TIME TESTED EARLY CHILDHOOD THEORIES AND PRACTICES

TIME TESTED EARLY CHILDHOOD THEORIES AND PRACTICES DR. DONALD PLATZ Associate Professor, Early Childhood University of Wisconsin-Stout School of Education JENNIFER ARELLANO Graduate Assistant, Early Childhood University of Wisconsin-Stout The following article reflects on past theories and practices that still influence early childhood development and education today. The critical thoughts on how young children should be raised and educated by individuals such as John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, Williatn Froebel, John Dewey and Maria Montessori and others are shared and discussed. Specific attention is given to their theories and practices relating to the following: the nature of children, how children come to learn, school curriculum, and instructional materials. The article concludes with an epilogue of influences which summarizes major influences of the past that still have relevance to programs for young children today. Some influences cited include: significance of proper care for the unborn, importance of exploration and play, involvement in self-directed activity, the family role in the education of the child, direct instruction should be second to real life experiences, and instructional materials should be designed with purpose. Introduction the essence of their contributions contin- The origins of many early childhood ue on. educafion theories and practices today can Many scholars argue that it was only be traced back in time to early educators in the seventeenth century (Betty, 1995) and philosophers who had a passion for that childhood was beginning to be recthe development and education of young ognized as a separate life stage that may children. Theories and practices drawn require a unique approach to care, develfrom such individuals as Johann Amos opment and education. The early writings Comenius, John Locke, Jean Jacques and teachings of Comenius, Locke and Rousseau, Johann Pestalozzi, William Rousseau set the stage for discourse and Froebel, John Dewey, and Maria Montes- theories on how to best raise and educate sori still have a strong presence in the young children. Comenius, Locke and philosophies, instructional strategies and Rousseau wrote treaties that advocated curriculum materials found in early child- more child-centered, natural approaches hood settings today. While modifications for the development and education of the and adaptations to the original ideas pro- young. While many of these early educaposed by these individual have taken place, tors suggested that early education of the 54

Time Tested... /55 young take place in the home environment, their fundamental beliefs had applications for formal schooling of the young. Comenius developed a curriculum for the home consisting of three areas: things young children should know, things they should be able to do, and things they should be able to say. In years to follow Pestalozzi, Froebel, Dewey, and Montessori began to design educational programs in Europe which later had a major influence on early childhood curriculum in the United States. Much of the pedagogy promoted by Pestalozzi, Froebel, Dewey, and Montessori focused on formal schooling in institutional settings away from the home environment. Many of the early theories were put in to practice and modified by such educators as Margarethe Shurz who was credited with establishing the first kindergarten program in the United States; Elizabeth Peabody who spread the philosophy of Froebel and was instrumental in the American kindergarten movement across the country; and Patty Smith Hill who also strongly promoted kindergarten education (Snyder, 1972). What follows is an overview of the theories and practices from the past that are present in early childhood education today. Specific attention in this article will be given to the following areas: thoughts on the nature of children, thoughts on how children come to learn, curriculum development, and instructional materials used in the learning process. The article concludes with an epilogue listing of the significant contributions of the past that, in many respects, still influence early childhood theories and practices today. Nature of Children Prior to the time of Comenius, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and others, little thought was given to the development and education of children, especially the very young. With the exception of harsh discipline, a majority of common children were ignored until such time as they could work and contribute to the well being of the family. Infants were usually left to do whatever with care being provided to them by older siblings. By the age of four or five, they were left more to themselves and were assigned small chores around the house. At the age of about twelve, children were assigned jobs in the fields. Little parent-child interactions or education took place in most homes which was the norm during this time period. In the years to come, the thoughts on the nature of young children would be reevaluated and in the case of some families, change. Johann Comenius was a Czech educator who was one of the first individuals to advocate and stress the importance of prebirth care and early education for the young. He felt it was extremely important that mothers begin to set the stage for their infants during pregnancy. Comenius recommended that mothers think healthy and have happy thoughts while they were pregnant (Beatty, 1995) and that mothers should raise their children in a healthy home environment and educate their children in a naturalistic manner. The home was the most essential environment for the learning of the young. Comenius viewed the human mind as

