Contents Introduction...3 What is Leadership?...3 Leadership and Management...4 Top Ten Characteristics of Leaders...8 Worksheet: Leaders and Context...10 Theories of Leadership...11 Effective Leadership...13 Leadership Styles...13 Transformational Leadership...18 Five Fundamental Practices of Leadership...20 Worksheet: My Leadership Practices?...21 Public Sector Leadership...22 Leadership in the Third Sector...24 Can Leadership be Learned?...27 Is Leadership Necessary?...31 Challenges for Leadership Development Planning?...33 Main References...36 Annex A: Leadership Definitions and Quotations...38 Annex B: Selected Popular Models of Leadership...40 2
Introduction The learning points from this workshop are as follows: Leadership is about envisioning the future and inspiring people Exemplary leaders display certain characteristics Management and leadership are not the same thing Leadership Overview There is no single way to be an effective leader it depends on the context, situation and follower behaviour You can develop and practice core competencies and adjust your leadership style to the circumstances you are in Motivating people is a key element of leadership Leadership can be learned There are key practices of leadership if you can adopt these you can become a more effective leader. What is Leadership? Leadership is the process of motivating other people to act in a particular way in order to achieve specific goals. The emphasis is on action because although leaders may exert influence through inspirational speeches, they are judged on what they do. As the Chinese proverb quoted by John Adair (1989) says, Not the cry but the flight of the wild duck leads the flock to fly and follow. The definition used in the Management and Leadership Development Strategy for Northern Ireland (MDSNI) is as follows:- Leadership develops vision, sets future direction, motivates positive engagement in strategy/planning and generates a culture of constructively challenging convention. Perhaps a more practical, if somewhat mundane, definition of leadership is provided by Hannagan (2002):- Leadership is the process of motivating other people to act in particular ways in order to achieve specific goals. As Bennis (1959, p259) observed, and this is still true today, Always it seems the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless prolifieration of terms to deal with it and still the concept is not sufficiently defined. Gary Yukl (2006, p8) presents a definition that encompasses a more collective approach:- Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives. 3
See Annex A for a random selection of leadership definitions and quotations. Leaders need to have followers and to share common goals with their followers. It involves other people, who by the degree of their willingness to accept direction help to define the leader s status. It can be argued that people can exhibit qualities of leadership in a variety of circumstances. The question is often asked, Are there born leaders? If leadership is seen as a process which can be analysed and a series of actions which can be identified then it can be learned, at least to some extent. John Adair in Great Leaders (1989) suggests that, The common sense conclusion of this book is that leadership potential can be developed, but it does have to be there in the first place Leadership can be seen as the ability to: Create a vision Present that vision so that others are inspired to achieve it Drive the vision forward so that, no matter what happens, the vision becomes a reality. Leadership requires many skills, including the ability to learn from the past and anticipate the future, communicate effectively, create good relations, organise resources, constantly hold the vision for success and act courageously and ethically at all times. Leadership and Management It is important to distinguish the difference between leadership and management, both of which are considered necessary. Leadership and management are often used interchangeably, but they are two distinctive and complementary processes. There is an important aspect to the debate surrounding the differences between leadership and management and it is raised by Zaleznik (1977) in his seminal article and by Bennis & Nanus (1985) amongst others. He questions if perhaps too many studies have been at small group level and so theory has focused moreso on management issues. It does appear that there are clear distinctions between the two dimensions, with leadership being seen as outward looking and inspirational in driving for change. Yukl (1989) notes that the essence of the argument seems to be that managers are oriented towards stability and leaders are oriented towards innovation; managers get people to do things more efficiently, wheresas leaders get people to agree about what things should be done. Strategic leadership is about giving purpose, meaning and guidance to organisations whereas supervisory leadership is concerned with guidance, support and corrective feedback on a day-to-day basis using task or peopleoriented behaviours as aproppriate (House, 1997). Management consists of implementing the vision and strategy provided by the leaders. 4
There is a need for both functions and indeed, leaders can become managers and vice versa by virtue of their approach and behaviour. The literature would appear to support the view that managers can become leaders by providing vision, direction, strategy and inspiration to the organisation and reinforcing the vision and inherent values adopted. As Buckingham (2005, p59) states:- The core activities of a manager and leader are simply different. The difference is one of focus, one outwardly focused, the other internally. John Kotter (1990), Konosuke Matsushita Professor of Leadership at Harvard Business School, argues that leadership is different from management, but if either is missing, success in today s competitive environment will be elusive. According to Warren Bennis and Bert Nanus (1985):- leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth. Typically the distinction between leadership and management will be described as follows: Leadership Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their shared purpose. (Rost, 1993, p 102) Management Attainment of organisational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling organisational resource. (Daft, 1999) Leadership is sometimes quoted as being about people whilst management is talked about in terms control and creating predictable results. Unfortunately, management is today regarded by some as being a lesser skill than leadership. The reality is that mangers must lead people also and so leadership of a kind is needed at every organisatinal level. Kotter (1990, p26) argues however that neither is better than, nor a replacement for, the other and that:- the real challenge is to combine strong leadership and strong management and use each to balance the other. Yukl (2006, p5) also observed that: nobody has proposed that leadership and management are equivalent, but the degree of overlap is a point of sharp disagreement. Richard Daft (1999)building principally on the work of Kotter (1990) has produced the following comparison between management and leadership. 5
