Livelihood Profile Tigray Region, Ethiopia Draft February 2007 1 Zone Description Adiabo lowland livelihood zone is a vast, sparsely populated zone that is in Laelay Adiabo, Tahtay Adiabo, Asgede Tsimbla and Tselemti woredas. It shares a border with Eritrea to the north, Amhara region to the south, and Kafta Humera and Welkait to the west. This is a dry, lowland zone (kolla), with high temperatures. The topography is predominantly plains in the east and hills in the south west. The area has good vegetation cover, made up of bush scrubs, and scattered acacia and gum trees. The Tekeze river crosses the zone at a narrow point and then forms the zone s western boarder with the Humera Sesame & Sorghum zone. Annual rainfall is 350-750mm per year and falls from mid June to early September. Residents of the zone drink water from hand dug wells. Agriculture is rainfed and 100% Meher dependant. Rainfall is relatively dependable as compared to the center and east of Tigray. This is a mixed farming zone that produces both food and cash crops along with livestock production. The area has moderately fertile clay soils that require natural and chemical fertilizers to give a good harvest. The fertility of the soil deteriorates southwards towards Asegede Tsimbla and Tselemti. Cultivation is done using ox drawn plows. The main crops grown for consumption are sorghum, finger millet and maize. Surplus sorghum and millet are put on the market destined for Gonder and Axum. Sesame is the main cash crop and is produced for export. The major export markets are the Middle East, China and Japan. A smaller amount of sesame is sold locally in Mekelle. Sesame production is an important source of agricultural labor, especially for weeding and harvesting activities. The zone plays host to workers from eastern and central Tigray, though in smaller number than the neighboring Humera sesame and sorghum zone. Sufficient land availability, fertile soil and even rainfall combine to make this area a food surplus zone. The main hazards affecting crop production are crop pests and diseases; in particular the cereals attacking stalk borer and striga weed. Treatment for stalk borer is available from the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development for a modest fee. Livestock production is a major component of the livelihood system. The main livestock types are cattle, goats and sheep. Livestock are important for draft power and as an income source. Livestock herd sizes are substantial, supported by ample pasture in the Tekeze gorge. Pasture and good rainfall make for relatively high milk production and extended lactation periods from the Bagayit cattle breed. Young boys do livestock herding. In the wet season, livestock drink from minor rivers and seasonal pools and from the Tekeze river during the dry season. Shoats are the most commonly sold livestock. Shoat sale and slaughter is highest during the festive seasons in April (Easter/Fasika), September (New Year s/meskerem) and December (Christmas/Gena). Shoats are usually sold 8-12 months after birth. Productive cattle such as oxen and mature females are rarely sold. Cattle ownership is valued for protecting households through the fairly substantial income that can be earned from their sale during bad years. Cattle are usually sold after 4 years of age. Cattle purchase is uncommon. Oxen and mature females are replaced from within the herd. Better off households sometimes own a donkey and/or a camel, which are important for labor and transportation. The main livestock diseases are lump skin disease and goat pox. Treatment is generally available from the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) for cash. Other economic activities in the region are gum arabic production and gold panning in the river beds. Gold panning is mainly between July and August during the rainy season and also in October and November. The area has marble resources, which are currently exploited by private companies. The very poor and poor households are beneficiaries of the Productive Safety Nets Program (PSNP). PSNP was initiated in 1997 (E.C) and distributes cash to protect assets of the chronically poor households. Beneficiaries are provided cash distributions for six 1 Fieldwork for the current profile was undertaken in February 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005- August 2006 (EC 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The exchange rate January 2006 1USD = 8.676ETB.