56 / Education Vol. 132 No. 1 having an infinite capacity for knowledge. It was believed by Comenius that the capacity of the mind was so unlimited that it resembled an abyss (Keatinge, 1967). Knowledge, he goes on to stress, is naturally implanted in us (Keating, 1967). Comenius strongly believed children learned through nature and knowledge was attained through real life experiences. A number of Comenius's beliefs were also shared by John Locke, an English philosopher who promoted the idea that the new bom child had an empty slate in terms of their nature and potential to learn. The training and experiences children encountered after they were bom would help shape their nature and leaming. He also believed that the early experiences of children had very important, lasting consequences on their future being. Another key contribution regarding the nature of children from Locke was the notion that all children are fundamentally individuals and as such should be reared based on their individuality. With regard to childhood discipline, Locke argued against the strong use of punishment and suggested that disciplined should be provided through good example rather than by hardly remembered rules. Locke (Gay, 1964) suggested that, "beating a child has no educational function of any sort: it does not get at the roots of misbehavior: it fosters disgust with leaming rather than pleasure in it." Jean Jacques Rousseau, a Genevois philosopher, believed that nature requires children to be children first and children will not mature appropriately if forced into adulthood too early (Boyd, 1965). He stressed this point to counter the idea that children were nothing less than miniature adults. Rousseau believed children should be children and not be expected to know how to behave or converse as adults. He also felt that social skills were acquired through education and maturity. Rousseau envisioned part of education as being leamed in the natural environment. Children grew and leamed in stages; Infancy (birth to two years), 'The age of Nature' (two to 12), Pre-adolescence (12-15), Puberty (15-20), and Adulthood (20-25). The first stage of leaming began in the home. Rousseau was an advocate for a least restrictive environment for infants to leam using their bodies. During the second stage of leaming, he believed children should explore naturally take in knowledge. According to Rousseau, every natural experience an infant or child encounters is a leaming experience. John Dewey was an American philosopher and educational reformer. Children, according to Dewey, mature and grow through their life experiences (Dewey, 1900). He believed it was important to expose children to as many experiences possible to increase their leaming. Like Locke, Dewey felt it was critical to model behaviors for children to understand what is acceptable in society. It was not only the parents and teachers responsibility but the whole society's responsibihty to aid in the development of the young. Dewey believed that as children grew so did their leaming (Dewey, 1916). He viewed education as a lifelong process in which children grew and leamed along the way. Dewey felt it was important to view

Time Tested... /57 young children as acdve learners. Like a number of his predecessors, he advocated play in educadon, realizing its emotional and psychological benefits for children. Play was not just for amusement and fun. Play provided children with a number of natural learning experiences that were relevant to children and enhanced their development (Dewey, 1916). How Children Come to Learn Naturalisdc learning was a dominant theme among many early educators. They felt children learned best when they were allowed to observe and interact with nature and life. The experiences they encountered were very important to their educadon and provided lasting impressions. In many ways, the present day early childhood curriculum emphasis on sensory development, exploradon and play are benefits from these past historical educators. In his early writings Comenius suggested, for example, that education should follow nature and learning is best achieved when senses are involved. He recommends that mothers take responsibility for this naturalistic educadon approach for children in their early years. Comenius also suggested that learning for older children could best be achieved by allowing them to grow, learn and play together in a friendly manner. Comenius felt that children should make connecdons between what they are learning and their real life encounters (Keadnge, 1967). According to Comenius, connecdng knowledge to real life allows children to comprehend what is being taught so that it is relevant to them in their lives. He felt children's experiences taught them how to solve, or remedy, obstacles or misinformation. In his work. Some Thoughts Concerning Education Lock supports Comenius's notion that play is a cridcal method of learning for young children. Children need a natural environment that allows them to learn from their exploration and play. Locke further extended the nodon from Comenius that learning for young children should be developed with the efficient use of their five senses. Locke idendfied two sources of experiences arrived at by the use of the senses, sensadon and reflecdon. Sensation would develop simple ideas in children and reflecdon would allow them to be introspective, make connections and extend their thinking. The educadon of the senses, some suggest, might be called a Lockean theme in early childhood (Cleveriey & Phillips, 1986). Rousseau believed that the knowledge children lacked at birth was received through educadon. Educadon, according to Rousseau came from nature, man, or things (Boyd, 1962). He referred to childhood as a dme when children are noble savages. He believed children to be dependent; dependent on nature and dependent on adults (Boyd, 1962). Educadon, natural and structured, help children develop into producdve members of society. Pestalozzi was greatly influenced by the work of Rousseau. He believed that learning and educadon should be aligned with the natural development of children. Pestalozzi promoted the idea that everyone was capable of learning and that all children had the right to an education. Pestalozzi also supported Locke's belief