Management and Leadership Comparison Management Leadership Direction Alignment Planning and budgeting Keeping an eye on the bottom line Organising and staffing Directing and controlling Creating boundaries Creating vision and strategy Keeping an eye on the horizon Creating shared culture and values Helping others grow Reduce boundaries Relationships Focusing on objects producing/selling goods and services Based on a position of power Acting as boss Focusing on people inspiring and motivating followers Based on personal power Acting as coach, facilitator, servant Personal Qualities Emotional distance Expert mind Talking Conformity Insight into organisation Emotional connections (Heart) Open Mind (Mindfulness) Listening (Communication) Non-conformity (Courage) Insight into self (Integrity) Outcomes Maintain stability Creates change, often radical change Management is about the control process, which ensures that lapses in performance are spotted and corrected through feedback. Managerial processes therefore must be as close as possible to fail-safe and risk-free. The leadership contribution is to motivate, inspire and energise people by satisfying basic human needs for achievement, a sense of belonging, recognition, selfesteem, control over one s own life and an ability to live up to one s ideals. Good leaders motivate people by making the vision relevant to the particular group, supporting the employee with coaching, feedback and role-modelling, and by recognising and rewarding success. This is no less important for a team leader and supervisior as it is for a senior manager. Adair (2002) used the original word meanings to emphasise this: Leading is about deciding direction, coming from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning the road or path ahead; knowing the next step and then taking others with you to it. Managing is a later concept, from Latin 'manus', meaning hand, and more associated with handling a system or machine of some kind. This same notion of looking outwards or inwards is captured by Bennis (2003): I tend to think of the differences between leaders and managers as the differences between those who master the context and those who surrender it. 6
Covey (2004) highlights some clear distinctions between leadership and management drawing on quotes from respected writers on the subject. This is summarised below. Quotes on Leadership and Management Author Leadership Management Warren Bennis Leaders are people who do the right thing; John Kotter Leadership is about coping with change. James Kouzes and Barry Posner Abraham Zaleznik Leadership has about it a kinesthetic feel, a sense of movement Leaders are concerned with what things mean to people. John Mariotti Leaders are the architects. George Weathersby Leadership focuses on the creation of a common vision. Managers are people who do things right. Management is about coping with complexity. Management is about handling things, about maintaining order about organisation and control. Managers are concerned about how things get done. Managers are the builders. Management is about the design of work it s about controlling Mike Hudson (2003) says that truely great Chief Executives in the third sector have to rise beyond management and provide leadership. The boundary is not crystal clear and echoing comments made by Drucker, he asserts that to be over-led and under-managed may be exciting but not effective and to be underled and over managed, whilst efficient, may lead to obscurity as the outer world passes the organisation by. One way of looking at this continuum is illustrated in the diagram below: Continuum of Leadership and Management Interestingly, in the Management and Leadership Strategy for NI the authors take a practical view of the distinction stating:- we have taken a pragmatic view that everyone in a managerial (or supervisory) position has the responsibility to lead as well as manage. The distinction used is that Leadership develops vision, sets future direction, motivates positive engagement in strategy/planning and generates a culture of constructively challenging convention 7
Management organises and executes the plans, operationaslises people and resources within timeframes, attains quality standards and ultimately delivers results. (Leading the Way, 2006, p11) It seems clear that an organisation needs both good management and leadership and in the case of micro organisations, the capacity to deliver on both probably has to reside in one person. In summary, to be successful, an organisation needs both great leadership and management, whether this comes from one person (as in a very small organisation) or from a team of people working together towards common goals. The common elements and determining factors are context and people. Point to Ponder Every leader needs to look back once in a while to make sure he/she has followers. Top Ten Characteristics of Leaders An Industrial Society survey (1996) showed that the top ten characteristics most admired in leaders are: Rank Factor 1 Showed enthusiasm 2 Supported other people 3 Recognised individual effort 4 Listened to individuals ideas and problems 5 Provided direction 6 Demonstrated personal integrity 7 Practised what he/she preached 8 Encouraged teamwork 9 Actively encouraged feedback 10 Developed other people Point to Ponder Management is about coping with the complexity good management brings about a degree of order and consistency to key dimensions like the quality and profitability of products and services. Leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change. Kotter (1990) 8
