QUALITY OF DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES GUIDELINES: 10YEARS OF RELEVANCE TO THE SECTOR. APM Moolman* and D Winter** *Water Research Commission, PBag X03, Gezina, 0031; Tel :012 3300340; Fax:012 3312565; email:annatjiem@wrc.org.za ** Frost & Sullivan. Abstract: The WRC provides leadership for water-related research and development and engages stakeholders and partners in solving a wide variety of water related problems. The WRC has embarked upon a number of studies to the impact of its research programmes and resulting products and their respective benefits to the country, one such is a review on domestic water quality research. The Quality of Domestic Water Supplies guideline series of five volumes have had an important impact across South African society. The assessment and sampling guidelines were found to be the most useful guidelines in the water treatment sector, and also used by the public, whilst the other three guidelines were designed for more specialized groups of people. The guidelines have also been used to develop resource quality objectives and thus form an essential part of the implementation of integrated water resource management. Equipment sales, training and the enhancement of skills and education purposes are some of the economic benefits that the South African society has derived from using the guidelines. A significant number of water service authorities are using the guidelines as training manual which have helped to enhance the level of skills in the water treatment industry, while tertiary institutions are using the guidelines as reference material for students. Employment creation and community education are some of the social benefits that have been derived from using the guidelines. Non- governmental and environmental organizations have been using the guidelines for training purposes and capacity building workshops with local communities. From a health perspective, an improved level of water quality was identified as a key impact area. All of the impacts identified during this project indicate that the Quality of Domestic Water Quality guidelines have had a positive impact across economic, social, health and environmental aspects of South Africa. Even 10 years after the publication of volume one the series remained useful and relevant.
1. INTRODUCTION. South Africa is a water scarce country and the South African Government has from 1994 made special efforts to the provision of safe and adequate drinking water to all South Africans. In search of better health for all South Africa s people, the following three objectives are of primary importance: Water resource management, waste treatment and a safe public water supply. These objectives are corner stones of the South African Constitution and are supportyes by a sound legal framework in terms of the National Water Act (Act No 36 of 1998), the Water Services Act (Act No 108) of 1997) as well as the Health Act ( Act No 63 of 1977). There was and still is a need to utilise available water resources efficiently to ensure its availability for all South Africans. Urbanization and industrialisation rates have escalated significantly during the past fifteen years and South Africa s population is growing, which places significant pressure on existing sources of water and water treatment plants. South Africa has subscribed to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) regarding access to water and sanitation. Some of these goals, which need to be met by 2015, are focused on access to potable water, but without innovative management solutions it is unlikely that they will be met. However, the laudable goal of ensuring that all South Africans will have access to safe potable water supply will only be achievable if reliable and timely information is made available to effectively manage the relevant water supply systems. In line with these the Water Research Commission (WRC) has conducted numerous research projects on the subject of domestic water quality. In an effort to retain and strengthen its position as a value for money institution delivering research and innovations that contribute to sociocultural, economic, political, technical and environmental aspects in South Africa, the WRC has embarked upon a number of studies to assess the impact of its research programmes and resulting products and their benefits to the country. The WRC has commissioned international growth consulting company Frost & Sullivan to support it on a review of selected research products / programmes, one of which is within the area of domestic water quality related research. The five user-friendly Quality of Domestic Water Supplies guidelines have been decided upon as the main reports that would be thoroughly scrutinized during this investigation. These guidelines focus on various aspects of assessment, sampling, analyses, treatment and managing of domestic water quality. This study aimed to derive to the value of these guidelines from its mere development from a guide that was needed and developed to aid in the decision on the water quality of boreholes drilled by the government to provide water to rural communities to its current value in the provision of safe water to the increasing population. The need for a user friendly guide to facilitate evaluation of the health- related quality of water supplies was identified as a priority by both the Departments of Health ( D0H), the Water Affairs (and Forestry) (DWA(F), and WRC. This resulted in the first edition of A Guide for the Health-Related Assessment of the Quality of Water Supplies in 1996
and endorsed by the then Minister of DWAF, Dr Kadar Asmal. The first edition of the Guide was published as a consultative document and to accommodate the numerous constructive comments and input received from individuals and organisations that have found the Guide usefull, it was revised and a new edition published in 1998 as Quality of Domestic Water Supplies, Volume 1: Assessment Guide. Particular attention has been paid to ensure a user-friendly Guide, aimed at water service developers and suppliers, workers in the health- related fields, and at the communities themselves. This guide was intended to provide a basis for the planning of water supply schemes in the assessment of the quality of the water supplied, as well as a tool to create an understanding of the concepts of behind water quality. The Guide allows for the quality of water supplied for domestic use to be assessed by using a simple, colour-coded classification system. The system shows the nature of the effects of water quality on the domestic user for a range of concentration values for those substances commonly encountered in water. The Guide is presented