The Weimar Republic and the National Socialist Dictatorship

The Weimar Republic and the National Socialist Dictatorship Establishing the New Republic stab-in-the-back myth (Dolchstoßlegende) The government's right-wing propaganda had promised German victory even though defeat was already close. After Germany had been defeated in World War I, right-wing politicians propagated the "stab-in-the-back" myth which blamed politicians, socialists, communists and Jews for the lost war. The politicians had betrayed the army, the German military had not lost the war, it had been "stabbed in the back". Consequently, the population's trust in the politicians decreased and the position of the government was further undermined. November Revolution / sailors mutiny On October 28 the Seekriegsleitung ordered a naval attack on England. As it was obvious that Germany would lose the war, many sailors opposed this order. In a spontaneous, unorganised movement which encountered little resistance, the soldiers and werft workers in Kiel revolted in Kiel on November 3. Then there were demonstrations, a general strike and Workers and Soldiers' Councils were founded throughout the country (Soviet model). They took over power mostly in cities thought not permanently and by November 8 all of Germany's lesser kings had been deposed. The Chancellor Max von Baden recognised the Kaiser's need to abdicate and published an unauthorised abdication telegram of William II. On November 9, Scheidemann proclaimed a republic with Friedrich Ebert as Chancellor while Liebknecht proclaimed a Socialist Council Republic. The next day the Council of the People's Deputies, a provisional government which should cooperate with the existing government, was founded. It opposed the Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Council. On November 11, the armistice was signed. (by Erzberger, later assassinated) proportional representation (Verhältniswahl) On January 19, 1919 elections for the National Assembly were held following a new procedure, the one of proportional representation. The seats in the National Assembly were to be allocated to the different parties according to the number of votes they had received. It was a fair procedure but made it difficult to achieve an overall majority, so that coalitions had to be formed to pass laws. Also, female suffrage was introduced and the voting age lowered to the age of twenty. After the elections the SPD, the Centre Party and the DDP formed a coalition. As they were in favour of the coming into being of a parliamentary democracy, this formed a solid basis for the new republic. parliamentary democracy democracy: based on freedom and equality of all citizens, wishes of entire people shall be represented, people's sovereignty, majority decisions people's representatives (elected) decide on laws, government needs its confidence and is controlled by it Weimar Constitution (Article 25, Article 48) The Weimar Constitution came into effect on August 11, 1919. Germany remained a federal state, the existing Länder were slightly re-organised and reduced to seventeen. All state monarchs were replaced and the new states organised along similar lines to the national government. According to the constitution, a Reichstag comprising the Members of the Parliament elected by Germans over twenty every four years on the basis of proportional representation should exist alongside the Reichsrat, an assembly of 67 representatives representing the seventeen Länder. It

could give advice and reject new laws, but could be overridden by the Reichstag. The Government was to include a Chancellor and his ministers. It needed the confidence of the Reichstag and could propose laws to the Reichstag. Furthermore, plebiscites were introduced. Also, the Head of State would be a President who would be elected by the German People every seven years. He would have the power to appoint and dismiss the Chancellor. According to Article 25 he could dissolve the Reichstag (but never twice for the same reason) and then arrange for new elections. According to Article 48, he was allowed to issue laws by decree in an emergency and could override the constitutional rights of the German people (=emergency decree [Notverordnung]). Basic Rights Already attempted in 1848 by the liberals, they were adopted in 1919 as a part of the constitution but in a modernised version to include more social rights, e.g. to belong to a union. They also included freedom of assembly, of expressing one's opinion, of press and equality before the law. But every one of them could be overridden in an emergency according to Article 48. political parties Z = Centre Party formed in 1870 to protect Catholic interests in favour of political reform, defended the Weimar Republic until 1930 usually to the right of the DDP in its policies, took part in Weimar governments up to 1932, most support from Catholic workers + middle class NSDAP = National Socialist German Workers Party formed in 1919 as the German Workers' Party (DAP) extremely nationalist + racist party which opposed the Weimar Republic, anti-democratic initially pursued violent methods of winning power but later focused on winning elections, until 1923 only important as regional Bavarian party appealed to all sectors of society after 1929 (crisis) DNVP = German National People s Party nationalist party formed in 1918 to protect the interests of the land-owning class, conservative, monarchist rejected the Republic, the Treaty of Versailles, democracy most support came from Junkers (landed nobility) and some urban lower middle class ally of Hitler in final phase of Weimar Republic DVP = German People s Party formed in 1918, right-wing liberal party, opposed the Weimar Republic in principle but took part in governments most support from upper middle class/employers led by Gustav Stresemann DDP = German Democratic Party a left-wing liberal party formed in 1980 supported the Weimar constitution but lost electoral support after 10 most support came from liberal intellectuals + businessmen