In a survey of 54,000 managers Covey (2004) demonstrated that integrity was by far the most important characteristic associated with effective leaders:- Point to Ponder He who overcomes others is powerful. He who overcomes himself can lead others. 9
Worksheet: Leaders and Context Leadership Overview Form into groups and nominate a well-known community, business, political, sports or local leader and identify the key characteristics associated with that person. What were the circumstances that brought this individual to the fore? Nominated Leader: Characteristics: Context: 10
Theories of Leadership Leadership Overview Mintzberg (1991) describes leadership as a mysterious chemistry. In seeking to understand why and how some people lead successfully and others follow, it is useful to look at some of the basic theories of leadership. Goleman (2000) writes about leaders having the right stuff. The first systematic effort by researchers to understand leadership was the attempt to identify the personal characteristics of leaders. It can be argued that there is a predisposition to consider leaders to be naturally braver, more aggressive, more decisive and more articulate than other people so that they stand out from others. This traditional view of leadership implies that leaders are born and not made. Trait theories suggest that there are certain personal qualities which are essential for leaders and these can be listed. The research into personality traits, or set of qualities that can be used to discriminate leaders from nonleaders has failed to produce any consistent position. It appears that no trait or combination of traits guarantees that a leader will be successful. Behavioural leadership theories are largely concerned with attempting to draw conclusions about which leadership style is most effective. The research on this tries to understand the behavioural patterns of successful and unsuccessful managers. Research by Ralph Stogdill (1957) identified two principal dimensions to leader behaviour concern for people and concern for task (production). The thinking here is that highly effective leaders will have both a high level of concern for achieving tasks and for maintaining high quality relationships with their staff. According to contingency theory effective leadership is seen as dependent not just on style of leadership but on the context and situation in which the style was used. In other words, in a manufacturing unit there is likely to be more emphasis on directing subordinates to complete tasks whereas in a service industry relationship building is important. Unlike the trait and behavioural views of the leadership, the contingency view suggests that there is no universal style which works in all situations and that the level of effectiveness is best evaluated in a unit s success in achieving its objectives. Different styles will be more or less effective depending on the situation in which leaders find themselves. And so, the style of the leader in the army may be very different from that of a church leader. The path-goal theory of leadership (Evans, 1970; House, 1971) was developed to explain how the behaviour of a leader influences the satisfaction and performance of a subordinate. According to House and Dressler 1 :- leader behavior will be viewed as acceptable to subordinates to the extent the subordinates see such behavior as either an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental to future satisfaction. This is an approach based on expectancy theory of motivation (Vroom, 1964). This holds that a person makes a rational choice regarding how much effort to devote to the job at a given point in time. They take into account the likelihood 1 House and Dressler, 1974, p13 11
of completing the task satisfactorly whilst achieving desirable outcomes (e.g. pay, promotion and/or recognition) and avoiding undesirable outcomes (e.g. reprimand, rejection, stress). The leader s role is to modify these perceptions and beliefs in a way that motivates the individual. As House (1971, p34) explains it:- The motivational function of the leader consists of increasing personal pay-offs to subordinates for work-goal attainment and making the path to these pay-offs easier to travel, by clarifing it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction en route. The theory, again updated in 1974, promotes four broadly defined leadership behaviours or styles:- Supportive leadership (leader is affiliative and considerate) Directive leadership (leader guides and coordinates) Participative leadership (leader consults and involves) Achievement-oriented leadership (leader challenges and promotes excellence). According to the path-goal theory the effect leader behaviour has on subordinate satisfaction and effort depends also on situational factors such as task and subordinate characterisics and vice versa. The main issues raised about the reliability of the model are concerned with its complexity and rational decision biases which seem to take little account of the emotional reactions that influence motivation. House (1996) has tried to address these points by incorporating transformational behaviours into the model but it remains complex and complicated for practicioners to use. Situational leadership theory (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982) addresses the problem of management effectiveness by prescribing the appropriate leadership behaviour for a situation. As a subordinate s level of maturity increases, the leader should use more relationship and less task behaviour. However, leadership of this nature requires considerable judgment by the manager in assessing the current maturity of his/her subordinates or team. This is supported by more recent publications by Paul Hersey (1998) and Ken Blanchard (2004). The leader can of course design development interventions in an attempt to boost maturity levels. 12
Effective Leadership Leadership Overview What then makes an effective leader? A review of the principal theories (Trait, Behavioural, Contingency) emphasises that there is no single way of being an effective leader. To be an effective leader, you either have to be capable of behaving differently in different circumstances or be matched to situations that will likely respond positively to your preferred pattern of leadership behaviour. Point to Ponder Love em and lead em Major General John F Stanford, US Army According to Yukl (2006, p456) an effective leader will:- Help interpret the meaning of events Create alignment on objectives and strategies Build task commitment and optimism Build mutual trust and co-operation Strengthen collective identity Organise and control activities Encourage and facilitate collective learning Obtain necessary resources and support Develop and empower people Provide social justice and morality. Leadership Styles A great deal of work has been done on the classification and categorisation of the different kinds of leadership styles including: Tannenbaum & Schmidt, (1958) Blake and Mouton (1964) Evans and House & Dressler, Path-Goal Theory (1970; 1974) Vroom and Yetton, Autocratic to Democratic Leadership (1973) Hersey and Blanchard, Situational Leadership (1977; 1984). 13
