Origins of Criminal Behavior: Learning and Situational Factors Origins of Criminal Behaviour Learning & Situational Factors Behaviour is not shaped by instincts or the unconscious, but almost entirely by the environment. Learning = a change in pre-existing behaviour or mental processes that occurs as a result of experience. Behavioural theorists believe that only observable overt behaviour is an appropriate topic for study (not presumed mental states). Because each of us has a unique learning history we each have a unique personality. Personality is the "the end product of our habit system. Three Types of Learning Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning) Instrumental Learning (Operant Conditioning) Social Learning 1
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Pavlov s dog, Little Albert. Deviant sexual arousal as a form of conditioning? Presenting the CS in the absence of the UCS leads to extinction. Passive, automatic learning Operant Conditioning Begins with a spontaneous behaviour, from which the organism must learn the consequences of it s behavioural choice. (a.k.a. instrumental learning) Positive reinforcement: behaviour which is rewarded contingent upon it s presentation is more likely to occur again in the future. Negative reinforcement: target behaviour increases with the removal of a negative stimulus. Positive punishment: decrease a behaviour with the introduction of a negative stimulus. Negative punishment: decreases a behaviour with the removal of a reward. Many criminal behaviours may be learned through cost/benefit analysis and positive reinforcement. The consistency or rate of reinforcement and the temporal contiguity are very important. 2
Checklist for Effective Punishment Must be of maximal intensity Must be immediate Must be consistent There must be no escape or reinforced alternatives The balance of cost must outweigh the balance of benefit Must be aversive to the individual Andrews & Bonta, 2006 Who Does Punishment Work With? future orientated; non-impulsive average to above average IQ minimal punishment history not a thrill-seeker or prone to boredom Why Doesn t Punishment Work? 1. Suppresses Behaviour Without a rewarding prosocial alternative what do you do differently? 2. Sanctions are general to the behaviour and not specific to what causes it, and thus fail to address criminogenic needs 3. Sanctions are insufficient to offset the immediacy, frequency and sometimes magnitude of rewards for criminal behaviour 3
Eysenck and Conditioning Believes that classical conditioning more important than operant conditioning. The small number of actual convictions for crime would suggest that most people get away with it, thus rewarding the behaviour. It should then increase overall. Inconsistencies in sentencing (punishment) and long waits for prosecution (contiguous) should interfere with decreasing behaviour through punishment, thus encouraging criminal behaviour. E.g., a small child stealing a cookie from the kitchen, punishment by the parent elicits an unconditioned response, whereby the child is upset and feels uncomfortable. After a number of similar "learning trials," the thought of stealing the cookie will elicit an uncomfortable feeling in the child, which acts to avert the child from enacting the "theft." Eysenck and Conditioning Guilt and fear as a conditioned reflex to parental punishment of inappropriate behaviour keeps people in check. Conditioned conscience may prevent the execution of misdeeds, and instil guilt after an inappropriate act. Those who condition poorly (extraverts) or who did not have the opportunity to learn (socialization) will be more likely to engage in criminal activity. Social Learning Theory: Basic Premises Behaviour is learned How is it learned? In a social way, from watching others Who is it learned from: Environment Family Peers Co-workers What maintains it? Rewards and costs 4
Social Learning - Ackers Pull together Skinner s operant conditioning, Bandura s social learning, and Sutherland s differential association theories into differential association-reinforcement theory. The preponderance of antisocial messages from contacts are what s important in Sutherland s theory, thus even positive contacts may reinforce negative messages (e.g., parents using radar detector, keeping extra change, etc.). Behaviour is a function of the amount, frequency, and probability of reinforcement the individual has experienced in the past. Acceptance of the influence of both social and non-social reinforcers (e.g., praise for stealing the car, and monetary reward from the activity). Group or subgroup norms for behaviour serves as a discriminative stimuli for what is likely to be rewarded or punished. Positive discriminating stimuli Neutralizing discriminative stimuli The Cognitive Model Event (perception) Belief System Interpretation (meaning) Thoughts (self-talk) Past Experience Feelings (information) Behaviour (choice) Primary Thinking Error : Mind Set G. M. Sykes & D. Matza (1957) A.Q. Barriga & J.C. Gibbs (1996) Entitlement: giving higher priority to your own views, expectations, needs, rights, immediate feelings and desires to such a degree that the rights and needs of others are disrespected or ignored; Self-Centred Neutralizations are thoughts we use which neutralize conscience or guilt about anti-social actions. We may use these Neutralizations before the anti-social act to justify, or after to excuse our selves. Anti-Social Actions Denial Of Responsibility Denial Of Injury Denial Of Victim Condemnation of the Condemners: System Bashing Appeal To Higher Loyalties Victim Stance Neutralizations : Justification and Excuse 5
Family of Origin Attitudes / Values Beliefs / Feelings Favorable to Crime Immediate Situation Criminal Behaviour Neighborhood Definition of Situations: Balance of rewards/costs for criminal behaviour Gender Criminal Associates (sub-culture norms) Age Conventional Ambition & Performance (i.e., school, work) Intimate Relations (affective quality commitment / bond) Temperament / Verbal Aptitude / Socialization / Self-Management Ability / Conduct Problems Andrews & Bonta, 2006 Perspective Taking, Empathy, and Guilt Piaget, Kohlberg, and others have described a developmental process moving from early egocentrism to later capacity for role-taking. the ability to understand someone else's experience from their perspective vs. how we would experience the same situation. Empathy builds upon this capacity to include the ability to respond to their feelings. does this help to explain sex differences in criminality? Guilt as a sense of remorse for having done something wrong (vs. shame). causal attribution of responsibility for another s plight to the self Other Deficiencies Interpersonal Problem Solving Problem definition, goal setting, brainstorming, evaluating, solution selection, implementation, evaluation Impacted by impulsivity, empathy/perspective taking, goal directedness, self-control Social Skills listening, apologizing, expressing feelings, responding to teasing, keeping out of fights, making a complaint, responding to failure. 6
Frustration-Induced Criminality Leonard Berkowitz Two main criminal personalities 1. Socialized Learning, conditioning, modeling 2. Individual Frustration due to unmet needs High expectancy of meeting a goal Situational Instigators and Regulators Fundamental Attribution Error Discount the influence of the situation Behavior is explained by disposition or personality Attributes of others Self-Serving Bias Attribute positive to ourselves Negative to outside forces Situational Instigators and Regulators Crimes of Obedience Act in response to authority Milgram experiments Personality and moral development may account for resistance to authority 7
Situational Instigators and Regulators Deindividuation Philip Zimbardo Loss of individuality and self-imposed controls in crowds Complex chain of events feelings of anonymity loss of identity and part of group loss of self-awareness and reduced self-concern of judgment and culpability lower self-restraint Stanford Prison Experiment Situational Instigators and Regulators Moral Disengagement Albert Bandura Adolescent boys Crowd Violence Collective behavior that instigates or maintains violence 8