. Model test beds are used to test and intercompare models on a controlled basis. The IOOS modeling test bed program should be expanded nationally. One way to do this is through the establishment of a system of sustained but evolving regional test beds. 19.3 Observations A diverse array of observational assets has been identified to support the products and services and a strategy for their use and integration must be developed. The challenge now is to make recommendations for the most efficient mix of assets, including a variety of platform and instrument types, to meet the whole range of common desired products described in this synthesis plan. 51

To determine the best mix of assets to use in support of coastal IOOS requires consideration of stakeholder needs (observing needs of specific communities), more objective techniques (e.g., OSSEs), and practical constraints (e.g., deployment of vessels, servicing intervals, costs). IOOS needs a defensible methodology to apply to its system design. For the set of priority user needs being considered, what spatial and temporal scales need to be resolved? What accuracy is required for the variables of interest? What observations are needed to improve the accuracy of the models? a. In situ. Two basic classes of observing platforms need to be considered - mobile platforms (e.g., gliders, drifters, wave gliders, subsurface floats, autonomous surface vessels, and ships) and fixed platforms (e.g., buoys, moorings, and shore stations). What are the benefits and limitations of these assets and how can they best be used in combination? What is the most effective mix of sensors for these platforms to meet the priority product needs? b. Remote sensing. Because this form of observing typically involves consistent spatial coverage, there are different sets of concerns to be addressed. Regarding satellites, which ones are most useful and will be operable over the next decade? What new systems would be desirable for IOOS? How can and should these be prioritized? What impacts will delayed or cancelled satellite missions have on the products and services that IOOS is building to meet national needs? Regarding HF radar, a plan for its use is largely addressed through the existing plan (IWGOO, 2009b), although it should be revisited to see if it addresses all the requirements identified in a comprehensive, integrated coastal IOOS. For example, are enough nested, highfrequency installations included? Should there be a push for multi-use of the technology (e.g., waves, vessel tracking, winds)? 19.4 Biology and Ecosystems Many critical decisions about marine resources require improved information on biological organisms at a variety of trophic levels and a better understanding of complex ecosystem interactions among physical, chemical and biological variables. However, much biological data is still collected by traditional monitoring programs that are scattered, small-scale, and labor-intensive, with limited data access that does not enable direct links to physical or chemical data. The use of more automated data collection platforms and sensors is being pioneered in limited situations by several RAs and federal agencies, but there is currently no coordinated strategic approach to biological data collection by coastal IOOS. An expert team should be engaged to evaluate and develop a plan for how coastal IOOS can best address the needs for biological and integrated ecosystem observations. Additional planning is needed to evaluate the most effective roles coastal IOOS could play in transitioning to more automated and nationally integrated biological data collection at higher temporal and spatial resolution, drawing on their expertise in deploying such systems for the collection of physical and chemical data. The goal would be to define a role for coastal IOOS that augments but does not duplicate other efforts. 52

Among the issues that need to be addressed by the expert biological/ecosystem observation team are: a. What are the key user needs for biological and ecosystem products and services, including range of trophic levels, spatial and temporal scales? What unique role can IOOS play in providing these products and services? b. What mix of platforms and sensors will be most effective for providing biological and ecosystem observations to address user needs? c. What new technologies should be developed, modified or expanded to operational use? d. How can biological data standards be better defined and incorporated? e. What visualization tools are needed to integrate biological, physical and chemical data? f. How can more effective physical-biological coupled models be developed and made operational? The biological/ecosystem team should work closely with the other recommended expert teams to develop an integrated set of recommendations on these issues. 19.5 Products and services One or more expert teams should explore the various ways in which products and services can be developed and maintained. These teams should review the list of user needs and products identified in Sections 5-9 above, and review products that currently exist or are planned. The teams should propose options for how needed products can be developed and provided on an operational basis, including prioritizing and phasing product development, joint creation or refinement of products, and sharing of workloads and expertise to achieve greater synergism and efficiency among product development efforts across the country. Based on the national synthesis of RA build-out plans, the focal product lines include: Safe and efficient marine operations (vessel safety, search and rescue, spill planning and response, and offshore energy); Coastal, beach & nearshore hazards (emergency response and preparedness); Water quality (assessment and forecasts for pollution discharges, harmful algal blooms, hypoxia and eutrophication) Fisheries and ecosystems (ecosystem indices, climatologies and forecasts); and Long-term weather & climate variability and change (sea level rise, acidification, long term sustainable ocean state records). An integrated approach to products and services should build on the Product Developer s Workshop conducted by the regional associations in 2010 (NFRA, 2010) which brought 53