Participative Leadership Leadership Overview Making decisions is one of the most important functions performed by a leader. Participative leadership involves efforts by a leader to encourage and facilitate participation by others in making important decisions. There is no agreement on the optimum number of decision procedures however most theorists agree on the following four: Autocratic decision (leader decides and announces ; no participation) Consultation (leader seeks opinions and then decides; partial participation) Joint decision (leader involves and joint decision; equal participation) Delegation (leader empowers others to make decision; full participation) This involves a continuum ranging from no influence (autocratic) to high influence (delegation) on decisions. This is represented by Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) as leadership styles which range from telling, selling, consulting and empowering. Vroom and Yetton (1973) distinguish between consulting with individuals and consulting with a group. Managerial Grid for Leadership Effectiveness Blake and Mouton (1964) developed a managerial grid that focused on jobcentred (production/task) and employee-centred (people/relationship) dimensions. The ideal leader was seen to have high concern for production and high concern for people. Of eight-one possible combinations (see the grid below) the research focused on five major styles: The impoverished manager (grid ref. 1,1) is uninvolved in the work and withdrawn from people The sweatshop manager (grid ref. 9,1) is results driven and sees people as tools to that end The country club manager (grid ref. 1,9) is focused on being agreeable and smoothing relations The status quo manager (grid ref. 5,5) is moderately concerned with both work requirements and people s needs The fully functioning manager (grid ref. 9,9) is intensely interested in task and cares deeply about people. More recently two new styles have been added to reflect observations on the model. These are the paternalistic manager who uses high concern for task (9,1) combined with use of rewards (1,9) in exchange for compliance and loyalty. The other is the opportunistic manager who uses whichever style will promote his or her advancement (1,9 to please employees; 5,5, in interaction with peers; and 9,1 to gain favour with results-oriented bosses (Manning and Curtis, 2006, p21). 14
Managerial Grid for Leadership Effectiveness Leadership Overview Autocratic-Democratic Leadership The Normative Decision Model of leadership styles developed by Vroom and Yetton (1973) and others is a form of contingency approach and is presented as an autocratic-democratic leadership 2 decision making model. It focuses on the situational factors which influence leadership. Managers need to consider certain practical considerations before deciding how to manage. Vroom and Jago (1978) revised and updated the model. They have suggested that there are three main forces at work in determining whether a manger should act alone or involve subordinates in problem solving. These included: Leaders-Manager maturity (a manager s competence and confidence) Subordinate maturity (their ability and willingness) Situation or context (issues of task, time and culture). This model assumes that every leadership situation can be placed somewhere on a continuum between autocratic decision making and democratic decision making. This continuum suggests that a manager should consider a full range of options before deciding how to act. It must be remembered though that there is a distinction between overt procedures and actual influence and in practice there are other informal interactions that also affect and influence decisions. 2 This terminology of autocratic,democratic and laissez-faire derives from a classic study of leadership behaviour by Kurt Lewin et al. in 1939. This later influenced Ralph Stogdill (c1945) and others at Ohio State University who studied leadership behaviour around two dimensions initiating structure (role and task oriented) and showing consideration (relationship and support). 15
Leadership-Behaviour Continuum 3 Leadership Overview Autocratic..Democratic 1 2 3 4 5 6 Leader decides alone and (tells) announces the decision. Leader decides alone sells decision. and the Leader presents the issue for discussion and pretends to consult (but has already chosen the preferred decision). Leader presents the issue and consults before making the decision. Leader joins others in a (joint) decision making process. Leader presents the issue and (delegates) asks others to decide - subject to certain limits or boundaries The proven benefits of participative leadership based on research findings are inconclusive however qualitative research does appear to confirm that it sometimes leads to: Improved decision quality Better decision acceptance Satisfaction with decision process; and Development of participants skills through the process. Research carried out by Fielder (1971) was based on the view that managers have difficulty in altering the style which helped them to achieve success and that they are not very flexible. It follows from this that trying to change a manger s style to suit the situation may be both useless and inefficient. If this is the case then it may be that instead of a manager changing style to suit a situation, it might be better to change the manager. This would mean choosing an authoritarian manager for a situation that requires strong directive leadership and so on. For those, and there are many, who believe in the ability of leaders to adapt to situational factors there a range of models to follow including Blanchard s situational leadership which suggests four broad styles of leadership that can be adopted when working with individuals depending on their development level relating to competence and commitment. These are described as: Directive Coaching Supporting Delegating The successful leader, when choosing the appropriate leadership style to use with an individual, is encouraged to ask: 3 Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) 16