SPD = Social Democratic Party strongest supporter of Weimar Republic, formed in 1875, moderate received more votes than any other party up to 1932 most support came from workers + lower middle class radical members were thrown out in 1917 (formed USPD) KPD = Communist Party formed in 1918 by the Spartacus League joined Comintern (international communist organisation led by Russia) in 1919 opposed the Weimar Republic + wanted to establish a communist state in Germany became more popular after 1929 How strong were the roots of democracy in 19th century Germany? not that strong because of monarchy before, failed 48/49 revolutions, Germans used to having a strong leader (Bismarck, kings), Social Democrats/government was blamed for defeat, German conservatism + nationalism remained influential however: some democratic/revolutionary movements (-> 48/49) but did not predominate SPD largest party in the Reichstag, tradition of Social Democracy in Germany The revolution from above : Why was a democratic regime born out of Germany s defeat? monarchy had led to defeat, dissatisfaction after lost war democracy had been demanded before (48/49), Social Democracy = tradition in Germany other countries' influence (revolution in Russia), spreading of democratic ideas in Europe Chancellor recognised King's need to abdicate, Parlamentisierung imposed from above (Why? More lenient treatment by Allies expected ) The revolution from below : Did the 1918 German Revolution provide a strong basis for democracy? no: Workers' and Soldiers' councils came into being but dispersed, no common leader no: Chancellor recognised King's need to abdicate, foundation of the Council of the People's Deputies from "above" What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution? weaknesses: Article 25 + 48 -> fundamental rights not inalienable, giving (too) much power to the President, no 5% threshold (very small parties could take part, difficult decision-making), direct vote for President, his powerful position, referenda undermining decisions by government, anti-constitutional parties not prohibited, no SUSPENSIVE vote of no confidence strengths: female/general suffrage, Reichstag could control government + President, Reichsrat can veto laws, President was elected and replaced hereditary monarch

1919-23: Crises Ebert-Groener-Pact agreement between Friedrich Ebert (Chancellor) and Wilhelm Groener (general in German army) on Nov 9 1918, two days before the official end of the Second World War army given free pass in dealing with communists in Germany (-> Spartacists), in return army promised support to Ebert (weakness of government in case of crisis ) free corps military unions, not demobilised, nationalist, anti-democratic attitude murdered Spartacus leaders Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht on 15 Jan 1919 Spartacist Rising in December 1918: foundation of KPD started on 5 Jan 1919, violent attempt to overthrow government by Spartacus League after dismissal of Berlin Police President Eichhorn (USPD), uprising defeated with help of free corps under leadership of General von Lüttwitz Spartacists led by Rosa Luxemburg + Karl Liebknecht Kapp Putsch The first major crisis that occurred in the Weimar Republic. By the end of 1919, the government had less need for the Freikorps and was trying to reduce the size of the army according to the Treaty of Versailles. In February 1920 the Defence Minister ordered two Freikorps brigades to disband, but one of the leaders, General Walther von Lüttwitz, refused to do so. Together with other army officers and Wolfgang Kapp, a right-wing journalist and leader of the Fatherland Party, he planned to overthrow the government. On 12 March the Freikorps marched to Berlin. Because the army refused to support the government, it had to flee and the Freikorps entered Berlin. A new government headed by Kapp was proclaimed but did not win widespread support, the army remained mostly neutral. The left organised general strikes in protest. So in general, Kapp's government occupied government buildings but was unable to govern. After four days, Kapp and his government fled and Ebert's government returned. It took no action against the army leaders, as they knew they might still need their support in the future, others who were involved were treated leniently. Kapp could not be prosecuted as he died before. Rapallo Pact The Rapallo Pact was concluded between Germany (Rathenau = foreign minister) and the Soviet Union. It implied the restart of diplomatic relations, was the first achievement in German post-war foreign policy and a first step away from isolation. It included the renunciation of all territorial claims and war cost demands against the other. The Pact was seen critically by France. Revisionist Germans hoped it was intended to divide Poland and to restore pre-war frontiers. political assassinations Between 1919 and 1923 Weimar politicians lived in fear of assassination. Some right-wing Germans were encouraged to resort to murder to weaken the democratic regime; this was reinforced by the lenient attitude to such actions of conservative judges. The Republic lost hundreds of servants through assassination including an important statesman, Walter Rathenau (participated in arranging armistice, became Foreign Minister in 1922, assassinated in June 1922) (as well as Erzberger, see above)

