Writing Research Articles in English as a Second Language: Burdens, Solutions and Responsibilities David I. Hanauer Indiana University of Pennsylvania Lead Assessment Coordinator of the SEA PHAGES Program English as the Language of Science English and Science: Established Positions 1. Scientific publication is dominated by the use of the English language (Ammon, 1998, 2006; Hamel, 2007; Tsunoda, 1983); however, scientific research is conducted across the world by scientists for whom English may not be a first language. 2. Research has established that scientists who are required to publish their scientific research in English as a second language face difficulties (Ammon, 1998, 2006; Flowerdew, 2007; Hanauer & Englander, 2009; Salager Meyer, 2008). 1
Lecture Outline 1. Quantify the burden of second language science writing 2. Establish the critical boundaries of responsibility 3. Offer rational principles of support for second language science writers 4. Discuss the responsibilities and possibilities of all stakeholders in the scientific enterprise Research Questions 1.To what degree is writing a scientific article in English as a second language more difficult than writing a scientific article in a first language? 2.What are the specific difficulties in writing a scientific article in English reported by scientists who are writing in a second language? Mixed Method Design 1. Quantitative 16 Item Survey 343 questionnaires distributed; 148 returned. 41% participation Employment ranged from 6 months to 34 years 2. Qualitative Interview Study 16 faculty interviewed Demographic cross section (early and late career; teaching and science focus; male and female) Site: Two institutions of higher education Public university and Research institute Ensenada, Mexico (population 400,000) 60 miles south of U.S. border on the Pacific Ocean Participants: Professors and Researchers at: University: Faculty of Science, Faculty of Marine Science, and Institute for Oceanological Research Research Institute: Earth Sciences, Applied Physics, Oceanology, Experimental and Applied Biology. 2
Research Design: Differential Response The concept of language writing burden was conceptualized as the differential response between self rated perceptions of the relative difficulty, satisfaction and anxiety between first and second language scientific writing for publication. Operationally this was set out as a series of parallel questions with rating scales in relation to the difficulties, degrees of satisfaction and levels of anxiety associated with scientific writing in both first and second languages (see questions 1 6 on the questionnaire). Survey Questions 1. On the scale below rank the degree to which you find it easy or difficult to write a scientific article in Spanish for a major journal. Very Easy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very Difficult 2.(same question) in English 3.On the scale below rank the degree to which you are dissatisfied that your writing in Spanish conveys the scientific research that you have conducted. 4.(same question) in English 5.On the scale below rate the degree to which writing a scientific article in Spanish for a major journal causes you to feel anxiety. 6.(same question) in English Survey Questions 7) On the scale below, indicate what percentage of your published research is written in English. 0% 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 9) On the scale below, rate the degree to which you consider your ability to write in English to be a barrier to publishing your research. Not a Barrier At All 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A Significant Barrier 14) In the space below please list briefly the difficulties (if any) that you face in writing a scientific article in English for a major international journal. 3
Percentage of Papers Published in English 148 L1 Spanish speaking Mexican scientists The ratio of English to Spanish publication conducted by survey participants 76% of participants publish 50% or more of their research in English as a second language Percentage Published 40% 33% 15% 4% 6% 3% 1 Range of Possible English Publishing 0% 1-24% 25-49% 50-74% 75-99% 100% Descriptive Data For Rating Responses For First (Spanish) and Second Language (English) Scientific Writing Question Mean S.D. Difficulty of Spanish 2.45 1.48 Difficulty of English 4.25 1.86 Dissatisfaction in Spanish 2.15 1.39 Dissatisfaction in English 3.02 1.98 Anxiety in Spanish 2.57 1.60 Anxiety in English 4.20 1.98 Means and standard deviations for self perception ratings on questions of difficulty, satisfaction and anxiety in first language (Spanish) and second language (English) scientific writing (n=148) Inferential Statistics In order to evaluate the descriptive data, a one way MANOVA was calculated using language (Spanish/English) as the independent variable and difficulty ratings, dissatisfaction ratings and anxiety ratings as three dependent variables. Hotellings' T2 multivariate generalization of the univariate t value was used. The MANOVA revealed: a highly significant effect for language (Hotellings' T2=30.392, p<0.000) The univariate F tests were significant for language comparisons (Spanish/English) on all three variables: 1. difficulty, F(1,253)=84.1, p<0.000 2. dissatisfaction, F(1,253)=18.6, p<0.000 3. anxiety, F(1,253)=55.2, p<0.000. 4