in a simplified format so that a wide spectrum of users of the Guide will be able to understand the underlying concepts of water quality. During the development of the first Guide it was realized that there was a need for capacity building and with this in mind the team continue with the collaboration on the venture to produce a series of user-friendly guidelines. The second guide, Volume 2: Sampling Guide, in the series was specifically aimed at explaining the concepts related to the correct sampling procedure that must be followed to collect a representative water quality sample from a water supply intended for domestic use. Information given includes the why, where and how to take a sample, as well as guidance how to plan a sampling programme. The third volume, the Analysis Guide, is aimed at explaining the concepts related to the laboratory analytical techniques that are often viewed as mysterious alchemy and a closed book by non-technical experts and managers alike and therefore the guide attempting to explain some of the more basic concepts of analytical science, and conditions necessary to perform a valid analysis. It was also developed to serve as an educational tool to inspire more of our young people to study the science of measuring and analysis and to ensure the supply of a skilled work-force so necessary for reaching the goal of safe drinking water for all. Volume 4: Treatment Guide is focused on explaining the principles of sound treatment and the processes by which as safe potable water supply is produced, not going into the technical details of the different treatment methods, but rather to provide general information on aspects such as the suitability of processes for different types of water and the limitations and relative costs of different processes. This guide intends to empower people in developing solutions and to make informed decisions about the selection of treatment processes to treat the water and to manage the treatment plants to ensure sustainability of the water supplies.
The Management Guide is the fifth in the series on the Quality of Domestic Water Supplies and should be used in conjunction with the other Guides, and it refers specifically to the Assessment Guide (Volume 1) and the Treatment Guide (Volume 4). Figure 1 depicts the time frame during which the five guidelines were published by the WRC Quality of Domestic Water Supplies Guidelines 1998 Volume 1; Assessment Guide: This guide was first published in 1998, and the second edition was released in 1999. 2000 Volume 2; Sampling Guide: The first, second and third editions were published in 2000, 2001 and 2003 respectively. 2001 Volume 3; Analysis Guide: The first edition was published in 2001 and the second edition in 2003. 2002 Volume 4; Treatment Guide: The first edition was released in 2002. 2002 Volume 5; Management Guide: The first edition was published in 2002. Figure 1. Guidelines publication dates (WRC TT 416/09). 2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of the project was to provide the WRC and its stakeholders with a concise assessment of the impact (to date and future potential impact) of the WRC Quality of Domestic Water Supplies guidelines research investmens and products on social cultural, economic, health, technical and environmental aspects of South African society. The specific objectives were to map the full extent of water quality funded by the WRC since 1971; to outline the application(to date and future) of the research and products in South Africa (and internationally if relevant); to detemine the impact of the research and products; and to relate the outcomes /impact of the developed products to a common measure such as Rand value of research product impact 3. METHODOLOGY This project considers and evaluates all research projects and products (defined as: reports, guidelines, publications, techniques, methodologies, software, hardware, equipment, plant and registered patents) developed by the WRC since 1971 which relate to domestic water quality for the background information but has been narrowed down to look specifically to the impact of the
five volume series of Quality of Domestic Water Supplies. To conduct the study, Frost & Sullivan utilizes tried and tested marketing techniques to provide structure to the research and its results, which allows the effective analysis, review and comparison against industry benchmarks. The project was carried out using primary research (telephone or face-to-face interviews) and secondary (published and online material) research as the principle methods of data gathering. The report, Domestic Water Quality Research Impact Assessment ( WRC TT 416/09) is in print and only a broad overview will be given to results obtained in the study in this article. A total of 32 interviews have been conducted with the primary groups of participants such as local authorities and water boards (15), tertiary institutions (5) and water consulting firms (4). Other groups included researchers (4), non-governmental organizations(ngos) (1) and government departments (3). The WRC guidelines have been used by tertiary institutions, water research consultants, local authorities and other water services providers in different water-related applications. Certain impacts are simply defined, assessed and quantified; however, there are particular instances where the assessment and quantification of impacts is more difficult and in cases where a perceived impact is not easily quantified a qualitative assessment is provided. The impacts can be classified according to economic, social, environmental and health aspects of society, depending on how and in what context the guidelines were utilized. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. All the improvements in water quality are not only because of the use of the WRC guidelines. Water services providers also use other water quality management tools and standards such as the South African National Standards (SANS 241) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Water services providers and many local authorities are aware of the guidelines but have never put them to proper use because they are not obliged to use them. The guidelines can also only be used in the assessment and treatment of domestic water and not for any other purposes. The diagram below indicates the portion of the water supply chain where the guidelines can be utilized. Water Supply Chain Distribution Reticulation Abstraction Water Treatment End Users End Users Wastewater Treatment Dispose End Users Recycle The WRC Quality of Domestic Water Supplies guidelines are focused on the water treatment portion of the supply chain. Figure 2. Water Supply Chain (WRC TT 416/09).