Erfüllungspolitik (fulfilment policy) Complying with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles in order to show their unjust conditions and the impossibility to e.g. pay all the reparation payments. It should improve the relations to Great Britain and France by diplomatic means and the "appearance of goodwill" rather than an openly hostile attitude. It can be seen as being successful to a certain extent as reparation payments were suspended in 1931 and not resumed. (=> Stresemann) Year of Crises 1923: Ruhr occupation (passive resistance), hyperinflation, Munich Beer Hall Putsch Because Germany was unable to fulfil reparation payments at the end of 1921, French and Belgian troops were sent into the Ruhr in January 1923 to collect coal. They faced no military opposition but passive resistance, the workers refused to work for the French which led to a collapse of services. This had severe consequences for the German economy. The government had to pay the striking workers and received less tax revenue from the Ruhr as well as no coal supplies which had thus to be imported. The government had two options: They could either raise taxation or print more money. Because taxation was already too high, it opted for the latter option. Consequently prices rose and the value of the mark was decreased, reinforcing inflation. Another reason for the Hyperinflation Crisis of 1923 was the economic "legacy" of WWI which had left a budget deficit. Mostly people with savings, students, people relying on the welfare system or with fixed incomes and generally the middle class lost. Consequently extremist parties received more support as people lost faith in Weimar and turned against democracy. Hyperinflation came to an end when the new Chancellor Stresemann appointed Hjalmar Schacht an expert financier to the Reichsbank in November 1923. Also a new currency was introduced, one Rentenmark replaced 1,000 billion papermarks. On November 8 Ottow von Lossow and Gustav von Kohr addressed a meeting of 2,000 right-wing supporters in a Munich beer hall. Hitler and his stormtroopers disrupted the meeting and declared a national revolution. They forced the two men to state their support for a march on Berlin to impose a new government with General Luddendorff as the new Commander-in-Chief. Meanwhile, 1000s of stormtroopers seized other members of the Bavarian government. The next day, President Ebert declared a national state of emergency, General Seeckt ordered Lossow to crush the revolt. They issued a proclamation denouncing the putsch. At noon 2,000 armed Nazis marched to a military base in Munich and were met with armed police and Bavarian soldiers. A shot was fired, then the police returned fire. Ludendorff was arrested, Hitler the next day. Seeckt banned the Nazis. In February 1924, Hitler, Ludendorff and other leaders were tried for treason which carried the death penalty. Hitler turned the trial into an opportunity to attack the Weimar regime and to expound his views. He achieved national fame, the trial helped the Nazi vote and they became the third largest group in Bavaria. Because the judges were sympathetic, Luddendorff was acquitted and Hitler was sentenced to the minimum possible sentence of five years in prison. Hitler was then kept in good conditions in the Landsberg prison where he dictated "Mein Kampf". The Nazis nearly disintegrated without their leader. (In how far did the Munich Beer Hall Putsch make Hitler change his tactics upon his release from prison and how was this implemented / achieved?) How great a burden for the Weimar Republic was the Treaty of Versailles? "economic legacy" (reparation payments, high budget deficit) hyperinflation (territorial losses / disarmament?) Psychological impact: humiliation, dissatisfaction opposition from right/left, difficult to establish democracy but: collapse of Weimar Republic also because of hard decision-making, "republic without republicans", Nazi ideology, economic slump