How competent is this person? How good are they at their job? How much direction do they need? How committed is this person? To what extent do they work willingly and well? How much support and encouragement do they need? In terms of competence and commitment, each person in a group will fit into one of the four development levels shown below. Development Level 1 Low competence Inexperienced; needs additional training and development opportunities; needs updating on skills or knowledge; needs supervision High commitment Enthusiastic, confident, hardworking, eager to learn and develop, highly motivated Development Level 2 Some competence: Some experience; additional training and development opportunities would be useful and helpful; needs some supervision Low commitment Not particularly enthusiastic or confident or hard working or eager to learn and develop; not particularly motivated Development Level 3 High competence Highly skilled, competent and experienced; knows precisely what they are supposed to do and how to do it; capable and competent; can work unsupervised Variable commitment Sometimes enthusiastic, confident, hard-working, eager to learn and develop, highly motivated - and sometimes not Development Level 4 High competence Highly skilled, competent and experienced; knows precisely what they are supposed to so and how to do it; capable and competent; can work unsupervised High commitment Always enthusiastic, confident, hardworking, eager to learn and develop, highly motivated Which style works best? Listed below are some pointers: People who fall into Development Level 1 (low competence/high commitment) tend to respond best to a directive style of leadership high on direction, lower on support. Their motivation is high but they need clear direction and some supervision to compensate for their lack of skills and knowledge. People who fall into Development Level 2 (some competence/low commitment) tend to respond best to a coaching style of leadership high on direction, lower on support. They need some direction and supervision, plus regular praise and encouragement to build motivation. 17
People who fall into Development Level 3 (high competence/variable commitment) tend to respond best to a supporting style of leadership low on direction, higher on support. They know what they are doing, so need little supervision, but they do need a fair amount of encouragement. People who fall into Development Level 4 (high competence/high commitment) tend to respond best to a delegating style of leadership low on both direction and support. Even so, do not make the mistake of always leaving Category 4 people just to get on with it. They need feedback and encouragement just as much as anyone else. The way in which the four main leadership styles (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) relate to the four categories of competence and commitment is shown below: Development Level 1 Low can-do High want-to-do Style 1: Directing Giving clear instructions Development Level 2 Some can-do Low want-to-do Style 2: Coaching Talking things through Style 4: Delegating Trusting people Style 3: Supporting Showing interest Development Level 4 High can-do High want-to-do Development Level 3 High can-do Variable want-to-do Transformational Leadership It is argued that charismatic leaders 4 are able, through personal vision and energy, to inspire followers and have a major impact on an organisation. This view of leadership treats it as a mysterious and powerful quality that can be used for good and evil (what Bass calls the dark side ) 5. Through emotional and symbolic gestures they are able to influence followers to make self- 4 Charisma is a Greek word that means divinely inspired gift e.g. the ability to predict the future. 5 Bass & Steidlmeier (1999) 18
Leadership Overview sacrifices and subordinate self-interest to serve a higher (organisational) mission. Although transformational and charismatic leadership are often used interchangeably, they are now treated as related but different (Bass & Riggio, 2006). To their followers, charismatic leaders transform their lives in one way or another and they often do not ask too many questions about how this is achieved. The fact is that some people are able, for a time, to exert great influence using charismatic qualities. The theory of transformational leadership was strongly influenced by James McGregor Burns (1978) who contrasted transformational (mobilising on the basis of moral values) and transactional (motivated by self-interest and exchange) leadership in a political context. Burns also wrote of a third dimension legitimate authority which was leadership based on respect for bureaucracy, rules and traditions. In analysing the concept of transformational leadership in the corporate world, Bass (1985; 1996) contrasted two types of leadership: transactional and transformational. Transactional leaders determine what subordinates need to do to achieve their own and organisational objectives and create the support needed to enable them to act appropriately. Transformational leaders motivate people to do better than they would have expected by raising motivation and the importance of the value of people s tasks within the organisation. These leaders go beyond transactional leadership by using their personal vision and energy to inspire their followers. Using factor analysis and with a Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Bass and Avolio (1997) identified a range of transformational and transactional behaviours practiced by leaders. A third non-leadership category was added based on research (Avolio, 1999). The behaviours are listed as:- Transformational Leadership Behaviour Idealised Influence Individualised Consideration Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Transactional Leadership Behaviour Contingent Reward Active Management by Exception Passive Management by Exception Laissez-faire Inactive Passive and disengaged This model is known as the Full Range Leadership (FRL) model and is well regarded but not proven in its entirety (Antonakis & House, 2002). Most studies do however find support for the basic distinction between transformational and transactional as effective leadership behaviours. It is interesting to note that transformational 19