months: households with labor are involved in public works activity for a daily wage and households without labor are supported through direct cash support. The strength of the livelihood zone lies in adequate availability of land for crop production, abundant pasture for livestock and an agro-ecology conducive for the production of sesame for income. These are complimented by a good road network to facilitate market activity in the zone. Markets The major cash crop is sesame. Sesame is traded from November to January. Local farmers sell to traders for 450 ETB per quintal (100kg). Sesame is exported to Sudan through Humera. From Sudan, part of the crop is further exported to the Middle East. An additional trade route takes the sesame through Addis Ababa to the Djibouti port, to be exported to China and Japan. Sorghum and millet are sold in the post harvest season from December to March to central and eastern Tigray and to Mekelle and Gondar. Both commodities are transported through intermediate markets in May Tsebri, Shire, Axum and Adwa. Sorghum is imported into the local markets from the Amhara region during the hunger season which occurs from July to August. Beans are imported from Gondar throughout the year and bought in to the local markets. The main livestock trade is in shoats. Shoats supplied from May Tsebri are sold in Gondar and Shire. Sheraro supplies shoats both for local sales in Shire and also for export to Sudan via Adi Hageray and Humera. Local shoat sales generally increase during festival periods in April (Easter/Fasika), September (New Year/Meskerem) and January (Christmas/Gena). Cattle traders in Sheraro sell to Axum, Adwa and Raya, and also export to Sudan through Humera. Butter is the most commonly traded livestock product. Butter is mainly sold from July and August and is supplied from Sheraro and goes through markets in Adwa, and Adigrat for sale in Mekelle and Abiyadi. May Tsebri also supplies butter to Gondar and Shire. Good road infrastructure facilitates the inflow of traders and commodities into the livelihood zone. Nearly all residents of the zone seek wage employment in the local area with less than 5% going outside the zone to Humera in July and October for sesame weeding and harvesting labor. Seasonal Calendar Rainy Seasons Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Meher Legend Weeding planting cons. green harvest Land Preparation Sorghum Finger Millet Maize Sesame Crop sales Livestock sales Livestock in-heat Livestock births Milk production Other Local labour Gold panning Food purchase Hunger season Malaria cattle Dry Season cattle and shoats 2 There are four seasons, namely Hagai (winter) from January to March, Azmera (spring) from April to June, Tsidia/ Kiremti (summer rains) from July to September and Kewua/ (Autumn/ harvest time) from October to December. Agriculture is 100% dependant on the Kiremti Meher (long) rains that last from June to September. The crops in the zone are considered to be long and short cycle crops. The main crops produced are sorghum, millet and maize. Land preparation begins in April/May and planting follows soon thereafter. The consumption year begins in September with green consumption of maize. The main crop harvest takes place in October and November. Crop sales begin soon after harvest. Sesame sales run from November to January while maize and millet are sold from December to March. During the dry season, there is in-migration of livestock from other parts of Tigray for pasture in the Tekeze gorge. The onset of rain in June marks the beginning of the milk production and butter sales. Good rains and pasture availability provide the zone with an extended lactation period that lasts up to 6 months. Livestock births take place just before the start of the rainy season. All livestock is sold in January, April, June and September. Shoats are mostly traded during the festival season in April, September and January. Demand for oxen is in June and July when land preparation increases the need for draft power. The hunger season is relatively short, lasting only two months from July to August. During this period, most households purchase their food. Therefore, the search for income is important. Livestock sales, butter sales and agriculture labor are the main sources of income during this period. The very poor depend most on agricultural employment. Food purchases last until September when green consumption of maize breaks the hunger season. The agricultural season is the main source of wage labor, providing land preparation, weeding and harvesting opportunities. Out-migration is uncommon, but residents will migrate in the event of a bad year. Malaria