Which impact did the challenge from the Left have and how strong was the challenge from the Right? challenge from the right worse (better organisation, more violent, more support) Kapp Putsch, assassinations challenge from the left not that cohesive, no leadership/organisation, several groups Marxists (wanted to establish Communism, KPD, showed their opposition through strikes, demonstrations), Red Guard (militia of communists, street battles with free corps, workers' councils) In how far did hyperinflation and other crises of 1923 contribute to undermining Weimar democracy? resentment against Weimar/democracy grew because of government s failure to address crises more efficiently leading to the rise of extremist parties, population looked to the far right/left to find solution to their problems Why did the Weimar Republic survive the crises of 1919-1923? extremist parties had no mass support/majority in elections, government addressed crises (Hyperinflation, Ruhr occupation) adequately, at least in the end conservative elements, such as the army, supported government (greater evil = Communism) 1923 crisis was overcome because of patriotic feelings (against the French, Ruhr occupation) + collapse of German currency convinced U.S.A to participate more actively in more moderate enforcement of the peace terms 1923-29: Recovery Gustav Stresemann: policy of détente He was a leading statesman of the Weimar Republic, member of the Pan-German Colonial League and of the DVP. Stresemann became Chancellor in 1923 and was Foreign minister from 1923 to 1929. He was rather monarchist and opposed to the Weimar constitution. The policy of détente implies the reassurance of other countries, the "easing of strained relations". Stresemann tried to reassure the Western powers by promoting a peaceful revision. He tried to create common interests by for example stressing Germany's importance for the European economy. Dawes Plan (1924) An international plan which included an agreement on the annual reparation payments until 27/28. This occurred in Germany's interest, in the initial recovery phase 4/5ths were paid from international loans. Also, the repayment period was extended and the USA received an assurance that the European countries could repay the loans. The final amount of reparations was left open. Treaty of Locarno (1925) Some call this treaty Stresemann's greatest achievement. It was concluded between Germany, Belgium, Poland, GB, Czechoslovakia and France. Germany accepted its western borders as defined in the Treaty of Versailles and the demilitarisation of the Rhineland. There were arbitration treaties with Czechoslovakia and Poland, but they did not receive any guarantees. The eastern borders could still be revised. Stresemann hoped that the treaty would defuse domestic criticism of

his policies and help his eastern strategies. In July 1925, French troops began to leave the Ruhr and the first area of the Rhineland was evacuated. (So how about the eastern borders?) Berlin Treaty (1926) The Berlin Treaty of 1926 confirmed the new relations between Germany and the Soviet Union that had first been expressed in the Rapallo Pact. Germany assured Russia of German neutrality if Russia went to war with a third power. Thus, if Russia was at war with Poland, France could not come to help through Germany, which weakened Poland's position. League of Nations (Völkerbund) In September 1926, Germany became a member of the League of Nations thereby regaining its place in the international system. It obtained a great power status on the Council League with veto power. The League of Nations was founded after World War I in 1919. It was an intergovernmental organisation whose main aim was the maintenance of world peace and it existed until 1946. (Why did it fail?) Kellogg-Briand Pact (Aug 1928) Germany helped to mediate between the USA and France. The pact was an agreement to outlaw war as an instrument of national policy. It was signed by Germany, France (Briand) and the USA (Kellogg). (Was it an efficient one?) Young Plan In August 1929 this agreement on the German reparation payments was concluded between twelve European countries. They were to be spaced out over fifty-seven years and a new total figure was set with a reduced annual average in comparison with the Dawes Plan. Also the evacuation of the Rhineland until June 1930 was decided, as well as the removal of foreign controls five years earlier than envisaged in the Treaty of Versailles. Golden Years time from the end of the First World War until 1929, also: "Roaring Twenties" (USA) economic prosperity, spread of new forms of art and communication (Jazz, film, records), "Americanisation" for some it represented a distraction from war and unemployment Nationalist opposed the new cultural products and phenomena which they deemed immoral wages and industrial production increased, new currency, Stresemann appointed in 1923, reflects that life in Germany improved compared to troubles in 1923 however: not everyone prospered, many problems remained Was Stresemann a good European or a good German? Stresemann can be described as an "advocate of international understanding" when taking into consideration that he employed negotiations as a means of policy-making in order to regain a strong German position instead of violent means. Also he aimed at establishing friendly relations with the Soviet Union and supported fulfilment policy trying to meet the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles and thus appeasing the other powers. Also, he played a crucial role in concluding the Kellogg-Briand Pact and supported the USA's involvement in Germany in economic ways. The Treaty of Locarno is an argument for both: As it recognised Germany's western borders, it led to a better understanding with France, for example, but because it did not accept Germany's eastern borders, relations with the East, with Poland for example, did not improve. Other arguments speaking for him being a good German rather than a good European are his revisionist attitude towards Versailles, his aim to attain parity with France, and the fact that good relations with the SU