leadership is considered effective in any situation or culture (Bass, 1996; 1997). It is likely to be more important in a dynamic, unstable environment that increases the need for change and such leadership is more likely when leaders are encouraged and empowered to be flexible and entrepreneurial e.g. in a decentralised and entrepreneurial culture. Transformational Leadership and Effectiveness Taking all of the findings from research, in the round, Yukl (2006, p.274) offers the following guidelines for leaders who seek to inspire followers towards achieving organisational goals: Articulate a clear and appealing vision Explain how the vision can be attained Act confident and optimistic Express confidence in followers Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasise key values Lead by example. Five Fundamental Practices of Leadership James Kouzes and Barry Posner (2002) identified five practices which, in their view, are associated with what they call exemplary leaders. Their five fundamental practices of leadership are:- Challenge the process They search for opportunities They experiment and take risks They challenge other people to exceed their own limitations Inspire a shared vision They envision an ennobling future They enlist people to join in that new direction Enable others to act They strengthen others They foster collaboration 20
Model the way They set the example for people by their own leadership behaviour They plan small wins to get the process moving Encourage the heart They regard and recognise individual contributions They celebrate team successes See Annex B for a summary of selected, popular, models of leadership. Worksheet: My Leadership Practices? Leadership Action Plan 21
Public Sector Leadership Whatever differences there may be about a precise definition of leadership, it is clearly about people as followers and the extent to which they can be motivated to behave in particular ways. (Rose and Lawton,1999). Adair, speaking at a conference in 1996 for public sector managers talked of twenty-first century managers requiring vision, empathy and concern for people and issues, lack of reliance on position and rank for status and the ability to be a team builder and team maintainer. 6 John Monks, former General Secretary of the TUC expressed the view that leadership was about listening, inspiring and morale building. One public service manager, quoting Rose and Lawton, promotes the CHILTERN principles of leadership: communication; honesty; involvement; listening; trust; enthusiasm; results and no games! The 2002 Strengthening Leadership in the Public Sector report highlighted some real deficiencies in leadership development with the sector. It concluded, as did the Review of Public Administration in Northern Ireland, that the sector faced new challenges including: Modernisation with much better customer focus Higher and increasing public expectation for quality of service More opportunities and requirements for partnership working within and across sectors Pressures to harness ICT and deliver services electronically. Although the report acknowledges examples of excellence it concludes that: The public sector is not attracting and keeping the best leaders Leadership development does not give enough emphasis to working across boundaries and learning between sectors Potential leaders are not being given the freedom to lead. The report also highlights the difficulty created by having many and often contradictory interpretations of theories of leadership. This can lead to confusion about what works and doesn t work and makes it difficult for leaders to transfer their knowledge to others. Leading the Way, a new Management and Leadership Development Strategy for Northern Ireland (MLDSNI, 2006) 7 has published a cross-sectoral strategy:- to create a cohesive and comprehensive approach to building world class management and leadership capabilities aligned to the vision for Northern lreland 6 Rose, A. & Lawton, A (1999) Public Services Management p153-158, Essex, Pearson Education Ltd. 7 Coordinated by the Management and Leadership Network and available on www.mln.org.uk 22
Against the background of the Review of Pubic Administration it was reported that: Research in each sector, combined with the number of strategic objectives dependent upon these factors, point to a need for a significant and urgent effort to address a management and leadership deficit. 8 The policy drivers for the MLDSNI strategy include: Corporate Plan and New Skills Strategy (DEL); Corporate Plan and New Economic Vision (DETI); Positive Steps (DSD); RPA (NICS & NILG; and linked to the UK agenda through Management and Leadership Corporate Plan (SSDA). Research and feedback consistently highlights the integration of strategy and the management role in implementation as a key issue:- In a recent CIPD survey, 86 per cent of respondents said that the biggest challenge for organisations was integrating management development with the implementation of organisational goals. 9 Whilst the Mabey Report (2005) is more positive, saying that organisations are now taking the issue of leadership and management more seriously. Focusing more closely on Northern Ireland, the MLN Survey of NI Top 100 Companies (2004) concluded that:- Encouragingly more than 80 per cent stated that they have a formal written business strategy but almost half indicated that this didn t include any reference to management development. The cross sectoral challenges for organisations in Northern Ireland appear to be: Lack of investment in leadership development Promoting leadership and not functional management competencies only Getting senior managers to see the link between development and performance Increasing the very small pool of high calibre people Increasing the number of qualified and experienced coaches and mentors Getting people to learn and exchange knowledge across sectors. Peter Shaw (2006, p25), who has spent most of his working life in senior public sector management roles, believes strongly in the servant leadership model and he recommends a balance between:- leading from the front in terms of taking direct action and enabling and serving others to fulfil their own visions and providing a healing role in building and renewing relationships. 10 He references a very practical and real model of leadership (applied by AstraZeneca, one of the world's leading pharmaceutical companies) that he believes the public sector could learn from especially where it seeks symmetry 8 Council for excellence in Management and Leadership (CEML) Report and Government Response 2002 & Skills Sector Development Agency (SSDA) Corporate Plan 2002 9 Developing Managers for Business Performance Key Findings (CIPD, November 2005). 10 Shaw, Peter, (2006) The Four Vs of Leadership Chichester, Capstone Publishing 23