4.1 Economic impact: The current and potential economic impact of the WRC guidelines on South African society has also been evaluated to quantify the impact of the guidelines on the economy. The guidelines are being used in different water-related applications (figure 3) and quite a number of stakeholders have derived economic benefits from using these guidelines such as Water Services Providers to train plant operators and water quality managers. Local authorities that have used the WRC guidelines indicated that it has helped to alleviate the skills shortage that has been affecting the water treatment sector. Economic Impacts Domestic Water Supplies Guidelines Water Services Authorities Tertiary institutions Water Industry Consultants Domestic Water Users Water quality management tool Course material Training manual Water quality management tool Training manual Enhanced skills Equipment sales Enhanced skills Equipment sales Figure 3. Applications of the guidelines (WRC TT 416/09). Training:Tertiary institutions have been using the guidelines as course material for students who are completing water-related courses and this has helped to bridge the gap between the inexperienced graduates that tertiary institutions have been producing and the skilled personnel required in the water industry and has helped equip students with the necessary skills required and most graduates have easily found work. Water services providers, water consulting firms, local authorities and water boards have been using the guidelines for an internal training manual and induction training to equip plant operators and water quality managers with the necessary skills required. Water industry consultants have been using the WRC guidelines to train members of the public, municipalities and other relevant stakeholders who deal with water-related issues. A number of seminars / workshops have been held by private consultants to train water quality managers and plant operators. The guidelines have been used as the primary reference material and have been found to be an effective training tool. DWA(F) using the guidelines for training purposes with water service providers. However, certain stakeholders are not using the guidelines for the following reasons: the municipalities have never received the guidelines and are not aware of their existence, others municipalities have received the guidelines but have not put them to proper use and some have indicated that the guidelines were not designed for bulk water treatment plants and find the guidelines too simple for their operations.
Table 1. Some of the water services providers that are using the guidelines (WRC TT 416/09) Water Service Authorities Application Scientific Services (City of Capetown) Water quality management Internal training manual Moses Kotane Municipality Water quality management Ndlambe Municipality Training manual for plant operators Adjunk Municipality Water quality management Midvaal Water Laboratory Water quality management Kungwini Municipality Water quality management Reference manual for students on industrial attachment Umgeni Water Water quality management Sedibeng Water Training material for community based organisations (CBOs) Training manual for students on industrial attachment *Mvula Trust (NGO) Training of CBOs and members of the community Policy formulation Hessequa Municipality Water quality management Ladysmith Municipality Water quality management Durban Metro Water quality management Induction training Training manual for students on industrial attachment International training: The guidelines were also used on two occasions outside South Africa. In 2007, the South African government decided to extend help to the countries that had been affected by the Tsunami disaster and these included Sri Lanka, Somalia and the Maldives Islands. As part of this initiative, a training workshop on Water Resource Management was conducted in the Maldives Islands. This was done against the background that there are no roads and rivers in the Maldives, groundwater is the only source of water and is vulnerable to contamination. Nineteen people participated in the training workshops which consisted of mainly young people. The Assessment guide was used as the main reference material for this workshop and each participant was given a copy of the guideline. In 2004, BKS Consulting Engineers conducted a training workshop on Water Supply and Sanitation to the Ugandan Ministry of Water and Environment. The workshop targeted personnel from the laboratory at Entebbe where water samples are analyzed and the quality assessed. The assessment guide was used as the main reference material for this one-day course and each of the 20 participants
got a copy of the guideline on completion of the workshop. A full set of all the guidelines was given to the Director. Equipment and treatment: The use of the guidelines in some municipalities has also contributed to water treatment equipment sales. For municipalities that have been experiencing water problems, the use of the guidelines has, to a large extent, contributed to the setting up of water treatment plants in those areas, such as Ndlambe in the Eastern Cape and Ladysmith in the Western Cape.These communities are able to operate their small-scale plants through the use of the guidelines to monitor and manage their domestic water quality. Education and awareness: In addition, the WRC has received requests for the Assessment and Sampling guides from farmers and other owners of small-scale water treatment plants. 