were a means to put pressure on the West. Also, the conclusion of the Berlin Treaty weakened Poland's position All in all, Hitler's revisionist policy could be seen as a continuation of Stresemann's but Stresemann was also limited in his actions, he tried to negotiate peacefully and looked to the east and west for improving relations. (So? Good European or good German?) Is the term "recovery" appropriate to describe the years 1923 to 1929? YES: advance in social services, economy partially recovered Dawes Plan, better foreign relations Year of Crisis 1923 overcome reflects that life in Germany improved compared to troubles in 1933 political threats to Republic quietened down Stresemann appointed in '23 (international negotiations) new currency (more secure) more comprehensive unemployment insurance system (1927) wages and industrial production increased NO: compared with other countries, economy not flourishing enough growth unstable cartelisation leading to high prices for goods (less foreign trade) rationalisation leading to unemployment loans (dependency on USA), high budget deficit dissatisfaction among citizens (no confidence), not everyone profited welfare state (state living beyond its means, over-strained welfare state) opposition of nationalists continued 1929-33: Collapse Wall Street Crash / Black Friday October 25 th, 1929: Black Friday Wall Street Crash German economy had been able to recover after the economic crisis of 1923 due to American financial support machinery in the industrial and agricultural sector could be modernised to increase production, willingness to invest and competitiveness was increased BUT: America's economic position led to overproduction, excessive investments and stock purchases and finally to the collapse of the stock market in 1929 the Great Depression / slump Germany had received American loans after 1924, after Wall Street Crash: those loans had to be repaid and no further loans were given what followed was the Great Depression/slump in Germany: banks had to be closed, unemployment peaked (6 million by January 1932), foreign trade suffered as protectionism increased, people still weakened by earlier hyperinflation (1923), now worse (no more savings), there were diseases and starvation

Harzburg Front loose right-wing grouping resulting from a meeting of nationalist opposition forces in Bad Harzburg, formed on October 11 th, 1931 but only lasted a few months united opponents of the Weimar Republic (except for communists, KPD politically isolated, no influence on government, bureaucracy, military) wanted resignation of Weimar governments including the NSDAP, DNVP and the veterans' organisation Stahlhelm military support for the NSDAP (SA) financial support for NSDAP increased (Hugenberg (leader of DNVP): head of conservative press // influence of Big Business on rise of NSDAP?) paramilitary marching-ups + speeches by Hugenberg and Hitler against the republic SA = stormtroopers, brownshirts (Sturmabteilung) paramilitary organisation, head: first Göring, then Röhm military support for NSDAP, participated in the Hitler-Putsch later mainly used by the NSDAP for means of propaganda SS = Defence Unit (Schutzstaffel) founded in 1925 for Hitler's personal protection SD = Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst) intelligence and security body of the NSDAP created 1931 by Heinrich Himmler, head: Reinhard Heydrich should observe political opponents of the NSDAP Grand Coalition (SPD, Z, DDP, DVP) chancellor: Hermann Müller (SPD) five parties: broad range of interests, very hard decision-making conflicts between DVP and SPD, no consensus about how to deal with the economic crisis (different ideas on how to solve the crisis? In how far did the welfare state contribute to undermining Weimar democracy?) Müller wanted to be granted use of Art. 48 but was refused as Hindenburg was opposed to the SPD, Müller resigned March 1930 Presidential Cabinets Heinrich Brüning appointed chancellor (nickname: 'Hunger Chancellor' unpopular economic policy, reduced wages etc.) lacked support of Reichstag rule by presidential decree ( president makes use of Art. 48 to circumvent function of parliament when no consensus is found) (So how exactly did the Presidential Cabinets come into being?) Hindenburg was influenced by Kurt von Schleicher (politician in the Defence Ministry), who thought NSDAP should be included in government, wanted even more conservative regime Cabinet of Barons 1932 Brüning was forced to resign, Franz von Papen appointed chancellor with Schleicher as the Defence Minister Cabinet of Barons aristocratic politicians who were not members of the Reichstag and most of them had no ties to political parties Papen wanted to continue ruling by decree but had a difficult position, Nazi + KPD votes