58 / Education Vol. 132 No. 1 that children were individuals and the best way for children to learn was through selfdiscovery (Silber, 1960). He further believed that children were capable of pacing themselves and were capable of setting their own goals. As with Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel believed that play was critical to advance learning in young children. He used play as a teaching strategy and created appropriate games and songs to enhance children's interactions with one another. In addition to advancing learning of the mind, Froebel maintained that play along with games and songs, were critical in developing attitudes of cooperation and self-control in children (Beatty, 1995). John Dewey felt it was important for children to learn by doing (Dewey, 1916). He felt that allowing children to explore their questions helps them make real life connections and continually question and increase learning by investigating these questions. Dewey thought education should come from natural curiosity with direction and guidance coming from the teacher (Dewey, 1900). He viewed children as eager learners and felt that it was important for children to learn through activities in which they enjoyed. Learning needs to be relevant to the children. Dewey stressed the importance of using situations that children can relate to when teaching. He felt that when children could understand why learning was important, they could understand how to apply learning into their lives. Maria Montessori felt that early learning and education for children began at birth and that children passed through a number of sensitive periods (Standing, 1957) during their early years. It is during these sensitive periods that children have the greatest capacity to learn and develop. Montessori promoted the idea that the first years of life were the most critical in terms of learning and education. The very young child begins to take in an enormous amount of information about their relationship with others, language, movements, and the physical world around them. School Curriculum Early childhood curriculum in the beginning was based on themes centering around nature and essential skills for life. Early efforts in developing a curriculum for young children were designed for home use by mothers and later for organized schooling. With regard to early schooling, Comenius was very concerned about the potentially harmful effects of excessive early education (Beatty, 1995). He was particularly concerned regarding education for children below the age of six in school settings. Early experiences for young children should be in the home. In 1650 Comenius's School of Infancy was first published which identified a full curriculum to be used by mothers to educate their children. The curriculum was divided into three areas with a focus on: things children should know, things children should be able to do and things they should be able to say. Counting, learning colors, simple attributes (thick, thin), cutting, splitting, simple hymns, geography and other activities were part of Comenius's early curriculum for the young child.

Time Tested... /59 Comenius believed in universal education. He felt all children should have the right to an education. Education went beyond teaching specifics; education was also to be about teaching children values and morals (Keatinge, 1967). According to Comenius, education meant learning to play a role in society and everyone needed to learn to be a part of society. One way he felt children could best learn was through play (Keatinge, 1967) and therefore play was to be a critical part of the early childhood curriculum. Through play, Comenius believed children learn social skills and begin to inquire and investigate ideas they have. He thought of play as the natural way young children learn among each other. While Locke did not outline a detailed curriculum for young children he did cite several important components to be considered in the development of education for young children. He echoed the importance of play for curriculum development and suggested that children begin to learn to read when they learn to speak. Locke proposed that a child's physical condifion is related to the child's mental development and consequently believed that physical activity should be included in curriculum. Perhaps Locke's greatest contribution to early childhood curriculum development was his strong belief in the individual differences of children. Locke promoted the idea that the early childhood curriculum should be structured around the individual needs of children and curriculum should make accommodations based on the needs of the individual child. The push for individualized instruction and the current Response to Intervention movement can be aligned with Locke's early theory on school curriculum. Rousseau stressed the importance of designing curriculum around the interests of children. He believed education should be natural; children grew and learned in stages. He believed children learned through the use of their senses and thus a component of the early childhood curriculum should be sensory based. By educating young minds in a natural way, Rousseau believed children could make use of their experiences and enhance learning by making better connections (Boyd, 1962). Rousseau stressed that education should be naturally taught until the age of twelve, at which time formal education, education in a classroom, should begin. Natural education up until age twelve consequently would prepare them for more formal education in the years to come (Boyd, 1962). Pestalozzi's early publication. How Gertrude Teachers Her Children, made a major impact on early education and curriculum at the time and in years to come. Three major curriculum components were emphasized by Pestalozzi: the intellectual, the physical and the moral-religious. With regard to instructional purpose and pedagogy in his curriculum, Pestalozzi required that teachers guide the young towards the best realization of one's self and one's worid (Sibler, 1960). Eriedrich Froebel continued to advance early childhood and is most noted for his development of the kindergarten curriculum and is often identified as being the