between the vision of the organisation and that of individuals within it. The six global leadership capabilities promoted across the organisation are: Clarity of strategic direction Commitment to vision Focus on delivery Build relationships Develop people Demonstrate personal conviction. Leadership in the Third Sector Research on leadership shows that whilst there is some agreement about the elements of leadership, there is no one agreed definition of what is a leader. In a recent review of the literature around leadership Northouse (2004) identified four common themes that run through much of leadership theory: process influence group context goal attainment. Based on this analysis, leadership in the third sector could simply be defined as a process whereby an individual influences a group or individuals to achieve a common goal. (Hailey, 2006) But as Hailey also points out, it is accepted that no one definition can cover all aspects of leadership. Taking a third level perspective leadership also incorporates: mobilising of others getting things done, willingly, through other people empowering others articulating vision and embodying values creating an environment within which things can be achieved shaping and sharing a vision which gives point to the work of others. Typical of the competencies commonly associated with leadership are the ability of a leader to communicate vision or strategy, inspire teams, motivate individuals, and identify opportunities and initiate transformation. It begs the question: is this any different for the third sector? Recent research for the Association of Chief Executives of Voluntary Organisations (ACEVO) 11 suggests that third sector leaders exhibit an unusually broad range of competencies compared to leaders in the public and private sectors (Bolton & Gosling, 2003). The research findings state 12 : 11 http://www.acevo.org.uk: Last Accessed 12 October 2006 12 Passionate Leadership The characteristics of outstanding leaders in the voluntary sector What sector leaders think (ACEVO, 2003) 24
As workers within the sector tend to be either low paid or voluntary staff, visionary leadership and inspiration are likely to be important aspects of the role regardless of size. The report refers to the following behavioural characteristics of third sector leaders: Emotional attachment a strong emotional affinity with the raison d etre of the organisation. A passion for its beliefs. A desire to succeed for the greater good of the organisation. A high degree of personal energy and enthusiasm for the cause. Personal integrity. trustworthiness. Strategic perspective conceptual and analytical thinking. Recognises changes in the broader environment and responds accordingly. Keeps up to date with issues/current thinking. Responds flexibly whilst remaining mindful of the core mission of the organisation. Visionary and inspirational communicator the ability to paint a picture of the future that appeals strongly to others. Shows passion and emotion in visioning and representing the work of the organisation to others. A powerful communicator in all forums from one-to-one to public speaking. Visible and seen to speak out and represent the organisation. Personal humility not in the role for self-aggrandisement. Wants to make a difference through others rather than by themselves. Motivating a team being seen to understand the problems of and support staff and/or volunteers in their work on the ground. Networking a structured yet opportunistic approach to identifying those whose support could be useful to the organisation and seeking effective relationships with them. Maintaining and building those relationships appropriately to increase the effectiveness of their own organisation. Actively engaging in groups/on committees that will usefully further personal network. At the higher levels, building alliances with other organisations to work together to fulfil mutual objectives. Influencing a strong desire and capacity for influencing others to further the mission of the organisation. Includes high level influencing building coalitions, influencing through 3 rd parties, etc. Politically astute: knows where the power lies and how to influence it. Resilience an ability to bounce back quickly after setbacks; dealing with personal and emotive criticism that may be made public. Self confidence 25
confident in highly visible and stressful situations (eg) public forum, debates, media. Person presentation: fulfilling the ambassador role confidently at all levels both internally and externally. Courage to take tough and unpopular decisions, to acknowledge when one has got things wrong. Customer service orientation a genuine empathy with the end-user and a focus on service delivery. An appetite for the detail of providing quality service. Knowledge of subject matter sufficient knowledge to represent the charity credibly and to show empathy with staff, volunteers and beneficiaries. In large part because of the complexity that leadership demands, Civicus, an international alliance of civil society organisations, has identified the lack of NGO leadership talent and this is of course seen as a matter of particular concern (Civicus, 2002) 13. One of the reason for this is that the sector s leaders need a rare balance of inward-looking (management) and outward-looking (influencing) skills, with exceptional communication and networking skills, as well as resilience and emotional intelligence. International research into the character and capabilities of third sector leaders in developing countries also supports these conclusions (Hailey & Smiley, 2001; James 2005). What is striking from any review of this research is the variety of different roles that such leaders have to play whatever the culture or context. Their success is partly determined by their ability to play different roles and adapt different leadership styles. They can be characterised as being valuedriven, knowledge-based, and responsive (Hailey & Smiley, 2001). Just as NICVA has argued in Leading the Way, they display an