increased, Hitler did not want to work together with Papen, thought due to his election result (namely? he should be chancellor himself special path (Sonderweg) theory that Germany deviates from the other European countries and their development, that it has a "special path" Germany became economically advanced, but the aristocratic ruling elite kept power, opposed democracy middle class with fostered representative government merely supported successful autocratic state limited 1918 revolution failed to break free from these authoritarian tendencies so: Weimar failed Why and how did the Wall Street Crash in the USA affect Weimar economically? October 1929: American stock market crashes no more American loans granted, Germany had to repay already received loans (cannot pay reparations to GB / F => GB / F cannot pay war debts to US => vicious circle) Great Depression/slump in Germany causes: weak economy, general lack of confidence and growth of protectionism (people want to keep their properties and savings) fall in demand as people buy less decline in world trade businesses cut back production/lower prices to try to attract customers wages reduced, workers laid off workers have less money fall in demand as people buy less... : vicious circle consequences: banks closed, unemployment peaked, people still weakened by earlier hyperinflation (1923), now worse (no more savings), diseases, starvation Was the Grand coalition the beginning of the end of Weimar? foreseeable that they would not be able to agree on one issue broad range of interests the Republic's last Social Democratic administration In how far did Hitler's experience with the Beer Hall Putsch lead him to change his tactics in gaining power? abandoned violent tactics, wanted to win electoral support, legal way of gaining power wanted strict organisation of the Party, wider geographical base, larger membership Führer's will should dominate completely (also cf. different slogans to appeal to a broad range of possible voters; role of Big Business / e.g. Hugenberg) Why was the Nazi Party so successful from 1930 to 1932? due to economic crisis which was even more devastating than the one from 1923 dissatisfaction among the people increased, they wanted radical change voted for NSDAP and not KPD because: people were afraid of Bolshevist revolution (Russia) NSDAP was supported also financially (Thyssen, Hugenberg (DNVP, newspaper)) fame + hype over Hitler and his trial after the Hitler-Putsch, Mein Kampf, famous) paramilitary groups (SS, SA...) in favour of extreme right, courts in favour of rightwing intimidation by SA: pressure not to vote for KPD KPD was badly organised, support from the weakest section of the working class, competition with the SPD

Did Hitler become chancellor through the back door? In May 1932, Papen was appointed Chancellor. In September, the Reichstag passed a vote of no confidence in Papen so that in December Schleicher, Papen's former Defence Minister, was appointed Chancellor. Schleicher did not succeed in gaining the Reichstag's support (What was his plan with regard to the NSDAP?) which provided Papen with the chance to take revenge on Schleicher. In January 1933 a secret meeting between Papen and Hitler took place: Papen struck a deal with the Nazis which Hindenburg accepted (role of Hindenburg s son?). As a consequence, Hitler was then appointed Chancellor (with Papen as Vice Chancellor) suggesting that he did become chancellor "through the back door", as he also indirectly influenced Hindenburg by talking to his son and actually had no parliamentary majority. (So how about the election results of the NSDAP / other counter-arguments? What was von Papen s belief? => taming the Nazis why would he think so?) January 30, 1933: seizure of power, takeover of power, handing-over of power or sneaking into power? seizure of power = Nazi propaganda term takeover of power : on the one hand, Hitler had an active part (as he talked to and influenced Hindenburg's son who influenced his father; also cf. election results), but takeover would imply a direct/open strategy, which was not the case rather scheming handing-over of power : on the one hand Franz von Papen convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler chancellor, thinking of his own advantages, they thought Hitler could be tamed (as he had lost electoral support a short time before and seemed to pose less of a threat / cf. Nazis in his government!), but on the other hand Hitler also actively influenced Hindenburg's son sneaking into power : Hitler actively influenced Hindenburg's son, legal part missing intrigue, BUT: Hitler had big support, many votes (but no majority) Is there a German special path? Yes: authoritarian tradition ( failed revolutions, Bismarck, Weimar Constitution) influence of elites, preference for order, weak liberalism No: Europe: many dictatorships propaganda, right circumstances Hindenburg's, Papen's, Brüning's role: contributed to collapse of parliamentary system Hitler s personality / goals achievements of the 1848/9 Revolutions!! Was the WR doomed to fail from its very beginnings? Pro psychological impact of Treaty of Versailles excuse for Hitler to come to power lacking support for democracy (among population / political parties => Republic without Republicans) population, parties, radical parties president's position (Ersatzkaiser, Art. 25: can dissolve Reichstag and arrange for new