4.2. Social impacts: Social benefits have arisen from the use of the guidelines through access to better water quality, employment creation, enhanced skill levels and hence improved living standards. However, in instances where authorities have not been using the guidelines, there have been outbreaks of water-borne diseases which have resulted in the loss of lives Social Impacts Domestic Water Supplies Guidelines Social Benefits Employment creation Social Costs Loss of life Community education Figure 4: Social benefits and cost implications (WRC TT 416/09). Community training: NGOs focusing on water, sanitation and environmental issues use the guidelines to train community-based organizations and members of the community on how to manage domestic water quality. Mvula Trust and Sedibeng Water are some of the organizations that have been using the guidelines for community-based training and capacity building. The guidelines were used as the main reference material in those workshops In June 2008 the Durban Metro received complaints from members of the community that their domestic water was discoloured. It was discovered that the water colour was turning brown because of the rising level of manganese. The local authority used the guidelines to explain to members of the community what this meant and how it was going to affect them. The guidelines helped to solve the problem quickly and effectively. Water service providers: Durban Metro, Sedibeng Water and Kungwini Municipalities use the guidelines as a training manual for students who are completing internships. The students are
from universities such as Durban University of Technology, Mangosuthu University of Technology, Tshwane University of Technology and other technical universities across the country. The guidelines are being used for induction training as well for reference material during the students internship period. Student training: Tertiary institutions in South Africa are using the guidelines as course material. Civil engineering, bio-technology and other related water-subject students are equipped with the necessary skills required by the water treatment industry. This has contributed to alleviating skill shortages and further, the practical nature of the guidelines is a welcome addition to typically theory-focused curriculums. Since the use of the guidelines the students are more capable of understanding the processes and by implication it was easier for them to get employed. Table 2. Tertiary institutions using the WRC Guidelines as course material (WRC TT 416/09) Institution *Stellenbosch University *University of Pretoria Tshwane University of Technology Cape Peninsula University of Technology Total Number of students graduated between 1999 and 2008 200 60 300 300 860 Workshops / Seminars held 5 - - - 5 *Stellenbosch University and University of Pretoria started using the guidelines in 2005 and 2006 respectively Since the use of the guidelines as training material about 860 students, table 2, have been graduate and a significant amount of them are employed by DW AF, the water services authorities and private sector. Tshwane University of Technology uses the guidelines in lectures for students who are enrolled in the National Diploma in Water Care. The university has been using these guidelines since 1998 when the Assessment guide was first published. Before the guidelines were published, only the SANS 241 standards were available. The lecturers have indicated that since they started using these guidelines, their workload has reduced because they are simpler to understand and students find them to be user-friendly. The students use the guidelines mostly in their practical lessons. On completion of their diplomas, the students are given a copy of each guideline so that they may use them when working in the water sector. To date, at least 300 students have graduated and many of them have found employment at water treatment plants, laboratories and also at DWAF. Stellenbosch University is using the guidelines in the Civil Engineering Department for students who are completing courses on water and wastewater treatment. They have also used the guidelines when conducting training courses, for example, a training course on Water and Wastewater Treatment. The workshop was conducted from the 3 rd to the 6 th of November 2008 in the Western Cape and the aim of the workshop was to train engineers and water treatment managers advanced methods that are currently being used in the water industry.seventy
participants attended the workshop which included civil, electrical and chemical engineers as well as students. Municipalities, water boards and other private stakeholders were also represented. Professionals in the water treatment industry and other water consultant firms made presentions on different water-related topics. Thirty copies of each guideline were distributed during the workshop, apart from those that were distributed electronically. The guidelines were used as reference material during the workshop The Cape Peninsula University of Technology University uses the guidelines for students who are studying courses on water quality and bio-technology (purification and reclamation of water). The students use the guidelines in lectures as well as for practical lessons. Apart from the lectures, the students also use the guidelines when undertaking research projects on measuring the effectiveness of different water technologies. The university has been using the guidelines since 1998, and to date, 300 students have graduated. The University of Pretoria has been using the guidelines for the past four years as course material for students who are undertaking water treatment and environmental management studies. Of the five guidelines, they have found the Treatment and Assessment guides to be the most useful. Although the guidelines are only used as reference material, they have been found to be very useful especially for practical lessons and practical applications after the