extraordinary range of skills and competencies. One of the issues for third sector leaders, supported by NGO research, is the way that successful third sector leaders must manage the tensions inherent in being both a strong individual lead while still appearing to be highly participative in they way they manage. It may seem somewhat counter-intuitive that third sector organisations need to be both highly participative and yet accept the presence and role of a strong leader. At first glance, the concepts of leadership and participation seem incompatible and yet what the research shows is that strong leadership and participatory management can be complementary and compatible. Looking back at the literature review and applying the theoretical models, it is certain that third sector leaders need to be adaptive in style, build strong follower relationships and envision the future as a motivator. Collins (2005, p10) in his monograph on the social sector tackled the question of difference between leadership across sectors saying:- Social sector leaders are not less decisive than business leaders as a general rule; they only appear that way to those who fail to grasp the 13 Civicus, (Aug 2002) Connecting Civil Society Worldwide, Newsletter No 175, Johannesburg 26
complex governance and diffuse power structures common to social sectors. There is now a small, but growing body of research into the challenges faced by third sector leaders in the uncertain and volatile political and economic environment of the developing world (Lewis, 2001; Hailey & James, 2004). Drawing on these bodies of work, we are better informed it of leadership types and the distinguishing the mix of skills and competencies needed by third sector leaders whatever the environment in which they operate. John Hailey develops the concept of what he calls catalytic leaders who typically act strategically and have the ability to promote and implement change. They demonstrate the capacity to take a longer-term strategic view while balancing tough decisions as to strategic priorities with organisational values and identity. Their success as change agents depends on their ability to delegate work to talented colleagues, so freeing time to invest in social capital building networks. The question of how to assess what leadership type is best suited to the demands facing the third sector in the future maybe partly addressed by the degree to which leaders engage internally or externally, and the effectiveness of their ability to manage performance. Hailey (2004) suggests that third sector leaders: with their ability to both engage with the external world and manage performance are the type of leader that future leadership development programmes should be promoting and encouraging. In a noteworthy conclusion, Collins (2005) reaffirms his findings that Level 5 leaders differ from Level 4 in that they are ambitious first for the cause, the mission and not for themselves and they have the will to see through a strategy to accomplish the mission. This combination of personal humility and professionalism is a key factor in creating legitimacy and influence. He goes on the say: Level 5 ledaership is not about being soft or nice or purely inclusive or consensus-building. The whole point of Level 5 is to make the right decisions happen no matter how difficult or painful for the long term greatof the institution and the accomplishment of its mission, independent of consensus or popularity. Can Leadership be Learned? Having knowledge of leadership and knowing what makes one person a better practicing leader than another will not be of real use in driving performance improvement unless people are able to learn from this and change their behaviours accordingly. Adair was probably the first to demonstrate that leadership is a trainable, transferable skill, rather than it being an exclusively inborn ability. In Great Leaders (1989) he suggests that, The common sense conclusion of this book is that leadership potential can be developed, but it does have to be there in the first place 27
According to Capowski, Leaders are not born. Leaders are made, and they are made by effort and hard work. 14 In other words, everyone has the basic seeds of leadership within them and how these are developed and cultivated will determine whether leadership qualities develop in an individual. It has been argued that more leaders have been made by accident, circumstance, sheer grit, or will than have been made by all the leadership courses put together. Leadership courses can only teach skills. They cannot teach character or vision 15 He goes on the say that, The ingredients of leadership cannot be taught, however. They must be learned. It is argued that learning how to be a leader is a highly personal process dependent on the particular background of the individual. Leadership is about creating a compelling vision, and influencing people so that they want to follow that vision, however, it is also about softer people skills and these need to be learnt also. People also need to learn how to lead in today s ever-changing environment, i.e. how to empower, to facilitate change, and to challenge the status quo. Just as with most skills, leadership needs to be practised and refined. This requires a combination of feedback and self-knowledge to help maximise this feedback and learn effectively. As Bennis says, people begin to become leaders at the moment they decide for themselves how to be. 16 The key to unlocking leadership is learning and as Bennis and Nanus, authors of Leaders, found of the ninety leaders they studied they regard almost:- every false step as a learning opportunity and not the end of the world. 17 There is a range of ways to transfer knowledge within an organisation and because tacit knowledge is associated with largely uncoded know-how and know-who it can be difficult to achieve the learning needed to enable and empower others. The real trick is to get deep smarts (i.e. those people with an extensive experience repertoire) to transfer knowledge and according to Leonard and Swap (2004) this requires practice, observation, problem solving and experimentation to be effective. It will require a variety of approaches as 14 Capowski, Genevieve, Anatomy of a Leader: Where are the Leaders of Tomorrow? Management Review (March 1994), p 12. 15 Bennis (2003, p34). 16 Bennis (2003, p34). 17 Bennis W., and Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York: Harpers & Row 28