60 / Education Vol. 132 No. 1 father of kindergarten education. His kindergarten program was seen as a social curriculum, a program available to all children. The basis of his kindergarten curriculum for young children was play and handwork activities such as paper folding, cutting, coloring, and tracing. His play curriculum was void of teaching children how to read, write or count. Through play children would become unified and leam to live in harmony with others and nature. While Froebel still believed strongly in the importance of young children being educated in the home environment among family, his kindergarten curriculum offered opportunities for young children to grow socially, spiritually and individually, with regard to developing selfcontrol. Froebel's curriculum might be very much aligned, in some respects, with the basic philosophy behind the Responsive Model used in many classrooms today. Froebel also developed a number of instmctional materials for his kindergarten curriculum to enhance leaming in young children. These materials and activities later became the heart of his educational system. Froebel called these materials his gifts and occupations which children would use and interact with through specified play- Maria Montessori's curriculum was founded on similar principles developed by Froebel. As with Froebel, Montessori built her curriculum on the basic philosophy that children should be active participants in leaming and it is the role of the teacher to be passive but available to help guide and protect young students in their leaming process (Standing, 1957). Both Froebel and Montessori saw the need for developing and incorporating the use of instructional materials into the early childhood curriculum to support children as they became engaged in their self-directed activities. Montessori's ctirriculum used a variety of didactic materials to help children develop their senses and to prepare them for writing and arithmetic. Motor education, practical life skill development, preparation for reading music, language and knowledge of the world were also components of Montessori's curriculum. Another individual who contributed to early childhood curriculum development was John Dewey. Dewey promoted problem solving to help students identify solutions to daily problems. Dewey viewed leaming as an active process. An important aspect of his curriculum was placing the responsibility of leaming into the child's hands (Dewey, 1902). He viewed children as active participants in their education and allowed them to demonstrate their leaming. Dewey strongly believed that children learn when they are actively engaged in activities. From his perspective, leaming beyond the school building allows students the opportunity to make connections to real world living and provides the opportunity for authentic social interactions. Dewey also supported Locke's belief that physical fitness was critical to mental growth and should be part of the curriculum for young children. Instructional Materials The first type of instructional materials used for education in the home and early schools were the normal day-to-day crafts