outbreaks are associated with the offset of rain from September to November. Wealth Breakdown Wealth Groups Characteristics HH size Land owned Land area cultivated Livestock Holding Very Poor 4-6 8-9 timads 3-5 timads 5-7 hens, 6-8 shoats Poor 4-6 8-9 timads 6-7 timads 0-2 oxen, 2-3 cattle,8.5-10.5 shoats, 0-2 donkeys, 6-8 hens Middle 6-8 8-10 timads 8-13 timads 1-3 oxen, 8.5-12.5 cattle, 25-33 shoats, 0-2 donkeys, 8-10 hens Better-off 6-8 8-10 timads 10-17 timads 3-5 oxen, 19.5-23.5 cattle, 38-49 shoats, 1-2 donkeys, 8-10 hens 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% % of population *4 timads= 1 hectare The main determinants of wealth are size of land cultivated and the number of cattle owned, particularly plow oxen. The very poor, poor, middle and better off cultivate 3-5, 6-7, 8-13 and 10-17 timads respectively. All wealth groups prioritize food crop cultivation and commit most land to the production of sorghum and millet. Households only invest in sesame production (a higher value crop) after sufficient land has been planted with food crops. The amount of land used for cash crop cultivation ranges from 0-1 timads for the very poor, 0-3 timads for the poor, 2-4 timads for the middle to 4-6 timads for the better-off. All wealth groups produce the same food crops, sorghum, maize and millet. To get access to additional land for cultivation, the middle and better off rent-in about 2 and 4.5 timads respectively. The very poor and poor rent out approximately 4.5 and 2 timads respectively. Land preparation is done using oxen, and so access to draft power is important for production. The very poor do not have oxen. The very poor and poor rent out land because they do not have oxen to allow them to utilize their entire land holding. To get access to oxen, poor households sharecrop with the better off by providing one quarter of the produce for access to oxen labor. The poor, middle, and better off have 0-2, 1-3, and 3-5 oxen each. Livestock ownership is the primary means through which households accumulate assets that can be sold when emergency income is required. As such they are important protection mechanisms. Shoats are sold more often to meet the more regularly recurring expenses. The very poor have 6-8 shoats, the poor have 8-10 shoats and 2-3 cattle, the middle have 25-33 shoats and 8-12 cattle, and the better off have 38-49 shoats and 19-23 cattle. Sources of Food A good year (2005-06) The main source of food is own crop production. Staple food in the zone is sorghum. As presented in the graph, own crop production provides approximately half of the food needs for the very poor and over three quarters of the food needs of the better off. All households consume some green maize for half a month. In addition to sorghum, the main food crops are maize and millet. Food consumption from own crops increases from the very poor to the better off. In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirement s, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day. Food purchases are particularly important for the very poor and poor. The middle households also purchase some proportion of their food, though significantly less then the poor and very poor. The better off households do not purchase staple food at all. Non-staple food purchases increase from the better off to the very poor. All wealth groups purchase some non-staple food, mainly beans and sugar. The better off buy slightly more beans and sugar than the other wealth groups while the very poor do not buy any sugar. The poor, middle and better off consume livestock products. Main livestock products are butter, goats milk and shoat meat. Sources of Cash a good year (2005-06)
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source. Annual income (ETB) 2,200-2,700 2,500-3,000 3,400-3,900 5,700-6,300 4 Livestock sales contribute the largest share of income in the livelihood zone. It is particularly important for the middle and better off households. Shoats are most often sold. The very poor, poor, middle and better off sell 1-3, 2-4, 3-6 and 5-8 shoats respectively. The prices fetched for shoats tend to increase by wealth group with the very poor selling shoats for much less than the middle and. The difference in price arises from the timing and reason for the sales. The very poor and poor sales are generally unplanned sales of younger livestock done to meet an unforeseen need. The better off sell bigger shoats. The middle and better off also sell 0-2 and 1-3 cattle each. All groups sell chickens. Livestock sales are an important indicator of wealth and the sales and income increases by wealth group. Credit is another major source of income across all wealth groups. All groups are receiving loans as part of the household credit packages and use the income for livestock investment and restocking. Crop sales are another significant income source for the poor, middle and better off. The main crop sold is sesame and accounts for almost all crops sales for the very poor, about two thirds for the poor and middle and about half of the sales for the better off. The percentage contribution of sesame income to crop sales decreases with wealth group because wealthier groups also have higher cereal sales. All wealth groups sell millet, but only the poor, middle, and better off sell sorghum. For the better off, sorghum sales are