students have graduated. To date, the university has produced approximately 60 students since they started using the guidelines about four years ago. 4.3. Health impacts: The effective use of the WRC guidelines has led to improved water quality being supplied to domestic users. The guidelines have been used to interpret water quality information to determine its suitability for domestic use. In instances where domestic water quality was discovered to be poor, the guidelines have been used to assess other water treatment options available to improve water quality. The supply of high water quality to communities has also led to a reduction in the outbreaks of water-borne diseases. Health Impacts WRC Quality of Domestic Water Supplies Guidelines Health Benefits Health Costs Ideal water quality Poor water quality Sickness Cost of treatment Figure 5: Health implications (WRC TT 416/09). Water supply: Failure to use the guidelines has, in some instances, led to the supply of poor water quality to the public. Poor water quality is described by high levels of microbiological,
physical and chemical properties. High levels of chemicals and organisms in water can render it unfit for domestic use. The guidelines have been used to determine the levels of chemical substances and organisms that are acceptable for domestic water which may lead to acute or chronic health problems. The guidelines can be used to assess the presence of diseasecausing organisms and levels of chemical content in domestic water. In some instances where water authorities have failed to use the guidelines to assess the quality of water, people have fallen sick as a result of poor water quality.the effective use of the WRC guidelines has led to improved water quality being supplied to domestic users. The guidelines have been used to interpret water quality information to determine its suitability for domestic use. In instances where domestic water quality was discovered to be poor, the guidelines have been used to assess other water treatment options available to improve water quality. The supply of high water quality to communities has also led to a reduction in the outbreaks of water-borne diseases. Environmental impacts: The guidelines have been used to develop resource quality objectives (in these case water quality objectives) for river catchment management. These resource quality objectives describe the desired state of the water resource and are therefore measurable management goals. These, in turn, are used to determine the standards to which treated effluent and other waste discharges have to comply. In this way the domestic water quality guidelines form an essential part of the implementation of integrated water resource management. 5. CONCLUSIONS The Quality of Domestic Water Supplies guideline series have had an important impact across the social, economic, health and environmental impacts areas of South African Domestic Water Quality Supplies. Assessing impacts of this nature is not always straightforward, however clear impacts were identified. The assessment and sampling guidelines were found to be the most useful guidelines in the water treatment sector. Whilst these two guidelines can be used by the public, it was felt that the other three guidelines were designed for more specialized groups of people. Volumes I, 2 and 3 were amongst the most popular reports distributed during the 2008 financial year. From an economic perspective, equipment sales, training and the enhancement of skills and education purposes are some of the economic benefits that the South African society has derived from using the guidelines. A significant number of water service authorities are using the guidelines as training manual which have helped to enhance the level of skills in the water treatment industry, while tertiary institutions are using the guidelines as reference material for students. Employment creation and community education are some of the social benefits that have been derived from using the guidelines. The guidelines have been found to be user-friendly, even to non-scientific readers, and the colour coding approach has helped people to quickly grasp concepts of water quality assessment and management. Non- governmental and environmental organizations have been using the guidelines for training purposes and capacity building workshops with local communities.
From a health perspective, an improved level of water quality was identified as a key impact area. In cases where the guidelines have not been used there have been reported cases of poor water quality that have led to infant deaths and illness. On the environmental side, the use of the guidelines has been acknowledged as an integral and important part of integrated water quality management bringing the inter-related water quality of the resource, treated effluent and other waste discharges standards and management, and the treatment and cost implications of domestic water quality into perspective. In this way the domestic water quality guidelines form an essential part of the implementation of integrated water resource management. All of the impacts identified during this project indicate that the Quality of Domestic Water Quality guidelines have had a positive impact across the economic, social, health and environmental aspects of South African society. REFERENCES 1. WRC TT 101/98, Quality of domestic water supplies. Volume 1: Assessment guide (1998) 2. WRC TT 117/00, Quality of domestic water supplies, Volume 2: Sampling guide (2000) 3. WRC TT 129/00, Quality of domestic water supplies: Volume 3: Analysis guide (2000) 4. WRC TT162/01, Quality of domestic water supplies. Volume 5: Management Guide (2001) 5. TT 181/02 Quality of domestic water supplies: Volume 4: Treatment guide2002