together product developers from all of the associations to compare existing products and identify priorities for sharing and collaborative development. Emphasis should be placed on a realistic estimation of the effort needed to carry out research and development as well as the resources needed to maintain and update existing products on an operational basis. To date, limited effort has been expended in quantifying the resources needed for this component of IOOS and there is concern it may be underestimated. 19.6 User Engagement The RAs serve as regional hubs for innovative and creative capabilities necessary for keeping IOOS vibrant and responsive to changing user needs. User engagement is and will continue to be a core function for all the IOOS RAs. User engagement is key to ensuring that the products are relevant and accessible and that delivery is tailored to the needs of the users. An expert team should consider best practices for user engagement based on the experiences of the RAs, and suggest mechanisms for communicating needs to federal partners. The plans should also provide a template for product development, including ongoing engagement with targeted users, prioritization of products, design, development, training, implementation, evaluations of effectiveness for users and necessary revisions. In addition to technical issues, the user engagement team should define steps to identify and address institutional barriers to full use of ocean observing data in decision making, such as agency or industry policies, perspectives, communication patterns, staff work loads, etc. 19.7 Data management An updated vision for the IOOS data management enterprise and structure is needed. The DMAC Steering Team could serve as the expert team for this subsystem. This subsystem has been envisioned as a distributed but coordinated network. What services would be expected at each full-service hub and in what timeframe? What are realistic estimates of the staffing and hardware needed? How can the IOOS capacity serve other national needs for regional data and information? Should there be a central clearinghouse for all IOOS observations such as Ocean.data.gov? How can the RAs be assured that the procedures of a Federal entity will foster the ability of the RAs to incorporate small high quality data sets into the system with minimal red tape and develop tailored regional products? 19.8 Emerging Technology/ Research and Development Coastal IOOS will require deployment of instrumentation and models on a scale untested at present, and will benefit from innovations in observing, modeling, data management and product development. How do new technologies get incorporated? Early visions of IOOS considered development of a technology on-ramp to foster interactions between the research and operational programs. How can this type of interaction best be implemented? How do the needs of users factor into priorities for developing new technologies? How should this be accounted for in cost estimates? 54

A special focus area in emerging technology for IOOS is biology and ecosystem characterization and greatly improved integration of biological, chemical, geological and physical information. As noted above, much biological data is still collected by traditional labor-intensive monitoring programs with limited ability to link to other variables. The Emerging Technology/R&D Expert Team should work closely with the Biology/Ecosystem Expert Team to expand capabilities in this area. In addition to sensor development, there is a need to consider how to foster research and development in areas in which we do not yet have full understanding of the controlling dynamics, connections to other variables, or robust measurement technologies. The solution to this need could be use of targeted pilot studies, but how should these be identified and supported? Could some aspects of these questions be addressed on a broad scale now, and if so, how would we evaluate success? 19.9 Complete integration IOOS, by definition, is an integrated system. The recommendations from the various expert teams for the topics above must be assembled and assessed by an overarching group of experts tasked with incorporating these components into a comprehensive vision and plan for the next phase of coastal IOOS implementation. 20.0 Conclusions The vision of linking a vast network of disparate observing systems to produce a cohesive suite of data and information is being realized through the federal and regional components of IOOS. Over the last decade, IOOS has demonstrated the need for products and services among a diverse group of users. The RAs have shown that a regional approach that can leverage regional and federal expertise and resources and be responsive to regional needs is critical to the overall success of IOOS. The 10-year buildout plans of the regional component of IOOS build on the strengths and accomplishments of the existing system to address key user needs identified by agencies, industries and the public. These regional systems, however, do not stand alone but are one part of the coastal IOOS enterprise. Additional discussion with partners is a critical step ahead, using the buildout plan to renew discussions with existing partners and engage new ones in reaching common goals. To take coastal IOOS from a series of successful pilot projects to an operational system in the next decade, expert teams need to be assembled to answer critical design issues. Developing a plan that can be implemented will also require additional analyses to prioritize and phase in observing system improvements and product development and to identify opportunities for leveraging of resources and funding. It will require sustained involvement and coordination among the 11 RAs, the national U.S. IOOS Program Office, the 17 federal agencies that are part of U.S. IOOS, and a variety of other critical partners in academia, industry and public organizations. In total, this enterprise must be a 55

partnership of equals that is built on mutual respect, not competition, and consisting of representation from all federal agencies with a vested interest and all the RA stakeholder partnership communities. After 10 years, the build-out of coastal IOOS will provide the country with a dramatically improved system, with each region operating a suite of platforms, sensors, and models, while also taking advantage of a range of models and remote sensing systems operated by other entities. The regions and their federal partners will develop, produce and distribute a variety of critical products, with the spatial and temporal scales and accuracy needed to support health, safety and resource management. 56