quite significant. The better off sell millet for a higher price per quintal because they sell during periods of decreased crop availability in the local area. The Productive Safety-Nets Program (PSNP) is a key income source of the poor and very poor. They each have a maximum of 5 household members participating in the program, and earn a daily wage 5 times per month for 6 months. They earn a total of 900ETB. PSNP contributes approximately one third of the income for the very poor and poor. Agriculture and construction labor accounts for about one third of the income for the very poor. The poor are involved in agriculture labor for a small but significant amount of their income. Agriculture labor is available on the better-off farms mainly for sesame harvesting. Livestock products are mainly sold by the middle and better off. The main products are butter and eggs. The very poor and poor mostly sell eggs. Livestock product sales contribute to the incomes of all wealth groups particularly the middle and better off. Expenditure Patterns a good year (2005-06) A major expenditure for all wealth groups is money spent on other items, particularly livestock restocking, The better off spend less on livestock restocking as compared to the poor and middle because herd growth from the mature female cow births is adequate. The very poor, poor and middle restock primarily through purchase. The very poor and poor purchased shoats with loans received through the household credit package. The better off spend a significant amount of their essential inputs expenses on improving crop production through purchase of tools, and hiring agricultural labor. The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure.
All groups, except the better-off, purchase sorghum. Staple food purchases are the second biggest expense for the very poor. Staple food purchases start in May, peak in July and August over the hunger season, and gradually decline in September as green consumption begins and the harvest approaches. Non staple food purchases (mainly beans and/or sugar) comprise a small (less than 10%) proportion of expenditure across all wealth groups. The very poor do not buy any sugar. Non-staple expenditure increases with wealth group reflecting their higher incomes and crop production. Household items purchased include kerosene, utensils, salt, soap and grinding. All wealth groups spend more on clothes than on socia services (health/education). Other small expenditure items are tax, community obligations, and transport costs. Hazards The chronic hazards are livestock and crop pest and diseases. Main pests are the stalk borer, grass hopper and beetles. These pests affect all crops. Main livestock diseases are lump skin disease and goat box. Striga weed reduces sorghum and maize yields by close to 30%. Poor rains are an intermittent hazard that occurs once every five years. Coping Strategies The poorer wealth groups expand the search for income into firewood sales. Gold panning activities are also intensified, though it is not an activity engaged in by all households. The better off have a sizeable cattle and shoat holdings, and increase livestock sales without affecting their immediate capacity to recover from the hazard or compromising their future productive capacity. Livestock sales serve the dual purpose of increasing income and de-stocking to reduce the expenses required to maintain the herd in a bad year, either from increased diseases or decreased availability of pasture. Summary Low population density, large flat landholdings, fertile soils and good rainfall patterns combine to make this a food sufficient zone. The very poor households are cultivating an average of 3-5 timads, and the better-off cultivate up to 10-17 timads, to produce up to about half and three quarters of their household annual food needs. The main crops cultivated for consumption are sorghum, maize and millet. The remaining food requirements are met through purchasing the sorghum, beans and sugar. The productivity of the very poor is constrained by the lack of draft power. Livelihoods in this zone are further strengthened by the cultivation of sesame, a high value crop that is produced for export. Sesame sales provide the middle and better-off with a quarter of their income and even the very poor receive a significant amount of their income from sesame sales. Labor (weeding and harvesting) on the sesame farms of the middle and better-off provide the very poor with about one third of their income. Abundant pasture and availability of water for livestock supports the ownership of fairly large livestock herds. Livestock sales provide both the middle and better off wealth groups with well over half of their income, while between 12% and 20% of their food from the consumption of eggs, butter and shoat meat. PSNP is the main income source for the very poor and poor, contributing around one third of the total income earned. The household credit package is enabling all households to build their livestock herds.