elections; 48: in an emergency, can issue laws by decree and override constitutional rights of the German people, president could decide about state of emergency) no democratic tradition, imposed from above, Republic without Republicans old elites (hostile to WR) remained in power (e.g. Hindenburg 1925 voted president, very conservative, not so much support for WR from population but he never acted against constitution) no 5% threshold (if party has 5% votes Bundestag, difficult decision making, weak coalitions, radical parties also allowed, threat to stability) Con Weimar survived early crises indicates strength crises were followed by the Golden Years '23-'29 Stresemann's foreign policy very democratic elements of the constitution (everyone over 20 allowed to vote (f. president every 7 years), could arrange for plebiscites) Dawes + Young Plan, reduced reparations to help German economy recover Art. 25;48: thought to prevent Weimar from attacks doomed to fail = Hitler inevitable => guilt? Which political and ideological prerequisites of NS/which conditions in the WR favoured the rise of the Nazis (long-term/medium-term causes)? Nazi ideology appealed to large parts of the population as it addressed nationalist / anti- Semitic / Pan-Germanist tendencies economic crises people wanted radical change NSDAP = alternative option instead of KPD as people were afraid of a communist revolution stab-in-the-back myth, option for Hitler to blame the new (socialist) Weimar government for losing the first World War people turn against the Weimar regime old conservative elite still in powerful positions and in favour of the right wing NSDAP impact of Versailles Treaty NS ideology Where can the origins of Nazi ideology be found? pre-war Germany, end of 19 th century: two distinct but overlapping ideological responses to rapid industrial change which followed unification: anti-semitism, Pan-Germanism nationalism (abolish Treaty of Versailles, reclaim lost territories, Anschluss of Austria, union of ethnic Germans, expansion to provide "living space" anti-semitism (scapegoats = Jews, increasingly classed as race) nothing new merged into something new Which interdependencies can be detected in the cornerstones of NS ideology and which consequences result from the pursuit of their fulfilment? nationalism - anti-semitism - Social Darwinism: union of all Germans, at the same time excluding "non-germans" = Jews (defined as race) Herrenvolk (Aryan master race) at the top (hierarchy of races), racial purity of Germans, everything achieved through struggle nationalism - Pan-Germanism: making Germany great, demanding "living space" anti-semitism - anti-marxism - anti-capitalism: exclusion of Jews and of everything linked to them

