THINK SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 6 Attitudes: Making Evaluations About The World
Attitude Defined The term attitude refers to a tendency to evaluate a person, object, or idea with some degree of approval or disapproval An evaluation of a specific stimulus with parts Affective component Behavioral component Cognitive component
The ABCs of Attitude Affective Emotional based component (how one feels) Behavioral Action based component (what one does) Cognitive Knowledge based component (what one knows)
How do Attitudes Develop? (continued) Attitudes can vary in tone (positive or negative) and strength (mild to passionate) Attitudes can also be ambivalent Have you ever felt "mixed emotions?" This might be a time when your attitude was both positive and negative at the same time
Table 6.1: How do You Categorize Your Attitudes?
Attitude Formation Implicit attitudes Form without our conscious awareness May occur almost automatically Explicit attitudes An attitude that one recognizes and can control
Attitude Formation (continued) What factors determine whether an attitude is implicit or explicit? Rudman (2004) - Early experiences - Affective experiences - Cultural biases - Cognitive consistency principles
Attitude Formation (continued) Affective component of an attitude What feelings or emotions are evoked by the stimulus? Behavioral component of an attitude What actions do you intend to take (or not take)? Cognitive component of an attitude What do you think or know about the stimulus?
The ABCs of the BP Oil Spill
Classical Conditioning When two stimuli are paired together, they may come to elicit the same response Ivan Pavlov and his salivating dogs Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) How is this important in the formation of attitudes?
Classical Conditioning (continued) The mere exposure effect Objects become better liked with repeated exposure We like things more when they are familiar to us
Classical Conditioning (continued) The name-letter effect The tendency to show a preference for the letters in our own name and stimuli that contain those letters Who should get a better grade in this class, Antwan or Frank? Bella or Della?
Operant Conditioning Using reinforcement or punishment to strengthen or weaken a particular behavior (B.F. Skinner) Types of operant outcomes Positive reinforcement or positive negative reinforcement Positive punishment or negative punishment Which type of operant outcome is the most misunderstood?
Observational Learning Watching others (models) engage in behaviors and then repeating those actions (Albert Bandura) Can explain how we acquire attitudes, fears, opinions, or specific behaviors
Observational Learning
Assessing Attitudes Sometimes we know a person s attitudes from their behaviors, but this is not always reliable Self-report measures Questionnaires that ask us to describe our own attitudes or opinions
Assessing Attitudes (continued) Attitudes are easier to assess if they are explicit versus implicit A person may not even be aware of their own implicit attitudes Observation is another way to gauge attitudes, but it can also be inaccurate
Assessing Attitudes (continued) Implicit Association Test (IAT) Uses a bit of deception to assess implicit attitudes Can examine attitudes toward such topics as race, religion, and even politics Some argue that the IAT only measures associations, and not actual attitudes
Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? The short answer is "sometimes" When attitudes do not predict behavior LaPiere (1934) restaurant owners stated they would allow Chinese patrons, but six months later did not Corey (1937) university students stated that they felt cheating was wrong, but 76% cheated on a difficult exam
Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? (continued) Many factors may cause attitudes and behaviors to be inconsistent How attitudes do influence behavior Optimistic attitudes improve immune functioning
Cancer patients with positive attitudes live longer than those with negative attitudes The theory of planned behavior Attitudes, social norms, and perceived control all lead to behaviors Sometimes behaviors are a result of careful, thoughtful deliberation
Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? (continued) Factors to consider when evaluating behaviors Strength of attitude - The stronger an attitude, the more likely we are to behave in accordance with that position - "Direct experience with an issue makes it more palpable it can no longer be ignored. (Duff, p. 104)"
Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? (continued) Factors to consider when evaluating behaviors Specificity - Very specific attitudes are more likely to be acted on than general attitudes
Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? (continued) Factors to consider when evaluating behaviors Accessibility - The degree to which a concept is active in our consciousness - Have you ever wondered why there are so many beer commercials on television during sporting events, but not at other times? - Chronic accessibility Frequent and recent exposure to a concept makes it much more readily available This can serve both positive and negative functions
Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? (continued) When Does Behavior Influence Attitudes?
Leon Festinger: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance When an attitude is in keeping with a behavior then there is a consonant relationship When an attitude is not in keeping with a behavior then there is a dissonant relationship
Leon Festinger: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance A dissonant relationship requires a third consonant element to reduce the degree of dissonance
Leon Festinger: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Cognition (attitude): I love to drive my 2007 Chevrolet pickup truck Dissonant Element: I am driving my wife s 2001 Daewoo Laganza Consonant Element: The Daewoo gets better gas mileage
Leon Festinger: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance How can a change in attitude occur with Cognitive Dissonance theory? Response to a dissonant state can be one of the following: Change the attitude Add a consonant element Reduce the importance of the attitude
Cognitive Dissonance and Selective Exposure The desire to avoid dissonance also creates behaviors that reinforce a given attitude. An example of this is to selectively avoid exposure to contrary attitudes while seeking the exposure to consistent attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance and Social Support In the face of cognitive dissonance individuals may seek social support in favor of a given attitude in order to reduce the level of dissonance
Post-Decision Dissonance Sour grapes" When we have to reject one appealing choice in favor of another, we will devalue the option not selected After you chose which college to attend, did you start to find flaws with the ones you rejected (or that rejected you)?
Post-Decision Dissonance (continued) Does cognitive dissonance lead to attitude change? A four-step model identifies what is needed for change to occur (Cooper & Fazio, 1984) Recognition that a discrepancy has negative consequences Personal responsibility for an action Physiological arousal Attribution of that arousal to an action
Fritz Heider: Balance Theory People desire cognitive consistency We feel comfortable with others who share our attitudes (balanced state) We feel uncomfortable with people who do not share our attitudes (unbalanced state)
Fritz Heider: Balance Theory Balanced State P + - O - Object
Fritz Heider: Balance Theory Unbalanced State P + - O + Object
Fritz Heider: Balance Theory Balanced or Unbalanced State? P - - O + Balanced! Object
Fritz Heider: Balance Theory Balanced or Unbalanced State? P - + O + Object Unbalanced!
Fritz Heider: Balance Theory Which state of balance is most likely to lead to a change in attitude? P P + - + + O + Object O + Object
Leon Festinger: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance When an attitude is in keeping with a behavior then there is a consonant relationship When an attitude is not in keeping with a behavior then there is a dissonant relationship
Leon Festinger: Theory of Cognitive Dissonance A dissonant relationship requires a third consonant element to reduce the degree of dissonance