Summary of Descriptive Results The results reveal that: 1. Scientific writing in English as a second language (L2) was perceived on average to be 24.1% (1.69 points on a 7 point scale) more difficult than scientific writing in L1 2.The final written article in L2 was perceived to be 11.7% ( 0.82 points on a 7 point scale) less satisfactory than a scientific article written in L1; 3.English L2 science writing was reported to induce 21.7% (1.52 points on a seven point scale) more anxiety than writing in L1. This data suggests that English L2 scientific writing is quantifiably more difficult, less satisfying and generates more anxiety than scientific writing in a first language. Is Writing In English as a Barrier to the Publication of Research? 55% of all respondents gave a rating of above 3.5 (out of 7) signifying that for over half of the respondents English L2 writing was considered a problem in relation to scientific publication 29% of scientists from the research institute reported that English presented no barrier. 20% of the respondents gave a rating of 6 or 7 (out of 7) signifying that for this group they considered English L2 writing to be a very significant barrier to the publication of scientific results Types of Difficulties that English L2 Scientists Report in Relation to their Writing Category Frequency Percentage Language Form 29 31.1 Genre form and style 20 21.5 Writing processes 16 17.2 Scientific Content 14 15.0 Editorial bias 12 12.9 Institutional Factors 2 2.1 5
Critical Understandings The findings support Ammon s (2001) assertion that, It seems almost self evident that the native speakers of the prevalent scientific language have less difficulty using it... and, therefore, have advantages over [nonnative speakers]... It is easier for them to produce utterances and texts in line with the existing native speaker norms (Ammon, 2001, p. vii). Dissipating the Assumption of Individual Responsibility It is both unrealistic and unjust to expect every international scientist to develop the the secret language of academic work (Pennycook, 1999, p. 330) to the level required in order to write publishable manuscripts in English as a second language by themselves and without adequate support Principles of Support 1. Long term commitment to writing education. Facilitating the process of writing research articles in English as a second language needs to span the full length of higher education and professional work. 2. Differential needs and diversified educational interventions. A range of approaches is necessary to respond to the developmental knowledge and different backgrounds of the scientists. 3. Multilayered understanding of the research article. The research article is one part of scientific disciplinary knowledge creation and it occurs within a complex web of networks and publishing factors. It is not sufficient to only address linguistic factors in supporting English as a second language scientific writing. 4. Provision of expert support for science and writing. Learning to write a research article involves developing skills and knowledge in relation to science and the literacy of science production. Expertise in both science and specialized science writing needs to be made available. 6
Principles of Support 5. Personalized, continual, and immediate support for research article writing. Individualized support is needed for scientists in a framework that allows them immediate and continual access when and where they need it. 6. Demystification of the structures and processes of scientific publication. Scientists need to be taught explicitly about the research article and the psychological and sociological processes involved. 7. Broad administrative, institutional, and financial support. Administrators and institutions need to commit time and resources to the construction of an extended program that can support scientists in writing their research for English medium publication when English is not their native language. Stakeholders and Policy Agents The results indicate that there are different kinds of interventions that are desirable, and those interventions can be implemented by different stakeholders involved in science education and professional scientific research. Those stakeholders are 1. Universities that educate scientists outside of the Anglophone countries 2. Makers of national higher education policy 3. Research institutions where scientists perform their work 4. International professional scientific bodies and associations. Universities as Agents of Change BA: Explicit instruction in English and L1 science writing; Mentoring program MA: Explicit instruction in English and L1 science writing ; Mentoring program; Collborative face to face interactions with associates Phd: Mentoring program; Faculty writing circle; Collaborative face toface interactions with associates; Translation and editing services Professional: Mentoring program; Faculty writing circle; Collaborative face to face interactions with associates; Translation and editing services 7
National Higher Education Policy Makers Provision of monetary support in the form of: Incentives for publication supporting additional release time Monetary support for translation and editing services Support travel abroad and educational opportunities (creation of networks) Support for the hosting of international conferences Research and Scientific Institutions Provision of the following services: Explicit teaching through courses, workshops and one on one of topics relevant to writing and publishing scientific articles Collaborative interaction among scientists in the institution around publication and research (with appropriate monetary support for time allocation and physical settings) On site translation and editing services Professional Scientific Bodies and Associations Professional organizations: Active support for L2 scientists at professional meetings including meeting with senior scientists and facilitating the development of insider networks. Disciplinary Journals: Provision of specific editorial, language support for second language scientists Expansion of editorial boards to include L2 users of English Inclusion of issues designed specifically to address concerns around the world 8
THANK YOU A fuller description of this research, pedagogical interventions and policy can be found in: Hanauer, D. & Englander, K. (2013). Writing Science in a Second Language. Charlotte, NC: Parlor Press Hanauer, D., & Englander, K. (2011). Quantifying the burden of writing research articles in a second language: Data from Mexican scientists. Written Communication, 28(4) 403 416. Hanauer@iup.edu 9