References GAO, 2003. Alaska Native Villages. Report to Congressional Committees. GAO-14-142. Washington, DC. Interagency Working Group on Ocean Observations. 2009a. A National Operational Wave Observation Plan. Silver Spring, MD. Interagency Working Group on Ocean Observations. 2009b. A Plan to Meet the Nation s Needs for Surface Current Mapping. Silver Spring, MD. Interagency Ocean Observation Committee, 2012. Draft IOOS Summit Report. Washington, DC. National Ocean Council, 2012. Draft National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan. Washington, DC. NFRA, 2010. Regional Product Developers Workshop, Ann Arbor, MI. http://www.usnfra.org/productsworkshop2010.html NOAA Ocean Acidification Steering Committee, 2010. Ocean and Great Lakes Acidification Research Plan. Washington, DC. Regional Build-out Plan Steering Team, 2012. Building Coastal IOOS for the Next Decade: Following up on the Regional IOOS Build-out Plans. Harpswell, ME. Sherman, K. and Hempel, G (Editors), 2008. The UNEP Large Marine Ecosystem Report: A perspective on changing conditions in LMEs of the world s Regional Seas. UNEP Study 182. United Nations Environment Programme. Nairobi, Kenya. U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2009. Global Climate Impacts in the United States. Washington, DC. U.S. IOOS Program Office. 2010. U.S. IOOS Blueprint to Full Capability v 1.0 Silver Spring, MD U.S. IOOS Program Office. 2011a. U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System 2011 Report to Congress, Silver Spring, MD U.S. IOOS Program Office. 2011b. Data Management and Communication (DMAC) Implementation Plan, Version 1.0 Silver Spring, MD 57

Acronyms and Abbreviations ACT AAOS AIS AUV BOEM BSEE CariCOOS CeNCOOS CSREES CO-OPS DMAC DOE DOS DOT DST EEZ EPA FDA FERC FIB FTE GAO GCOOS GLOS GNOME GOOS HABs IOOC ICOOS IOOS IWGOO JCS LiDAR LME MARACOOS MMC NANOOS NASA NDBC NERACOOS NFRA Alliance for Coastal Technologies Alaska Ocean Observing System Automatic Identification System Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement Caribbean Coastal Ocean Observing System Central and Northern California Ocean Observing System Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, Department of Agriculture Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services Data Management and Communication Department of Energy Department of State Department of Transportation Decision Support Tool Exclusive Economic Zone Environmental Protection Agency Food and Drug Administration Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Fecal Indicator Bacteria Full-time Equivalent U.S. Government Accountability Office Gulf of Mexico Coastal Ocean Observing System Great Lakes Observing System General NOAA Oil Modeling Environment Global Ocean Observing System Harmful Algal Blooms Interagency Ocean Observation Committee Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act Integrated Ocean Observing System Interagency Working Group on Ocean Observations Joint Chiefs of Staff Light Detection and Ranging Large Marine Ecosystem Mid-Atlantic Regional Association Coastal Ocean Observing System Marine Mammal Commission Northwest Association of Networked Ocean Observing Systems National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Data and Buoy Center Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal and Ocean Observing Systems National Federation of Regional Associations (now IOOS Association) 58

NOAA NSF NWS ONR OOI OR&R OSSE PacIOOS PORTS R&D RCOOS RICE SAROPS SCCOOS SECOORA STPS SSC UNOLS USACE USARC USCG USFW USGS National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Science Foundation National Weather Service Office of Naval Research Ocean Observatories Initiative NOAA s Office of Response and Restoration Observing System Simulation Experiment Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System Physical Oceanographic Real Time System Research and Development Regional Coastal Ocean Observing System Regional Information Coordination Entity Search and Rescue Optimal Planning System Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association Short Term Prediction System Scientific Support Coordinator University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System U.S. Army Corps of Engineers U.S. Arctic Research Commission U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Fish and Wildlife U.S. Geological Survey 59