Time Tested... /61 and utensils used in the home. Many of the materials were used to instmct children in developing practical life skills. The emergence of books to be used by mothers and teachers were added to enhance leaming. Comenius is thefirstto put pictures in textbooks. He believed that picture books were useful in three ways: they assist objects to make an impression on the mind; they accustom children to the idea that pleasure is to be derived from books; and they aid children in learning to read (Keatinge, 1967). Comenius' first picture book was Orbis Pictus. This picture book became a model for other educational books to be used in the home and in schools. Froebel and Montessori were instrumental in developing instmction materials for learning purposes. The instructional materials developed were used by children independently which supported their philosophy on self-directed learning. The materials provided sequential experiences for leaming and were viewed as self-correcting. Froebel's developed a series of materials called gifts which were developed for the specific purpose of helping children come to understand concepts related to the universe, to part-whole relationships, and to other basic educational principles. The twenty some gifts were used to occupy the attention of the children while learning basic concepts and principles. The gifts were based on geometrical concepts of craft activities. Concepts developed by the gifts included the understanding of roundness, contrasting color, and form. The gifts were used to help children gain a sense of properties such as mobility, motion, direction and position and to help children leam to use their senses, to leam about the nature of form, number, ordering, and measurement. Froebel used occupations to help students apply what they leamed from the gifts. Most of the occupations were developedfi-omtraditional activities of the home such as weaving and sowing. Children were involved in occupations such as stringing, cutting, weaving mats, modeling clay, and painting. Most of the occupations required children to use some thinking and motor skills. A number of occupations developed by Froebel to develop small motor skills are present yet today in early childhood programs. Maria Montessori developed a series of materials to help children develop skills more associated with present day early childhood curriculum. Her basic didactic materials for sensory development, beginning writing and arithmetic skill development have their presence in classrooms today. Stacking materials, geometric templates, sound cylinders, numerical rods, and sandpaper letters/numerals are some of Montessori early didactic materials still in use today. Epilogue of Influences As one takes account of the theories and practices of educators from the past, one might conclude that while today's thoughts and practices on the education of young children are more informed, many basic ideas of the past fit well with current thinking and practice. The following statements of influence from the past are still considered in vogue today by many:

62 / Education Vol. 132 No. 1 Significance of proper care for the unborn child (Comenius) Exploradon and play are essendal methods by which young children learn (Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel) The needs of the child should determine the child's curriculum (Locke) The wisdom in paying attendon to the development of the child (Locke) Mental development is related to the physical condidon of the child, hence the need for physical activity (Locke. Pestalozzi, Dewey) Allow children to be children (Rousseau) Direct instrucdon should come second to real experiences (Rousseau) Children should be involved in selfdirected activides (Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori) Children should learn to develop their senses to understand their world (Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Froebel, Montessori) Educadon of the child should include the family (Pestalozzi) Love, affection and concern for the child is sound educational doctrine (Pestalozzi) Instructional materials should be designed with purposes in mind to help children learn. (Froebel, Montessori) Free time and circle time activities should be part of the curriculum for young children (Locke, Rousseau, Froebel) Experiences beyond the classroom are essential (Dewey) Time for social interaction is an essendal part of the curriculum (Rousseau, Dewey) Problem solving experiences help children with decision making (Dewey) The future of education for the young child will continue to advance as new knowledge and promising pracdces evolve. As with many present and past thoughts on curriculum for the young child, the following fundamental beliefs may be maintained: the importance of the individuality of the child; the value of play and exploradon; the significance of social interactions; the advantage of self-directed acdvity; and the benefits of problem solving and real life experiences. References Beatty, Barbara (1995). Preschool education in America. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. Boyd, W. (1965). The emile of Jean Jacques Rousseau. New York: Bureau of Publications. Gay, Peter (1964). John Locke on education. Richmond, Virginia: William Byrd Press, Inc. Cleverley, John and Phillips, D.C. (1986, rev.) Visions of childhood: influential models from Locke to Spock. New York: Teachers College Press. Dewey, J. (1900). The school and society. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: The Eree Press. Eroebel, Eriedrich. (1904). The education of man. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Jeffreys, M.V.C. (1967). John Locke prophet of common sense. London: Methuen & CO LTD. Keatinge, M.W. (1967). The great didactic of John Amos Comenius. New York: Russell & Russell.

Time Tested... /63 Lilley, Irene, M. (1967). Friedrich Froebel. New York: Cambridge University Press. Montessori, M. (1912). The Montessori method. New York: F.A. Stokes. Montessori, M. (1965). Dr. Montessori's own handbook. New York: Schocken. Osbom, K. (1980). Early childhood education in historical perspective. Athens, GE Education Associates. Snyder, Agnes (1972). Dauntless women in childhood education. Washington D.C.: Association for Childhood Education International. Silber, Kate. (1960). Pestalozzi: the man and his work. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Standing, E. M. (1957). Marie Montessori: her life and work. New York: the New American Library, Inc.

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