Why were those ideas so appealing to some parts of Weimar society? addressed nationalists' wishes to make Germany great again (no more reparation payments, abolition of Treaty of Versailles, no more feeble Weimar democracy, build Volksgemeinschaft) addressed anti-semitic tendencies (fight communism and Jewish capitalism) work for working class peasants: fair prices, restriction of food imports, fight Jews civil servants: no more cuts in salaries How did the Nazis ensure that their ideas were spread among the people? propaganda campaigns (Joseph Goebbels) use of media slogans targeted at particular social groups Hitler as demagogue, skilled speaker intimidation Hitler cultivated the impression of a long-established, tightly organised party (use of uniforms, symbols, Hitler salute) Nationalism vision of greater Germany, which acquires living space for an expanding master race abolish Treaty of Versailles, reclaim lost territories, further expansion into Eastern Europe to provide lebensraum and destroy Russia, centre of communism (anti- Communism) Anti-democracy Führerprinzip, working towards the Führer democracy provided weak governments and should be based on the principle of an allpowerful leader (Führer) Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) ministry in the Third Reich which was responsible for propagating Nazi ideology in Germany regulated and controlled culture and society (e.g. press) founded on March 13, 1933 by the National Socialist government head: Dr. Joseph Goebbels (propaganda minister) 25-Points Programme, Mein Kampf 25-Points Programme: drafted by Hitler in February 1920 Nationalism: union of all Germans, German national press + army, abolition of Treaty of Versailles + Saint-Germaine Racism: no Jew is to be a member of the German nation, blood defines citizen, non- Germans live in German only as guests Socialism: nationalisation of businesses, profits of major enterprises shared, equal rights for every citizen, incomes not earned though work are to be abolished, small shops instead of large department stores Mixtures: land + territory demanded to provide food + living space for the German people, land reform, higher education available to all Germans, improve nation's health by protecting mothers, sports compulsory, freedom of religious faith (but: party = Christian, fighting against "Jewish materialist spirit"

Mein Kampf : written by Adolf Hitler during his imprisonment after the failure of the 1923 Putsch, published 1925, included essential principles of NS ideology, named racial interest as the true basis of the state Volksgemeinschaft, Lebensraum Programme: addressed broad range of people; deliberately vague, never to be defined in more detail People's community (Volksgemeinschaft) community of people sharing common race unity of all ethnic Germans need to work together for the common good, rich and poor, rural and urban people together important concept to bring together groups whose unity was undermined by rapid industrialisation people belonging to Volksgemeinschaft have a common bond/ common good promotion of a pure race, expansion of German boundaries fictitious concept / utopia but esp. appealing to people after the polarisation in WR / political clashes / disunity Social Darwinism Darwinism: views of British biologist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) principles of evolution among animal species survival of the fittest in NS ideology: similar laws of development apply to the human race as well, thus some races are more highly developed than others: Social Darwinism anti-semitism anti-semitism increased when lower middle class felt threatened by mass production + urbanisation Jews were seen as the most immediate threat, positions as department store owners, bankers, cattle dealers long history of persecution, easy scapegoats racial rather than cultural group seen as foreigners anti-marxism/anti Communism for Nazis: socialism = ensuring unity of people, not sharing power Hitler: focus on Jewishness of communism, thought it was a part of Jewish world conspiracy, so communists = part of Jewish threat impact on foreign policy: no colonial expansion but expansion into Russia dual effect of destroying Jewish communism and gaining lebensraum Karl Marx = Jewish Aryan master race (Herrenvolk) hierarchy of races Aryan (peoples of Northern Europe, common language (German), top of the pyramid, bottom: Slavs and Jews) Social Darwinism: only the fittest survive in a struggle of races anti-semitism: Jews as his main victim, viewed as a racial and not religious group

eugenics, racial hygiene applied science of bio-social movement: advocates the use of practices aimed at improving genetic composition of a population improvement of human hereditary traits through promotion of higher reproduction of more desired people/traits (and elimination of undesirable traits) euthanasia, T4 programme euthanasia = euphemism for murder of thousands of physically and mentally disabled people T4 cover name, T4 = Tiergartenstraße 4 in Berlin, seat of the office which was responsible for the carrying out of the euthanasia programme pan-germanism Pan-German League (leader: Heinrich Class) emerged in the 1890s, formed by the new Right : successful middle class groups who felt excluded from G's ruling class were of the opinion that changes in society through industrialisation led to instability, lack of unity their solution: to protect the German people it is necessary to unite people behind common cause: greatness of G state, 1) through expansion, 2) through keeping the superior German race pure, no foreigners (the term also includes Jews) living space (Lebensraum) foreign territory which, in the view of extreme German nationalists, had to be seized for the proper future maintenance of the German race (esp. in the East) socialism in action socialism means stressing the needs of the Volksgemeinschaft (people's community), and ensuring unity, not sharing power